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Ch06 Embedded C

This document is an introduction to embedded programming using the C language, covering its history, fundamentals, and various programming concepts such as data types, variables, functions, and control statements. It discusses the advantages and limitations of C, particularly in embedded environments, and provides insights into development tools and the C runtime environment. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of comments, variable declarations, and identifiers in writing clear and effective C code.

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Ch06 Embedded C

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11024 EPC

Introduction to Embedded
Programming Using C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 1
Agenda
History of C
Fundamentals of C
Data Types
Variables, Constants and Arrays
Keywords
Functions (Overview)
Declarations
Statements and Expressions
printf() Library Function (Special use in this
class)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 2
Agenda
Operators and Conditional Statements
Preparing and Running a C Program
Control Statements: Making Decisions
Functions
Program Structure
Arrays
Pointers
Structures and Unions
Additional Features of C
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 3
Section 1.0
Using C in an Embedded
Environment

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 4
Just the Facts
C was developed in 1974 in order to write
the UNIX operating system
C is more "low level" than other high level
languages (good for MCU programming)
C is supported by compilers for a wide
variety of MCU architectures
C can do almost anything assembly
language can do
C is usually easier and faster for writing
code than assembly language
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 5
Busting the Myths
The truth shall set you free…

C is not as portable between architectures

or compilers as everyone claims
ANSI language features ARE portable
Processor specific libraries are NOT portable
Processor specific code (peripherals, I/O,
interrupts, special features) are NOT portable
C is NOT as efficient as assembly
A good assembly programmer can usually do
better than the compiler, no matter what the
optimization level – C WILL use more memory
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 6
Busting the Myths
The truth shall set you free…

There is NO SUCH THING as self

documenting code – despite what many C
proponents will tell you
C makes it possible to write very confusing
code – just search the net for obfuscated C
code contests… (www.ioccc.org)
Not every line needs to be commented, but
most blocks of code should be
Because of many shortcuts available, C is
not always friendly to new users – hence
the need for comments!
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 7
Development Tools Data Flow
C Source Files C Compiler

Compiler
Assembly Source Files Driver
(.asm or .s) Program

Assembly Source Files Assembler

(.asm or .s)

Archiver Object Executable

(Librarian) Files

Object File Libraries

(Archives) Linker
.a .map Memory Map
(.lib or .a)

MPLAB® IDE
Linker Script Debug Tool
(.lkr or .gld) COFF
Debug File
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 8
Development Tools Data Flow

C Compiler

.c Preprocessor .h
C Source File C Header File

Compiler

Assembly Source File .s

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 9
C Runtime Environment
C Compiler sets up a runtime environment
Allocates space for stack
Initialize stack pointer
Allocates space for heap
Copies values from Flash/ROM to variables in
RAM that were declared with initial values
Clear uninitialized RAM
Disable all interrupts
Call main() function (where your code starts)

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 10
C Runtime Environment
Runtime environment setup code is
automatically linked into application by
most PIC® MCU compiler suites
Usually comes from either:
crt0.s / crt0.o (crt = C RunTime)
startup.asm / startup.o
User modifiable if absolutely necessary
Details will be covered in compiler specific
classes
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 11
Fundamentals of C
A Simple C Program
Example
Preprocessor Header File
Directives

#include <stdio.h>
Constant Declaration
#define PI 3.14159 (Text Substitution Macro)

int main(void)
{
float radius, area; Variable Declarations

Function //Calculate area of circle Comment

radius = 12.0;
area = PI * radius * radius;
printf("Area = %f", area);
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 12
Section 1.1
Comments

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 13
Comments
Definition
Comments are used to document a program's functionality
and to explain what a particular block or line of code does.
Comments are ignored by the compiler, so you can type
anything you want into them.

Two kinds of comments may be used:

Block Comment
/* This is a comment */
Single Line Comment
// This is also a comment
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 14
Comments
Using Block Comments

Block comments:
Begin with /* and end with */
May span multiple lines

/********************************************************
* Program: hello.c
* Author: R. Ostapiuk
********************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>

/* Function: main() */
int main(void)
{
printf(“Hello, world!\n”); /* Display “Hello, world!” */
}

Single line comments:

Begin with // and run to the end of the line
May not span multiple lines

//=======================================================
// Program: hello.c
// Author: R. Ostapiuk
//=======================================================
#include <stdio.h>

// Function: main()
int main(void)
{
printf(“Hello, world!\n”); // Display “Hello, world!”
}

Block comments may not be nested within

other delimited comments
Single line comments may be nested
Example: Single line comment within a delimited comment.
/*
code here // Comment within a comment
*/
Example: Delimited comment within a delimited comment.
Delimiters don’t match up as intended!
/*
code here /* Comment within a comment */
code here /* Comment within a… oops! */
*/ Dangling delimiter causes compile error

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 17
Comments
Best Practices
/********************************************************
* Program: hello.c
* Author: R. Ostapiuk
********************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>

/********************************************************
* Function: main()
********************************************************/
int main(void)
{
/*
int i; // Loop count variable
char *p; // Pointer to text string
*/

printf(“Hello, world!\n”); // Display “Hello, world!”

}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 18
Section 1.2
Variables, Identifiers, and
Data Types

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 19
Variables and Data Types
A Simple C Program
Example

#include <stdio.h>

#define PI 3.14159

int main(void)
Data {
Types Variable Declarations
float radius, area;

//Calculate area of circle

radius = 12.0;
area = PI * radius * radius; Variables
printf("Area = %f", area); in use
}

A variable is a name that represents one or more

memory locations used to hold program data.

A variable may be thought of as a container that

can hold data used in a program

5
int myVariable;
myVariable = 5; myVar
iable

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 21
Variables
Variables are names for
storage locations in 15 Data Memory (RAM) 0
memory

int warp_factor; 41
41

char first_letter; ‘A’

5.74532370373175
5.74532370373175
float length;
×× 10
10-44
-44

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 22
Variables
Variable declarations
consist of a unique 15 Data Memory (RAM) 0
identifier (name)…

int warp_factor; 41
41

char first_letter; ‘A’

5.74532370373175
5.74532370373175
float length;
×× 10
10-44
-44

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 23
Variables
…and a data type
Determines size 15 Data Memory (RAM) 0

Determines how values

are interpreted

int warp_factor; 41
41

char first_letter; ‘A’

5.74532370373175
5.74532370373175
float length;
×× 10
10-44
-44

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 24
Identifiers
Names given to program elements
such as:
Variables
Functions
Arrays
Other elements

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 25
Identifiers
Valid characters in identifiers:

Identifier
First Character Remaining Characters
‘_’ (underscore) ‘_’ (underscore)
‘A’ to ‘Z’ ‘A’ to ‘Z’
‘a’ to ‘z’ ‘a’ to ‘z’
‘0’ to ‘9’
Case sensitive!
Only first 31 characters significant*

