In the process of D to A conversion the digital data at the input is converted into an analog signals. These analog signals are transmitted over the transmission medium. ‘The most familiar application of D to A conversion is for ‘transmitting digital data through the public telephone network, The D to A conversion is done by the modems to convert the digital data from the computers into the analog signals that are sent on the telephone lines for ‘Analog ‘signal @.75y Fig. 4.17.1 : Digital data to analog signal 4.17.1 Aspects of Digital to Analog Conversion : The two most important aspects related to D to A conversion are as stated below : Data element versus signal element. Data rate versus signal rate. Data element versus signal element : We may define data element as the smallest piece of information that can be exchanged and as we know it is a ‘bit’ ° The signal element is classically defined as the smallest unit of a signal that is constant. This definition is true in the digital context. But the signal will be analog here hence the nature of the signal element is slightly different than that for the digital transmission. Data rate versus signal rate : We have defined the data rate (bit rate) and signal rate (baud rate) earlier. The relation between them is as follows : Signal rate SS = NP baud Where N= Data rate (bps) 1 = Number of data elements in one signal element - The value of “r in the analog transmission is as follows : re log, L “Wi WLL Signal Encoding Tech, &S rea 1d § = Bit rate = Number of bits per secong Baud rate = Number of signal second. m4 In analog communication, of dita data, y is always greater than or equal to the bau eet nN lements o, An analog signal caries 4 ty —~ aig, element. If umber of signal ay. second is 500 calculate the bit ane = 5s = 500,N We know that S = 500 = N = 2000 bps Bandwidth : ~ — The bandwidth requirement for analog trans msn y digital data is proportional to the signal rate baud rate. But this is not true for FSK system, is been discussed later. fae Carrier signal : In the D to A conversion, at the sending end ay frequency signal which acts as the base ‘inal transmission of information is produced, Ths sgn known as the carrier signal or carrier frequency. The input digital signal (which isthe information sgn will change one of the characteristics of this carrier such ‘as amplitude, frequency or phase. This type of modification or modulation is known a shift keying. Depending on which parameter of the cartier is being modified we get Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) or Phase shit Keying (PSK). 4.17.2 Need of Digital Continuous Wave Modulation : - PCM converts analog message signal into a digital signal, Now we will learn some techniques whch convert the digital message signal into an analog signal and then transmits it. ‘Such modulation schemes are called as digital camer modulation schemes. -__Where L is the type of signal element not the level. TechKaveledstce & Motsle Networks (Sem 6T/MSBTE) nak (of conversion is essential ns me ate gta Message signal To be sent over a ante channel such as the telephone line, vee est appication of digital carer modulation is MOoEM sve modem wil modulate the digital dat signal from JpeoTE (compute) into an analog signal «analog signal is then transmitted onthe telephone this lines. Digital a log pat! carter a sonal modulation signal van Fig. 4.17.2: Digital carrier modulation he question is why can't we send the distal signal as it ison the telephone lines ? Why should we modulate it? ere is the answer for it. The digital data consists of binary 0s and 1s, therefore the waveform changes its value abruptly from high to low or low to high. In order to carry such a signal without any distortion being introduced, the communication medium needs to have a large bandwidth. Unfortunately the telephone lines do not have high bandwidth, Therefore we have to convert the digital signal fist into an analog signal which needs lower bandwidth by means of the modulation process. 