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 26
ANSI C Keywords
auto double int struct
break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while
Some compiler implementations may define
additional keywords
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 27
Data Types
Fundamental Types

Type Description Bits

char single character 8
int integer 16
float single precision floating point number 32
double double precision floating point number 64

The size of an int varies from compiler to compiler

• MPLAB® C30 int is 16-bits
• MPLAB C18 int is 16-bits
• CCS PCB, PCM & PCH int is 8-bits
• Hi-Tech PICC int is 16-bits
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 28
Data Type Qualifiers
Modified Integer Types
Qualifiers: unsigned, signed, short and long
Qualified Type Min Max Bits
unsigned char 0 255 8
char, signed char -128 127 8
unsigned short int 0 65535 16
short int, signed short int -32768 32767 16
unsigned int 0 65535 16
int, signed int -32768 32767 16
unsigned long int 0 232-1 32
long int, signed long int -231 231 32
unsigned long long int 0 264-1 64
long long int, -231 231 64
signed long long int
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 29
Data Type Qualifiers
Modified Floating Point Types

Qualified Type Absolute Min Absolute Max Bits

float ± ~10-44.85 ± ~1038.53 32

double (1) ± ~10-44.85 ± ~1038.53 32

long double ± ~10-323.3 ± ~10308.3 64

MPLAB® C30: (1)double is equivalent to long

double if –fno-short-double is used

MPLAB C30 Uses the IEEE-754 Floating Point Format

MPLAB C18 Uses a modified IEEE-754 Format

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 30
Variables
How to Declare a Variable
Syntax
type identifier1, identifier2,…,identifiern;

A variable must be declared before it can be

used
The compiler needs to know how much space to
allocate and how the values should be handled
Example

int x, y, z;
float warpFactor;
char text_buffer[10];
unsigned index;
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 31
Variables
How to Declare a Variable

Variables may be declared in a few ways:

Syntax

One declaration on a line

type identifier;
One declaration on a line with an initial value
type identifier = InitialValue;

Multiple declarations of the same type on a line

type identifier1, identifier2, identifier3;
Multiple declarations of the same type on a line with initial values
type identifier1 = Value1, identifier2 = Value2;

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 32
Variables
How to Declare a Variable
Examples

unsigned int x;
unsigned y = 12;
int a, b, c;
long int myVar = 0x12345678;
long z;
char first = 'a', second, third = 'c';
float big_number = 6.02e+23;

It is customary for variable names to be spelled using "camel case",

where the initial letter is lower case. If the name is made up of multiple
words, all words after the first will start with an upper case letter (e.g.
myLongVarName).
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 33
Variables
How to Declare a Variable

Sometimes, variables (and other program

elements) are declared in a separate file
called a header file
Header file names customarily end in .h

Header files are associated

with a program through the MyProgram.h

#include directive
MyProgram.c

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 34
#include Directive
Three ways to use the #include directive:
Syntax

#include <file.h>
Look for file in the compiler search path
The compiler search path usually includes the compiler's directory
and all of its subdirectories.
For example: C:\Program Files\Microchip\MPLAB C30\*.*

#include “file.h”
Look for file in project directory only

#include “c:\MyProject\file.h”
Use specific path to find include file

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 35
#include Directive
main.h Header File and main.c Source File

main.h main.c

unsigned int a; #include <main.h>

unsigned int b;
unsigned int c; int main(void)
{
a = 5;
The contents of main.h
b = 2;
are effectively pasted into c = a+b;
main.c starting at the }
#include directive’s line

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 36
#include Directive
Equivalent main.c File
After the preprocessor main.c
runs, this is how the
compiler sees the unsigned int a;
unsigned int b;
main.c file
unsigned int c;
The contents of the
header file aren’t int main(void)
actually copied to your {
main source file, but it a = 5;
b = 2;
will behave as if they
c = a+b;
were copied }
Equivalent main.c file
without #include
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 37
Lab 01
Variables and Data Types

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab01\Lab01.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

Compile and run the code:

22 Compile (Build All) 33 Run 44 Halt

2 Click on the Build All button.

3 If no errors are reported,

click on the Run button.

4 Click on the Halt button.

Expected Results (1):

5 The SIM Uart1 window should show the text that

is output by the program, indicating the sizes of
C’s data types in bytes.

Expected Results (2):

6 The watch window should show the values which

are stored in the variables and make it easier to
visualize how much space each one requires in
data memory (RAM).
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 42
Lab 01
Variables and Data Types
16-bit Data Memory
7 Variables in Memory
0x08A9 0x08A8
0x08AB 32 0x08AA char
0x08AD 00 32 0x08AC short int
0x08AF 00 32 0x08AE int
0x08B1 00 32 0x08B0
0x08B3 00 00 0x08B2
long int
0x08B5 42 48 0x08B4 Multi-byte values
0x08B7 00 00 0x08B6
float stored in "Little
Endian" format
0x08B9 42 48 0x08B8 on PIC®
0x08BB 00 00 0x08BA
double microcontrollers

0x08BD 0x08BC

What does the code do?

START
START Example lines of code from the demo program:

Declare
Declare Constant
Constant #define CONSTANT1 50

Declare
Declare Variables
Variables int intVariable;

Initialize
Initialize Variables
Variables intVariable = CONSTANT1;

Print
printf("\nAn integer variable
Print Variable
Variable
Sizes
Sizes requires %d bytes.",
sizeof(int));

Loop
Loop while(1);
Forever
Forever
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 44
Lab 01
Conclusions

Variables must be declared before used

Variables must have a data type
Data type determines memory use
Most efficient data types:
int on 16-bit architectures*
char on 8-bit architectures
Don't use float/double unless you really
need them
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 45
Section 1.3
Literal Constants

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 46
A Simple C Program
Literal Constants
Example

unsigned int a;
unsigned int c;
#define b 2 Literal

void main(void)
{
a = 5; Literal
c = a + b;
printf("a=%d, b=%d, c=%d\n", a, b, c);
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 47
Literal Constants
Definition
A literal or a literal constant is a value, such as a
number, character or string, which may be assigned to a
variable or a constant. It may also be used directly as a
function parameter or an operand in an expression.

Literals
Are "hard coded" values
May be numbers, characters or strings
May be represented in a number of formats
(decimal, hexadecimal, binary, character, etc.)
Always represent the same value (5 always
represents the quantity five)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 48
Constant vs. Literal
What's the difference?