4.47.3 Types of Digital Carrier Modulation : _ There are three basic types of modulation techniques for the transmission of digital signals. _ These methods are based on the three characteristics of sinusoidal signal; amplitude, frequency and phase. ‘The corresponding modulation methods are then called as: 1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) 2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK). 3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK) 4. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) or 4-psk 5. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM). QPSK is @ multilevel modulation in which four phase shifts are used for representing four different symbols. [At high bit rates, a combination of ASK and PSK is employed in order to minimize the errors in the received data. ‘Amplitude This method is known as “Qu Modulation (QAM)". Let us discuss these methods one by one Fig. 4.173 shows the classification of digital to analog ‘modulation systems Digital CW modulation |__.1 amplitude sit eying —— ask) | +- 2 Frequency shit keying OAM (Fk) L__+-a.Phaso shit keying (sk) aps (42 Fig. 417.3 : Types of digital to analog modulation = Digital to analog modulation is demonstrated in Fig. 417.4. | ask | PSK | FSK (63) Fig. 4.17.4 : Digital to analog modulation 4.47.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of CW Modulation : 1. The advantage of CW modulation techniques such as |ASK, PSK, FSK etc, used for transmission of data is that we can use the telephone lines for transmission of high speed data. Due to the use of CW modulation the BW requirement is reduced. 2. The disadvantage of CW modulation is we need to use a MODEM alongwith every computer. This makes the system costly and complex. 4.18 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) or Digital Amplitude Modulation = Definition : — ASK is the digital carrier modulation in which the amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier will take one of the two predetermined values in response to 0 or 1 value of digital input signal. Techinowledyé& Wires & Mobile Networks (Sem. 6/(T/MSBTE) 4-28 _WUL Signal Encoding Tech_& Spread gp 4.18.1 Baud Rate (N,) : Generation and waveforms ; Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is the simplest type of | gy ASK we use 1 bit (0 oF 1) t0 represeny on Sng, | Glgital CW modulation, Here the cartier is a sinewave of So the rate of symbol transmission ie tne bade frequency f. We can represent the carrier signal be same as the bit rate, i mathematically a follows : ~ _ Nowill be same as bit rate R as shown in Fig. 41g & = sin Qn ft) (418.1) — oo Up + Baud rate = ‘The digital signal from the computer is a unipolar NRZ mn Signal which acts as the Modulating signal, The ASK ‘. ce Modulator is nothing but a ‘multiplier followed by a 4.18.2 Transmission Bandwidth Of the ASK band pass filter as shown in Fig, 4.18.12), Signal ~ Due to the ‘multiplication, the ASK output will be Present only when a binary "1" is to be transmitted ~The bandwidth of ASK si ‘The ASK output corres; ‘anal is dependent on the ti bit fy = Ponding to a binary 0" ie zero ae fate fy. Where bit rate f, MTs 5 shown ig shown in ig 42g Fig. 418.1(@). For a bit rate of fo” bits/sec. the \dwidth signal i ~ From the waveforms of Fig, 4 18.1(b) we can conclude monimum Bandwidth required for an ASK signal ‘hat the cartier is transmitted when a binary 1 is to be BWirae where d Vase) = sin 2n fy wt va sof BW = Gane (4.185) (4.183) ; 2 factor related to the filter characterstis and its value lies between 0 and 1 FL. ~ Fels the cartier frequency ie frequency of the sine wave TOF tee, being transmitted, git sonal : ‘rom computor in) Carter Sectiator (64) Fig. 4.18.1(0) = ASK generator For ASK, as shown in Fig. 4.18, -U(b), the baud rate rate, Bit Rao = 4, Baud rate Ny = 4 ‘it ato = Baud Pale The bandwidth of ASK in terms of bit rate is given by, (665) Fig. 4.18.1(b) : ASK waveforms eo Iw 6 ()-[.