Terms are used interchangeably in most

programming literature
A literal is a constant, but a constant is not
a literal
#define MAXINT 32767
const int MAXINT = 32767;
For purposes of this presentation:
Constants are labels that represent a literal
Literals are values, often assigned to symbolic
constants and variables
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 49
Literal Constants
Four basic types of literals:
Integer
Floating Point
Character
String
Integer and Floating Point are numeric
type constants:
Commas and spaces are not allowed
Value cannot exceed type bounds
May be preceded by a minus sign
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 50
Integer Literals
Decimal (Base 10)

Cannot start with 0 (except for 0 itself)

Cannot include a decimal point
Valid Decimal Integers:

0 5 127 -1021 65535

Invalid Decimal Integers:

32,767 25.0 1 024 0552

Must begin with 0x or 0X (that’s zero-x)

May include digits 0-9 and A-F / a-f
Valid Hexadecimal Integers:

0x 0x1 0x0A2B 0xBEEF

Invalid Hexadecimal Integers:

0x5.3 0EA12 0xEG 53h

Must begin with 0 (zero)

May include digits 0-7
Valid Octal Integers:
0 01 012 073125
Invalid Octal Integers:
05.3 0o12 080 53o

While Octal is still part of the ANSI specification, almost no

one uses it anymore.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 53
Integer Literals
Binary (Base 2)

Must begin with 0b or 0B (that’s zero-b)

May include digits 0 and 1
Valid Binary Integers:

0b 0b1 0b0101001100001111
Invalid Binary Integers:
0b1.0 01100 0b12 10b
ANSI C does not specify a format for binary integer literals.
However, this notation is supported by most compilers.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 54
Integer Literals
Qualifiers

Like variables, literals may be qualified

A suffix is used to specify the modifier
‘U’ or ‘u’ for unsigned: 25u
‘L’ or ‘l’ for long: 25L
Suffixes may be combined: 0xF5UL
Note: U must precede L
Numbers without a suffix are assumed to
be signed and short
Not required by all compilers
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 55
Floating Point Literals
Decimal (Base 10)

Like decimal integer literals, but

decimal point is allowed
‘e’ notation is used to specify
exponents (ke±n ¨ kx10±n)
Valid Floating Point Literals:
2.56e-5 10.4378 48e8 0.5
Invalid Floating Point Literals:
0x5Ae-2 02.41 F2.33
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 56
Character Literals
Specified within single quotes (')
May include any single printable character
May include any single non-printable
character using escape sequences (e.g.
'\0' = NULL) (also called digraphs)
Valid Characters: 'a', 'T', '\n', '5',
'@', ' ' (space)
Invalid Characters: 'me', '23', '''
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 57
String Literals
Specified within double quotes (")
May include any printable or non-printable
characters (using escape sequences)
Usually terminated by a null character ‘\0’
Valid Strings: "Microchip", "Hi\n",
"PIC", "2500","[email protected]",
"He said, \"Hi\""
Invalid Strings: "He said, "Hi""

Strings are a special case of arrays

If declared without a dimension, the null
character is automatically appended to the
end of the string:
Example 1 Example 2

char color[3] = "RED"; char color[] = "RED";

Is stored as: Is stored as:
color[0] = 'R' color[0] = 'R'
color[1] = 'E' color[1] = 'E'
color[2] = 'D' color[2] = 'D'
color[3] = '\0'
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 59
String Literals
How to Include Special Characters in Strings
Escape Sequence Character ASCII Value
\a BELL (alert) 7
\b Backspace 8
\t Horizontal Tab 9
\n Newline (Line Feed) 10
\v Vertical Tab 11
\f Form Feed 12
\r Carriage Return 13
\" Quotation Mark (") 34
\' Apostrophe/Single Quote (') 39
\? Question Mark (?) 63
\\ Backslash (\) 92
\0 Null 0
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 60
String Literals
How to Include Special Characters in Strings
Example

char message[] = "Please enter a command…\n"

This string includes a newline character

Escape sequences may be included in a
string like any ordinary character
The backslash plus the character that
follows it are considered a single
character and have a single ASCII value

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 62
Symbolic Constants
Definition
A constant or a symbolic constant is a label that
represents a literal. Anywhere the label is encountered
in code, it will be interpreted as the value of the literal it
represents.

Constants
Once assigned, never change their value
Make development changes easy
Eliminate the use of "magic numbers"
Two types of constants
Text Substitution Labels
Variable Constants (!!??)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 63
Symbolic Constants
Constant Variables Using const

Some texts on C declare constants like:

Example

const float PI = 3.141593;

This is not efficient for an embedded

system: A variable is allocated in program
memory, but it cannot be changed due to
the const keyword
This is not the traditional use of const
In the vast majority of cases, it is better to
use #define for constants
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 64
Symbolic Constants
Text Substitution Labels Using #define

Defines a text substitution label

Syntax

#define label text

Each instance of label will be replaced with text by the
preprocessor unless label is inside a string
No memory is used in the microcontroller
Example

#define PI 3.14159
#define mol 6.02E23
#define MCU "PIC24FJ128GA010"
#define COEF 2 * PI
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 65
Symbolic Constants
#define Gotchas

Note: a #define directive is NEVER

terminated with a semi-colon (;), unless
you want that to be part of the text
substitution.
Example

#define MyConst 5;

c = MyConst + 3;

c = 5; + 3;
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 66
Symbolic Constants
Initializing Variables When Declared

A constant declared with const may not

be used to initialize a variable when it is
declared

Example

#define CONSTANT1 5
const CONSTANT2 = 10;

int variable1 = CONSTANT1;

int variable2;
// Cannot do: int variable2 = CONSTANT2

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab02\Lab02.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

Compile and run the code:

22 Compile (Build All) 33 Run 44 Halt

2 Click on the Build All button.

3 If no errors are reported,

click on the Run button.

4 Click on the Halt button.

Expected Results (1):

5 The SIM Uart1 window should show the text that

is output by the program, indicating the values of
the two symbolic constants in the code.

Expected Results (2):

CONSTANT1 has
no address

CONSTANT2 has a
program memory
address ( )

6 The watch window should show the two symbolic

constants declared in code. CONSTANT1 was
declared with #define, and therefore uses no
memory. CONSTANT2 was declared with const
and is stored as an immutable variable in Flash
program memory.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 72
Lab 02
Symbolic Constants

Expected Results (3):

7 If we look in the program memory window, we

can find CONSTANT2 which was created with
const at address 0x011D0 (as was shown in the
watch window)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 73
Lab 02
Symbolic Constants

Expected Results (4):

External Symbols in Program Memory (by name):

0x0011d0 _CONSTANT2
0x000e16 __Atexit
0x000b9c __Closreg
lab02.map 0x00057c __DNKfflush
0x0012d8 __DefaultInterrupt

CONSTANT1 does not appear anywhere in the map file

8 If we open the map file (in the lab02 project

directory), we can see that memory has been
allocated for CONSTANT2 at 0x011D0, but nothing
has been allocated for CONSTANT1.