-(8)] Yew =f YechKnowleds 2,it rate and baud rate are equal for ASK, the for bandwidth is given by Ne No ew = kta -[h ‘| Where Ns = Baud rate = fie Bit ate since bi expression Bandwidth = Ny gut practically the Bandwidth requirement: of ASK is given by. BW = (1+d)xN, here dis related to modulation process. of ASK : 418.4 Merits and Deme he advantage of using ASK is its simplicity. Its easy to generate and detect. However its disadvantage is that i is very sensitive to noise, therefore it finds limited application in data transmission Its used at very low bit rates, upto 100 bits/sec. 449 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) : Definition and waveform: In “Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)", the frequency of @ sinusoidal cartier is shifted between two discrete values, in response to the value (0 or 1) of the digital input (L785) Fig. 4.19.1(0) Binary signal rom computer Bite =5, Baud rate tury Fig. 4.19.1(b) : Representation of digital signal using FSK 4. 4. rs 4. jodulation "1" and One of these frequencies (f,) represents a binary the other value (f,) represents a binary “0” of digital data using FSK is as shown The representation ye in the in Fig. 4.19.1(b). Note that there is no chang amplitude of the carrier. .19.1 FSK Generation : in Fig. 4.19.10). It is lator (VCO) which respectively. Refer to the FSK generator shown it basically a Voltage Controlled Oscil produce sinewaves at frequencies f, and fo put, the VCO produces 2 responding to imewave of Corresponding to binary 0 in sinewave of frequency fy whereas Co binary 1 input, the VCO produces @ s\ frequency fy. (f, > fo- hus we obtain the Binary FSK (BFSK) signal at the cutout of VCO corresponding to the input digital data bits. 49.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signal : ‘The FSK signal can be considered to be containing two |ASK signals, with the cartier frequencies f; and fo- 1e FSK signal is as Binary FSK Therefore the frequency spectrum of thé shown in Fig. 4.19.1(€) which is identical to that of ASK for each of the two frequencies. e@—$ ttl (1 +09) — ay to Tor Fie) GAB) ty Woe 2) Bar = y= fo :) ———— (73) Fig. 4.19.1(0) : Frequency spectrum of a binary FSK signal 19.3 Bandwidth of FSK Signal : The bandwidth of FSK signal is dependent on the h pulse width T, or bit rate f, = 1/T, and the separation between the frequencies fy and fy, as shown in Fig. 4.19.1(0). The maximum bandwidth of FSK system is given by, 7 fe fe _ (4+$)-(6-8) ~ Ch -fo + fe) 4.19.1) The bandeth canbe rete by using» bandpass ilter after the VCO in the FSK generator. Thi i bandwidth is given as : reseed We TecanWireless & Mobile Networks (Sem. 6/T/MSBTE) a B= Ih-blearor (4.19.2) ~ Where “+” isthe factor related to the filter characteristics and its value lies between 0 and 1 ~The separation between f, and fy is kept at least 2 f,/3 Substitute this value in Equation (4.19.2) to get Sf, Bue = 2 +3 (4393) ~ This shows that FSK requires larger bandwidth than ASK ‘and PSK (to be discussed next) 4.19.4 Bandwidth for FSK in Terms of Baud Rate : ~ FOr FSK also bit rate is equal to baud rate This is due to. the fact that each data bit at the input is treated a5 « separate symbol, ~ We can imagine the FSK spectrum to be a combination Of f40 ASK spectrums centered at frequencies f, and a5 shown in Fig, 4.19.1(¢), ~ From Fig. 4.19.14) the expression for bandwidth is given by N le ly BW = Fetes (ff) + Ny Baud rate = Bitrate = f, (4.194) Where Ny = ~ Minimum bandwidth will correspond to the situation in which (f,~f) = Ny, = BW(min) = Ny +Ny=2N, = 2, Amplitude (4.19.5) Ne (ie) Ne *———— sendiniath —"_, (6-74 Fig 4.19.1(4) : Spectrum of FSK Fx.419.1; Calculate the bandwidth of an FSK system in which, the transmission takes place at 4000 bits per second rate and the frequency difference between the two carers is 3000 Hz, 4-30 WALL Signal Encoding Tech g Spreag s Soln Given: C,~f) = 2000 Hs Bitrate. aa Tofind: Bandwidth ts Bandwidth ~ BUEN, = baud te irate «sng aw = 3000 + 4009 7000 E70 For a half duplex FSK ta a bandwidth of ‘medium ig ton & Frequency diference betueen ey is 4000 Hz calculate the maximum as Soin. : Given: Ee OH =e. ay, Tofind: Maximum bitrate 1 BW = +N “8000 = 4000+ 1, Ny = 4000 bauds/sec 2 For Fk system baud ates equal bitrate Bitrate = 4000 bits per second — 4.19.5 Advantages of FSK : 1 FSkis ‘relatively easy to. implement. % Te has beter noise immunity than ASK Thee te Probability of error free reception of datas high 4.19.6 Disadvantages of Fsk : 1 The major disadvantage is its high bandwidth ‘requirement as discussed earlier, 2. Therefore FSK is extensively used in low speed dens having bit rates below 1200 bits/sec 3. The FSK is not preferred for the high speed modens because with increase in speed, the bit rate increases. 