Constants make code more readable

Constants improve maintainability
#define should be used to define
constants
#define constants use no memory, so they
may be used freely
const should never be used in this context
(it has other uses…)

Used to write text to the "standard output"

Normally a computer monitor or printer
Often the UART in embedded systems
SIM Uart1 window in MPLAB® SIM

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 77
printf()
Standard Library Function
Syntax

printf(ControlString, arg1,…argn);
Everything printed verbatim within string except %d's
which are replaced by the argument values from the list

Example

int a = 5, b = 10;
printf("a = %d\nb = %d\n", a, b);
Result:

a=5
b = 10
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 78
printf()
Conversion Characters for Control String
Conversion
Character Meaning
c Single character
s String (all characters until '\0')
d Signed decimal integer
o Unsigned octal integer
u Unsigned decimal integer
x Unsigned hexadecimal integer with lowercase digits (1a5e)
X As x, but with uppercase digits (e.g. 1A5E)
f Signed decimal value (floating point)
e Signed decimal with exponent (e.g. 1.26e-5)
E As e, but uses E for exponent (e.g. 1.26E-5)
g As e or f, but depends on size and precision of value
G As g, but uses E for exponent
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 79
printf()
Gotchas

The value displayed is interpreted entirely

by the formatting string:
printf("ASCII = %d", 'a');
will output: ASCII = 97
A more problematic string:
printf("Value = %d", 6.02e23);
will output: Value = 26366
Incorrect results may be displayed if the
format type doesn't match the actual data
type of the argument
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 80
printf()
Useful Format String Examples for Debugging

Print a 16-bit hexadecimal value with a

"0x" prefix and leading zeros if necessary
to fill a 4 hex digit value:
printf("Address of x = %#06x\n", x_ptr);

# Specifies that a 0x or 0X should precede a hexadecimal value (has

other meanings for different conversion characters)

06 Specifies that 6 characters must be output (including 0x prefix),

zeros will be filled in at left if necessary

x Specifies that the output value should be expressed as a

hexadecimal integer
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 81
printf()
Useful Format String Examples for Debugging

Same as previous, but force hex letters to

uppercase while leaving the 'x' in '0x'
lowercase:
printf("Address of x = 0x%04X\n", x_ptr);

04 Specifies that 4 characters must be output (no longer including 0x

prefix since that is explicitly included in the string), zeros will be
filled in at left if necessary

X Specifies that the output value should be expressed as a

hexadecimal integer with uppercase A-F

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab03\Lab03.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

Compile and run the code:

22 Compile (Build All) 33 Run 44 Halt

2 Click on the Build All button.

3 If no errors are reported,

click on the Run button.

4 Click on the Halt button.

Expected Results (1):

5 The SIM Uart1 window should show the text that

is output by the program by printf(), showing
the how values are printed based on the
formatting character used in the control string.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 86
Lab 03
printf() Library Function

Expected Results (2):

Detailed Analysis:
Line of Code From Demo Project Output

printf("25 as decimal (d): %d\n", 25); 25

printf("'a' as character (c): %c\n", 'a'); a
printf("'a' as decimal (d): %d\n", 'a'); 97
printf("2.55 as float (f): %f\n", 2.55); 2.550000
printf("2.55 as decimal (d): %d\n", 2.55); 16419
printf("6.02e23 as exponent (e): %e\n", 6.02e23); 6.020000e+23
printf("6.02e23 as decimal (d): %d\n", 6.02e23); 26366
printf("'Microchip' as string (s): %s\n", "Microchip"); Microchip
printf("'Microchip' as decimal (d): %d\n", "Microchip"); -24058

printf() has limited use in embedded

applications themselves
It is very useful as a debugging tool
It can display data almost any way you
want
Projects that use printf() must:
Configure a heap (done in MPLAB® IDE)
Include the stdio.h header file
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 88
Section 1.6
Operators

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 89
Operators
How to Code Arithmetic Expressions
Definition

An arithmetic expression is an expression that contains

one or more operands and arithmetic operators.

Operands may be variables, constants or

functions that return a value
A microcontroller register is usually treated as
a variable
There are 9 arithmetic operators that may
be used
Binary Operators: +, -, *, /, %
Unary Operators: +, -, ++, --
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 90
Operators
Arithmetic

Operator Operation Example Result

* Multiplication x * y Product of x and y

/ Division x / y Quotient of x and y
% Modulo x % y Remainder of x divided by y
+ Addition x + y Sum of x and y
- Subtraction x - y Difference of x and y
+ (unary) Positive +x Value of x
- (unary) Negative -x Negative value of x

NOTE - An int divided by an int returns an int:

10/3 = 3
Use modulo to get the remainder:
10%3 = 1
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 91
Operators
Division Operator
If both operands are an integer type, the result
will be an integer type (int, char)
If one or both of the operands is a floating point
type, the result will be a floating point type (float,
double)
Example: Integer Divide Example: Floating Point Divide
int a = 10; int a = 10;
int b = 4; float b = 4.0f;
float c; float c;
c = a / b; c = a / b;
c = 2.000000 2
Because: int / int ¨ int
c = 2.500000 3
Because: float / int ¨ float
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 92
Operators
Implicit Type Conversion

In many expressions, the type of one

operand will be temporarily "promoted" to
the larger type of the other operand
Example

int x = 10;
float y = 2.0, z;
z = x * y; // x promoted to float

A smaller data type will be promoted to the

largest type in the expression for the
duration of the operation
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 93
Operators
Implicit Arithmetic Type Conversion Hierarchy

long double
double
Smaller types converted to
largest type in expression

float
unsigned long long
long long
unsigned long
long
unsigned int
int
unsigned char
char
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 94
Operators
Arithmetic Expression Implicit Type Conversion

Example implicit type conversions

Assume x is defined as:
short x = -5;
Expression Implicit Type Conversion Expression's Type Result

-x x is promoted to int int 5

x * -2L x is promoted to long long 10
because -2L is a long
8/x x is promoted to int int -1
8%x x is promoted to int int 3
8.0/x x is promoted to double double -1.6
because 8.0 is a double

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 95
Operators
Applications of the Modulus Operator (%)
Truncation: x % 2n where n is the desired word
width (e.g. 8 for 8 bits: x % 256)
Returns the value of just the lower n-bits of x
Can be used to break apart a number in any base
into its individual digits
Example
#define MAX_DIGITS 6
long number = 123456;
int i, radix = 10; char digits[MAX_DIGITS];

for (i = 0; i < MAX_DIGITS; i++)

{
if (number == 0) break;
digits[i] = (char)(number % radix);
number /= radix;
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 96
Operators
Arithmetic: Increment and Decrement
Operator Operation Example Result

x++ Use x then increment x by 1

++ Increment
++x Increment x by 1, then use x
x-- Use x then decrement x by 1
-- Decrement
--x Decrement x by 1, then use x

Postfix Example Prefix Example

x = 5; x = 5;
y = (x++) + 5; y = (++x) + 5;
// y = 10 // y = 11
// x = 6 // x = 6

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 97
Operators
How to Code Assignment Statements
Definition

An assignment statement is a statement that assigns a

value to a variable.

Two types of assignment statements

Simple assignment
variable = expression;
The expression is evaluated and the result is
assigned to the variable
Compound assignment
variable = variable op expression;
The variable appears on both sides of the =
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 98
Operators
Assignment

Operator Operation Example Result

= Assignment x = y Assign x the value of y

+= x += y x = x + y
-= x -= y x = x - y
*= x *= y x = x * y
/= x /= y x = x / y
%= Compound x %= y x = x % y
&= Assignment x &= y x = x & y
^= x ^= y x = x ^ y
|= x |= y x = x | y
<<= x <<= y x = x << y
>>= x >>= y x = x >> y

Statements with the same variable on each

side of the equals sign:
Example

x = x + y;
This operation may be thought of as: The new value of x will be
set equal to the current value of x plus the value of y

May use the shortcut assignment

operators (compound assignment):
Example
x += y; //Increment x by the value y
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 100
Operators
Compound Assignment
Example

int x = 2; //Initial value of x is 2

x *= 5; //x = x * 5

Before statement is executed: x = 2

After statement is executed: x = 10
x *= 5;
Is equivalent to: x = (x * 5);
Evaluate right side first: x = (2 * 5);
Assign result to x: x = 10;
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 101
Operators
Relational
Operator Operation Example Result (FALSE = 0, TRUE ≠ 0)

< Less than x < y 1 if x less than y, else 0

Less than or 1 if x less than or equal to y,
<= x <= y
equal to else 0
> Greater than x > y 1 if x greater than y, else 0
Greater than 1 if x greater than or equal to y,
>= x >= y
or equal to else 0
== Equal to x == y 1 if x equal to y, else 0
!= Not equal to x != y 1 if x not equal to y, else 0

In conditional expressions, any non-zero value is

interpreted as TRUE. A value of 0 is always FALSE.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 102
Operators
Difference Between = and ==

Be careful not to confuse = and ==.

They are not interchangeable!

= is the assignment operator

x = 5 assigns the value 5 to the variable x
== is the 'equals to' relational operator
x == 5 tests whether the value of x is 5
if (x == 5)
{
do if value of x is 5
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 103
Operators
Difference Between = and ==

What happens when the following code is

executed?
Example

void main(void)
{
int x = 2; //Initialize x
if (x = 5) //If x is 5,…
{
printf("Hi!"); //…display "Hi!"
}
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 104
Operators
Logical

Operator Operation Example Result (FALSE = 0, TRUE ≠ 0)

&& Logical AND x && y 1 if both x ≠ 0 and y ≠ 0,
else 0
|| Logical OR x || y 0 if both x = 0 and y = 0,
else 1
! Logical NOT !x 1 if x = 0, else 0

In conditional expressions, any non-zero value is

interpreted as TRUE. A value of 0 is always FALSE.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 105
Operators
Bitwise
Operator Operation Example Result (for each bit position)

& Bitwise AND x & y 1, if 1 in both x and y

0, if 0 in x or y or both
1, if 1 in x or y or both
| Bitwise OR x | y
0, if 0 in both x and y
1, if 1 in x or y but not both
^ Bitwise XOR x ^ y 0, if 0 or 1 in both x and y

Bitwise NOT 1, if 0 in x
~ ~x
(One's Complement) 0, if 1 in x

The operation is carried out on each bit of

the first operand with each corresponding
bit of the second operand
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 106
Operators
Difference Between & and &&

Be careful not to confuse & and &&.

They are not interchangeable!

& is the bitwise AND operator

0b1010 & 0b1101 Î 0b1000
&& is the logical AND operator
0b1010 && 0b1101 Î 0b0001 (TRUE)
<Non-Zero Value> && <Non-Zero Value> Î 1 (TRUE)
if (x && y)
{
do if x and y are both TRUE (non-zero)
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 107
Operators
Difference Between & and &&

What happens when each of these code

fragments are executed?
Example 1 – Using A Bitwise AND Operator

char x = 0b1010;
char y = 0b0101;
if (x & y) printf("Hi!");

Example 2 – Using A Logical AND Operator

char x = 0b1010;
char y = 0b0101;
if (x && y) printf("Hi!");
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 108
Operators
Logical Operators and Short Circuit Evaluation

The evaluation of expressions in a logical

operation stops as soon as a TRUE or
FALSE result is known
Example

If we have two expressions being tested in a logical AND operation:

expr1 && expr2
The expressions are evaluated from left to right. If expr1 is 0 (FALSE), then
expr2 would not be evaluated at all since the overall result is already known
to be false.
Truth Table for AND (&&) expr1
expr1 expr2
expr2 Result
Result expr2 is not evaluated
FALSE = 0 00 X
X (0)
(0) 00
in the first two cases
00 X
X (1)
(1) 00
TRUE = 1 since its value is not
11 00 00
11 11 11 relevant to the result.

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 109
Operators
Logical Operators and Short Circuit Evaluation

The danger of short circuit evaluation

Example

If z = 0, then c will not be evaluated

if ((z = x + y) && (c = a + b))

{
z += 5;
c += 10; Initial value of c may not be correct
}

It is perfectly legal in C to logically compare two assignment expressions in

this way, though it is not usually good programming practice.
A similar problem exists when using function calls in logical operations, which
is a very common practice. The second function may never be evaluated.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 110
Operators
Shift
Operator Operation Example Result

<< Shift Left x << y Shift x by y bits to the left

>> Shift Right x >> y Shift x by y bits to the right

Shift Left Example:

x = 5; // x = 0b00000101 = 5
y = x << 2; // y = 0b00010100 = 20

In both shift left and shift right, the bits

that are shifted out are lost
For shift left, 0's are shifted in (Zero Fill)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 111
Operators
Shift – Special Cases

Logical Shift Right (Zero Fill)

If x is UNSIGNED (unsigned char in this case):
x = 250; // x = 0b11111010 = 250
y = x >> 2; // y = 0b00111110 = 62

Arithmetic Shift Right (Sign Extend)

If x is SIGNED (char in this case):
x = -6; // x = 0b11111010 = -6
y = x >> 2; // y = 0b11111110 = -2

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 112
Operators
Power of 2 Integer Divide vs. Shift Right

If you are dividing by a power of 2, it will

usually be more efficient to use a right
shift instead

y = x / 2n y = x >> n

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 >> 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