4. This increases the channel bandwidth required to transmit the FSK signal. 5. AS the telephone lines have a very low bandwidth iis ot possible to satisfy the bandwidth requirement of FSK at higher speed. Therefore FSK is preferred only fr the low speed modems. 4.20 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Definition and waveforms : ~ Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the most efficient ofthe three modulation methods. BF Fechtavuiesstrerefore itis used for high bit rates. In PSK, phase of the sinusoidal carrier is changed according to 1) transmitted pig. 4.20112) shows the simplest frm of SK called Binary PSK (BPSK). The carrier phase is changed between ” and 180° ~ gythe jpolar digital signal. A bipolar NRZ signal is used to represent the digital data from the DTE se BPSK signa cane represented mathematically as Ve) = si 2A when binary 0" is to be represented viet IN RED = sin (2x ft + x) when binary “1" is to be represented combining the two conditions we can write Verse (t) = dsin (2x f.0) ee whered = #1 Bipolar “f ; NRZ signal ~1 BPSK signal ° cr ~sinv2ete 90° phase shit —t 180° 4 sina) phase: t ‘shift i i T baud Tbaud “" Tbaud T baud Tbaud jt second, —————————4 Bitrate = 5, Baud rato = 5 Bit rato = Baud rate (80) Fig. 4.20.1(a) : Binary phase shift keying (BPSK) 4.20.1 BPSK Generation : ~ The BPSK generation takes place as shown in Fig. 420.1(b) Bandinited ital put a 9Fsx ota ef ARE, freee eT ere JB computer ‘in (te) ” ose AAT Biol NRz sana (1-81) Fig. 4.20.1(b) : BPSK generation The bi ma binary data signal (0s and 1s) is converted into a NRZ bipolar signal by an NRZ encoder, which is then applied to a ‘ultiplier (balanced modulator). The other input to the multiplier is the carrier signal (2x ft). The data bits 0s and 1s are converted into a bipolar NRZ signal “4” as shown in the following table [ Digital signal | Bipolar NRZ signal BPSK o | Binayo | 4 1 Vorsx (t) = sin (2m f, t) ~~ Binary 1 Vorsx (t) = — sin (2n ft) We FectrnowtedWW Wicciess 5 Motta Hetworts (Sem. 6/IT/MSBTE) 4.20.2 Spectrum of BPSK : ‘The spectrum of BPSK is as shown in Fig. 4.20.2. 0 Paty S10) — & Oo R Ay (a) Power spectral density of the NRZ, data b(}) Seni Pale 432 = Wt Signal Encoding Tech_& Spread Spect_ Modula, 4.20.5 Disadvantage of BPSK : ~The only disadvantage of BPSK is that generation ang detection of BPSK is not easy. It is quite complicated 4.20.6 Applications : ~ Phase shift keying is the most efficient of the three ‘modulation methods and it is used for high bit rates ‘even higher than 1800 bits/sec. ~ Due to low bandwidth requirement the BPSK modems are preferred over the FSK modems, at higher operating speeds. 4.20.7 Comparison of Binary Modulation ‘Systems : SHEKEL a RE Ce eee, > (b) Spectrum of BPSK Sr.| Parameter | Binary | Binary | Binary (88) Fig. 4.20.2 : Spectrum of BPSK ne ASK Fsk PSK | 4.20.3 Bandwidth of BPSK : 1. | Variable Amplitude | Frequency | Phase characteristic ~ From the frequency spectrum of BPSK signal, shown in Fa £20210), we can come to a conchson that the | | Sf Bandwith 2R Ih-fl | aor bandwidth of a BPSK signal is given by, (Hz) +040R BW = Highest frequency — Lowest frequency in nnd La Noise Low High High = (f+ fy )= (ef) penny: BW = 2f, ~(4202) Jl | Error High Low Low where f= 1/Ty probability |__| ~ Thus the minimum bandwidth of BPSK signal is equal to || 5 | pero | Pe Better than | Better twice the highest frequency contained in the baseband oemrea|| eae cere signal in presence ASK than of noise. Fsk_| Baud rate : ~ _INBPSK also each digit (0 oF 1) of the input digital data | | Complexity | Simple | Moderately ven represents a symbol. Hence symbol rate is equal to bit | complex | complex | aes 7. | Bitrate Suitable | Suitable | Suteble Baud rate N, = Bitrate f, upto 100 | upto about | fortish BW = 2N, bits/sec. | 1200 | bitrates 4.20.4 Advantages of BPSK : bits/sec. a Envelope | Envelope | Coher 1. BPSK has a bandwidth which is lower than that of a a) BFSK signal. ‘ ectrum 2. BPSK has the best performance of all the systems in introduction to Spread Sp Goi Presence of noise. It gives the minimum possibility of | - PCM, DM etc. are practically used non communication systems. The focus of our atten, omer ile i thos son two impor while discussing those systems was on 3. BPSK has a very good noise immunity ae __z one a— ow to uilize the channel bandwidth efficiently? 