1010 Right Shift 510

Works for integers or fixed point values
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 113
Operators
Power of 2 Integer Divide vs. Shift in MPLAB® C30
Example: Divide by 2 Example: Right Shift by 1

int x = 20; int x = 20;

int y; int y;
y = x / 2; y = 10 y = x >> 1; y = 10
10: y = x / 2; 9: y = x >> 1;
00288 804000 mov.w 0x0800,0x0000 00282 804000 mov.w 0x0800,0x0000
0028A 200022 mov.w #0x2,0x0004 00284 DE8042 asr 0x0000,#1,0x0000
0028C 090011 repeat #17 00286 884010 mov.w 0x0000,0x0802
0028E D80002 div.sw 0x0000,0x0004
00290 884010 mov.w 0x0000,0x0802

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 114
Operators
Power of 2 Integer Divide vs. Shift in MPLAB® C18
Example: Divide by 2 Example: Right Shift by 1

int x = 20; int x = 20;

int y; int y;
y = x / 2; y = 10 y = x >> 1; y = 10
10: y = x / 2; 9: y = x >> 1;
0132 C08C MOVFF 0x8c, 0x8a 0122 C08C MOVFF 0x8c, 0x8a
0134 F08A NOP 0124 F08A NOP
0136 C08D MOVFF 0x8d, 0x8b 0126 C08D MOVFF 0x8d, 0x8b
0138 F08B NOP 0128 F08B NOP
013A 0E02 MOVLW 0x2 012A 0100 MOVLB 0
013C 6E0D MOVWF 0xd, ACCESS 012C 90D8 BCF 0xfd8, 0, ACCESS
013E 6A0E CLRF 0xe, ACCESS 012E 338B RRCF 0x8b, F, BANKED
0140 C08A MOVFF 0x8a, 0x8 0130 338A RRCF 0x8a, F, BANKED
0142 F008 NOP
0144 C08B MOVFF 0x8b, 0x9
0146 F009 NOP
0148 EC6B CALL 0xd6, 0
014A F000 NOP
014C C008 MOVFF 0x8, 0x8a
014E F08A NOP
0150 C009 MOVFF 0x9, 0x8b 16-Bit Shift on 8-Bit Architecture
0152 F08B NOP

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 115
Operators
Memory Addressing
Operator Operation Example Result

& Address of &x Pointer to x

Indirection The object or function that p
* *p
points to
[] Subscripting x[y] The yth element of array x
Struct / Union The member named y in the
. x.y
Member structure or union x
-> Struct / Union p->y The member named y in the
Member by structure or union that p
Reference points to

These operators will be discussed later in the sections on

arrays, pointers, structures, and unions. They are included
here for reference and completeness.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 116
Operators
Other
Operator Operation Example Result
() Function Call foo(x) Passes control to the
function with the
specified arguments
sizeof Size of an sizeof x The number of bytes x
object or type occupies in memory
in bytes
(type) Explicit type (short) x Converts the value of x
cast to the specified type
?: Conditional x ? y : z The value of y if x is true,
expression else value of z
, Sequential x, y Evaluates x then y, else
evaluation result is value of y

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 117
Operators
The Conditional Operator
Syntax
(test-expr) ? do-if-true : do-if-false;

Example
int x = 5;

(x % 2 != 0) ?
printf("%d is odd\n", x) :
printf("%d is even\n", x);

Result:
5 is odd

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 118
Operators
The Explicit Type Cast Operator

Earlier, we cast a literal to type float by

entering it as: 4.0f
We can cast the variable instead by using
the cast operator: (type)variable
Example: Integer Divide Example: Floating Point Divide
int x = 10; int x = 10;
float y; float y;
y = x / 4; y = (float)x / 4;

y = 2.000000 2 y = 2.500000 3
Because: int / int ¨ int Because: float / int ¨ float

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 119
Operators
Precedence
Operator Description Associativity
( ) Parenthesized Expression
[ ] Array Subscript
Left-to-Right
. Structure Member
-> Structure Pointer

+ - Unary + and – (Positive and Negative Signs)

++ -- Increment and Decrement
! ~ Logical NOT and Bitwise Complement
* Dereference (Pointer)
Right-to-Left
& Address of
sizeof Size of Expression or Type
(type) Explicit Typecast

Continued on next slide…

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 120
Operators
Precedence
Operator Description Associativity
* / % Multiply, Divide, and Modulus Left-to-Right
+ - Add and Subtract Left-to-Right
<< >> Shift Left and Shift Right Left-to-Right
< <= Less Than and Less Than or Equal To Left-to-Right
> >= Greater Than and Greater Than or Equal To Left-to-Right
== != Equal To and Not Equal To Left-to-Right
& Bitwise AND Left-to-Right
^ Bitwise XOR Left-to-Right
| Bitwise OR Left-to-Right
&& Logical AND Left-to-Right
|| Logical OR Left-to-Right
?: Conditional Operator Right-to-Left
Continued on next slide…

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 121
Operators
Precedence
Operator Description Associativity
= Assignment
+= -= Addition and Subtraction Assignments
/= *= Division and Multiplication Assignments
%= Modulus Assignment Right-to-Left
<<= >>= Shift Left and Shift Right Assignments
&= |= Bitwise AND and OR Assignments
^= Bitwise XOR Assignment

, Comma Operator Left-to-Right

Operators grouped together in a section have

the same precedence – conflicts within a section
are handled via the rules of associativity
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 122
Operators
Precedence

When expressions contain multiple

operators, their precedence determines
the order of evaluation
Expression Effective Expression
a – b * c a – (b * c)
a + ++b a + (++b)
a + ++b * c a + ((++b) * c)

If functions are used in an expression, there is no set order of

evaluation for the functions themselves.
e.g. x = f() + g()
There is no way to know if f() or g() will be evaluated first.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 123
Operators
Associativity

If two operators have the same

precedence, their associativity determines
the order of evaluation
Expression Associativity Effective Expression
x / y % z Left-to-Right (x / y) % z
x = y = z Right-to-Left x = (y = z)
~++x Right-to-Left ~(++x)

You can rely on these rules, but it is good

programming practice to explicitly group
elements of an expression
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 124
Lab 04
Operators

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab04\Lab04.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 126
Lab 04
Operators
Solution: Steps 1 and 2
/*###########################################################################
# STEP 1: Add charVariable1 to charVariable2 and store the result in
# charVariable1. This may be done in two ways. One uses the
# ordinary addition operator, the other uses a compound assignment
# operator. Write two lines of code to perform this operation
# twice - once for each of the two methods.
# Don't forget to end each statement with a semi-colon!
###########################################################################*/

//Add using addition operator

charVariable1 = charVariable1 + charVariable2;
//Add using compound assignment operator
charVariable1 += charVariable2;

/*###########################################################################
# STEP 2: Increment charVariable1. There are several ways this could be
# done. Use the one that requires the least amount of typing.
###########################################################################*/

//Increment charVariable1
charVariable1++;

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 127
Lab 04
Operators
Solution: Steps 3 and 4
/*###########################################################################
# STEP 3: Use the conditional operator to set longVariable1 equal to
# intVariable1 if charVariable1 is less than charVariable2.
# Otherwise, set longVariable1 equal to intVariable2
# NOTE: The comments below are broken up into 3 lines, but the code you
# need to write can fit on a single line.
###########################################################################*/

//If charVariable1 < charVariable2, then

//longVariable1 = intVariable1, otherwise
//longVariable1 = intVariable2
longVariable1 = (charVariable1 < charVariable2) ? intVariable1 : intVariable2;

/*###########################################################################
# STEP 4: Shift longVariable2 one bit to the right. This can be accomplished
# most easily using the appropriate compound assignment operator.
###########################################################################*/

//Shift longVariable2 one bit to the right

longVariable2 >>= 1;

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 128
Lab 04
Operators
Solution: Step 5
/*###########################################################################
# STEP 5: Perform the operation (longVariable2 AND 0x30) and store the result
# back in longVariable2. Once again, the easiest way to do this is
# to use the appropriate compound assignment operator that will
# perform an equivalent operation to the one in the comment below.
###########################################################################*/

//longVariable2 = longVariable2 & 0x30

longVariable2 &= 0x30;

Most operators look just like their normal

mathematical notation
C adds several shortcut operators in the
form of compound assignments
Most C programmers tend to use the
shortcut operators

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 130
Section 1.7
Expressions and
Statements

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 131
Expressions
Represents a single data item (e.g.
character, number, etc.)
May consist of:
A single entity (a constant, variable, etc.)
A combination of entities connected by
operators (+, -, *, / and so on)

a + b
x = y
speed = dist/time
z = ReadInput()
c <= 7
x == 25
count++
d = a + 5
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 133
Statements

Cause an action to be carried out

Three kinds of statements in C:
Expression Statements
Compound Statements
Control Statements

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 134
Expression Statements
An expression followed by a semi-colon
Execution of the statement causes the
expression to be evaluated
Examples

i = 0;
i++;
a = 5 + i;
y = (m * x) + b;
printf("Slope = %f", m);
;
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 135
Compound Statements
A group of individual statements enclosed
within a pair of curly braces { and }
Individual statements within may be any
statement type, including compound
Allows statements to be embedded within
other statements
Does NOT end with a semicolon after }
Also called Block Statements
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 136
Compound Statements
Example
Example

{
float start, finish;

start = 0.0;
finish = 400.0;
distance = finish – start;
time = 55.2;
speed = distance / time;
printf("Speed = %f m/s", speed);
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 137
Control Statements
Used for loops, branches and logical tests
Often require other statements embedded
within them
Example

while (distance < 400.0)

{
printf("Keep running!");
distance += 0.1;
}

(while syntax: while expr statement)

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 139
Boolean Expressions
C has no Boolean data type
Boolean expressions return integers:
0 if expression evaluates as FALSE
non-zero if expression evaluates as TRUE
(usually returns 1, but this is not guaranteed)
int main(void)
{
int x = 5, y, z;
y = (x > 4); y = 1 (TRUE)
z = (x > 6);
while (1); z = 0 (FALSE)
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 140
Boolean Expressions
Equivalent Expressions

If a variable, constant or function call is

used alone as the conditional expression:
(MyVar) or (Foo())
This is the same as saying:
(MyVar != 0) or (Foo() != 0)
In either case, if MyVar ≠ 0 or Foo() ≠ 0,
then the expression evaluates as TRUE
(non-zero)
C Programmers almost always use the
first method (laziness always wins in C)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 141
if Statement
Syntax

if (expression) statement

expression is evaluated for boolean

TRUE (≠0) or FALSE (=0)
If TRUE, then statement is executed
Note
Whenever you see statement in
if (expression)
a syntax guide, it may be replaced {
by a compound (block) statement. statement1
Remember: spaces and new lines statement2
are not significant. }
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 142
if Statement
Flow Diagram
Syntax

if (expression) statement

expression ≠ 0
TRUE

FALSE
expression = 0

if (x) If x is TRUE (non-zero)…

{
printf("x = %d\n", x); …then print the value of x.
}
while (1);
}

What will print if x = 5? … if x = 0?

…if x = -82?
…if x = 65536?
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 144
if Statement
Solution to Trick Question

If x = 65536, this is the same as x = 0

Why?
An integer, whether signed or unsigned can
only hold 16-bit values (65536 requires 17 bits)
signed int: -32768 to 32767 (twos complement)
unsigned int: 0 to 65535 = 216-1
bit 15 bit 0
65535 or -1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0xFFFF

bit 15 bit 0
65536
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0x10000
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 145
if Statement
Testing for TRUE
if (x) vs. if (x == 1)
if (x) only needs to test for not equal to 0
if (x == 1) needs to test for equality with 1
Remember: TRUE is defined as non-zero, FALSE is
defined as zero

Example: if (x) Example: if (x ==1)

if (x) if (x == 1)
8: if (x) 11: if (x == 1)
011B4 E208C2 cp0.w 0x08c2 011C0 804610 mov.w 0x08c2,0x0000
011B6 320004 bra z, 0x0011c0 011C2 500FE1 sub.w 0x0000,#1,[0x001e]
011C4 3A0004 bra nz, 0x0011ce

int power = 10;

float band = 2.0;
float frequency = 146.52;

if (power > 5)
{
if (band == 2.0)
{
if ((frequency > 144) && (frequency < 148))
{
printf("Yes, it's all true!\n");
}
}
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 147
if-else Statement
Syntax

if (expression) statement1
else statement2

expression is evaluated for boolean

TRUE (≠0) or FALSE (=0)
If TRUE, then statement1 is executed
If FALSE, then statement2 is executed

if (expression) statement1
else statement2

expression ≠ 0
TRUE

FALSE
expression = 0

{
float frequency = 146.52; //frequency in MHz

if ((frequency > 144.0) && (frequency < 148.0))

{
printf("You're on the 2 meter band\n");
}
else
{
printf("You're not on the 2 meter band\n");
}
}

if (expression1) statement1
else if (expression2) statement2
else statement3

expression1 is evaluated for boolean TRUE (≠0)

or FALSE (=0)
If TRUE, then statement1 is executed
If FALSE, then expression2 is evaluated
If TRUE, then statement2 is executed
If FALSE, then statement3 is executed
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 151
if-else if Statement
Flow Diagram
Syntax

if (expression1) statement1
else if (expression2) statement2
else statement3

TRUE

FALSE
TRUE

FALSE

if ((freq > 144) && (freq < 148))

printf("You're on the 2 meter band\n");
else if ((freq > 222) && (freq < 225))
printf("You're on the 1.25 meter band\n");
else if ((freq > 420) && (freq < 450))
printf("You're on the 70 centimeter band\n");
else
printf("You're somewhere else\n");