43 WUL Signal Encoding Tech. & Spread S pect. Modulation Modulatio! vices 8 Mobile Networks (Som, SITIMSBTE) 4 i 4.22 Applications of Spread Spectrum 4 now 9 iii the amount of tansmited power? However the efficient utilization of bandwidth and minimiing the transmitted power are not the “ony” problems faced by a communication system, Some “other problems encountered by i are a follows problems encountered by a communication system : 4, Inthe areas such a5 ‘military communication’, the information has to be "secured". That means an unauthorized user is not expected to access the information. Also he should not be allowed to interfere the communication by any means sometimes a hostile transmitter (say used by terrorists) can ‘jam’ the desired or legitimate transmission. To avoid this the channel should be “immune” to any externa interference 3. Even in the non-military communications an unintentional interference is caused by @ user who is transmitting its information through a channel which i already being used. Remedy : These problems can be successfully solved by using @ technique called “Spread Spectrum Modulation”. 4.24.4 How is the SS Signal Different from the Normal Signal ? ~The spread spectrum (SS) signal is different from 2 ‘normal signa, inthe following aspects 1 Tis signal occupies a larger bandwidth than that of normal signal. Therefore the name spread spectrum). 2. The spread spectrum signal invariably uses some kind of coding, The spectrum spreading atthe transmitter and despreading (opposite to spreading) at the receiver is bined with the help of this code word. The code word associated with an SS signal is independent of the information carted bythe signal 3. The most important point is that the SS signal is “pseudorandom” in nature. This makes it appear lke “random noise’. Therefore the normal receiver cannot demodulate the SS signal. Only a specially designed receiver can demodulate it to recover the information Due to tis characteristics the SS signal appears 2s nose to any unintended receiver ee eee eee ——— Recipe ph Qe e The spread spectrum signals are used in the following applications 4, To avoid the intentional, interference (called as Jemming). 2. To reject the unintentional interference from some other user: This s posible to achieve by assigning > “iferen code forthe sigals from various uses: TMS type of communication which allows mutiple users f° a common channel ation is called as Code Division Multiph for transmission of share le Access informs (COMA 4. To avoid the self interference due to multipath propagation : A signal can take multiple paths while traveling over from transmitter to receiver, The signal components following different path lengths will result in a dispersed signal at ference. This communication channel the receiver. This is known as the self-inte type of interference also can be suppressed by using the 5 modulation. 4, In low probability of intercept (LAD) message can be hidden in the background noise by spreading its bandwidth using the code word and then ‘transmitting the coded signal at a low power level. Due to these modifications, the probability that such a signal be intercepted (detected) is reduced to a great extent. Hence such a spread and coded signal is called as the nals = A low probabilty-of-intercept (LPD signal. 5. In obtaining the message privacy : The message privacy can be obtained by superimposing a pseudorandom pattern on the transmitted message. 4.23 Classification of the Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques ~The $$ modulation techniques are broadly categorized into two categories namely the averaging type systems and the avoidance type systems as shown in Fig. 423.1. The averaging systems reduce the interference by ones a long period, The direct sequence (DS-S5) system is an averaging system. WF Teattnowieage