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab05\Lab05.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 155
Lab 05
Making Decisions (if)
Solution: Steps 1 and 2
/*###########################################################################
# STEP 1: Increment intVariable1 if BOTH the following conditions are true:
# * floatVariable2 is greater than or equal to floatVariable1
# * charVariable2 is greater than or equal to charVariable1
# Remember to use parentheses to group logical operations.
###########################################################################*/
//Write the if condition
if((floatVariable2 >= floatVariable1) && (charVariable2 >= charVariable1))
{
intVariable1++; //Increment intVariable1
}

/*###########################################################################
# STEP 2: If the above is not true, and floatVariable1 is greater than 50
# then decrement intVariable2. (HINT: else if)
###########################################################################*/
//Write the else if condition
else if(floatVariable1 > 50)
{
intVariable2--; //Decrement intVariable2
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 156
Lab 05
Making Decisions (if)
Solution: Step 3
/*###########################################################################
# STEP 3: If neither of the above are true, set charVariable2 equal to 1.
# (HINT: else)
###########################################################################*/
//Write the else condition
else
{
charVariable2 = 1; //Set charVariable2 equal to 1

if statements make it possible to

conditionally execute a line or block of
code based on a logic equation
else if / else statements make it possible to
present follow-up conditions if the first
one proves to be false

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 158
switch Statement
Syntax
switch (expression)
{
case const-expr1: statements1

case const-exprn: statementsn

default: statementsn+1
}
expression is evaluated and tested for a
match with the const-expr in each case
clause
The statements in the matching case
clause is executed
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 159
switch Statement
Flow Diagram (default)
START
START

YES
Const-expr11==
Const-expr
statement
expression? statement11
expression?
Notice that each
NO
statement falls
Const-expr22==
Const-expr
YES
statement
statement22
through to the next
expression?
expression?

NO This is the default

behavior of the
YES
Const-exprnn==
Const-expr
statement
statementnn
switch statement
expression?
expression?

statement
statementn+1
n+1

END
END
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 160
switch Statement
Flow Diagram (modified)
START
START

YES
Const-expr11==
Const-expr statement
statement11
expression?
expression? break;
break;
Adding a break
NO
statement to each
Const-expr22==
Const-expr YES statement
statement22 statement block will
expression? break;
break;
eliminate fall
expression?

NO through, allowing
only one case
YES
Const-exprnn==
Const-expr
expression?
expression?
statement
statementnn
break;
break;
clause's statement
NO
block to be executed
statement
statementn+1
n+1

END
END
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 161
switch Statement
switch Example 1
switch(channel)
{
case 2: printf("WBBM Chicago\n"); break;
case 3: printf("DVD Player\n"); break;
case 4: printf("WTMJ Milwaukee\n"); break;
case 5: printf("WMAQ Chicago\n"); break;
case 6: printf("WITI Milwaukee\n"); break;
case 7: printf("WLS Chicago\n"); break;
case 9: printf("WGN Chicago\n"); break;
case 10: printf("WMVS Milwaukee\n"); break;
case 11: printf("WTTW Chicago\n"); break;
case 12: printf("WISN Milwaukee\n"); break;
default: printf("No Signal Available\n");
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 162
switch Statement
switch Example 2
switch(letter)
{
case 'a':
printf("Letter 'a' found.\n");
break;
case 'b':
printf("Letter 'b' found.\n");
break;
case 'c':
printf("Letter 'c' found.\n");
break;
default: printf("Letter not in list.\n");
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 163
switch Statement
switch Example 3
switch(channel)
Apply this case to channel 4, 5, 6, and 7
{
case 4...7:
printf("VHF Station\n"); break;
case 9...12:
printf("VHF Station\n"); break;
case 3:
case 8: Case 3 and 8 are allowed to fall
case 13: through to case 13
printf("Weak Signal\n"); break;
case 14...69:
printf("UHF Station\n"); break;
default:
printf("No Signal Available\n");
}

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab06\Lab06.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 166
Lab 06
Making Decisions (switch)
Solution: Step 1

/*###########################################################################
# TASK: Write a switch statement to print the network's initials with the
# channel (based on Chicago TV stations).
# * If channel = 2, print "CBS 2" to the output window.
# * If channel = 5, print "NBC 5" to the output window.
# * If channel = 7, print "ABC 7" to the output window.
# * For all other channels, print "--- #" to the output window,
# where "#" is the channel number.
# (HINT: Use printf(), and use the newline character '\n' at the end
# of each string you print to the output window.)
# NOTE: The switch statement is in a loop that will execute 9 times. Each
# pass through the loop, 'channel' will be incremented. The output
# window should display a line of text for channels 2 to 10.
#
# STEP 1: Open a switch statement on the variable 'channel'
###########################################################################*/
//Begin switch statement
switch(channel)
{

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 167
Lab 06
Making Decisions (switch)
Solution: Steps 2 and 3

/*###########################################################################
# STEP 2: Write case for channel = CBS (CBS is a constant defined to equal 2)
###########################################################################*/
case CBS: //If channel = CBS (CBS = 2)
{

printf("CBS %d\n", channel); //Display string "CBS 2" followed by newline

break; //Prevent fall through to next case
}

/*###########################################################################
# STEP 3: Write case for channel = NBC (NBC is a constant defined to equal 5)
# This should look almost identical to step 2.
###########################################################################*/
case NBC: //If channel = NBC (NBC = 5)
{
printf("NBC %d\n", channel); //Display string "NBC 5" followed by newline
break; //Prevent fall through to next case
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 168
Lab 06
Making Decisions (switch)
Solution: Steps 4 and 5
/*###########################################################################
# STEP 4: Write case for channel = ABC (ABC is a constant defined to equal 7)
# This should look almost identical to step 2.
###########################################################################*/
case ABC: //If channel = ABC (ABC = 7)
{
printf("ABC %d\n", channel); //Display string "ABC 7" followed by newline
break; //Prevent fall through to next case
}

/*###########################################################################
# STEP 5: Write default case. If channel is anything other than those
# listed above, this is what should be done. For these cases, you
# need to print the string "--- #" where "#" is the channel number.
# For example, if channel = 6, you should print "--- 6".
###########################################################################*/
default: //For all other channels
{
printf("--- %d\n", channel); //Display string "--- #" followed by newline
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 169
Lab 06
Conclusions
switch provides a more elegant decision
making structure than if for multiple
conditions (if – else if – else if – else if…)
The drawback is that the conditions may
only be constants (match a variable's state
to a particular value)

for (expression1; expression2; expression3)

statement
expression1 initializes a loop count
variable once at start of loop (e.g. i = 0)
expression2 is the test condition – the
loop will continue while this is true
(e.g. i <= 10)
expression3 is executed at the end of
each iteration – usually to modify the loop
count variable (e.g. i++)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 172
for Loop
Flow Diagram
Syntax
for (expression1; expression2; expression3)
statement

Initialize loop
variable
i = 0 expression
expression11 Modify loop
variable
expression
expression33 i++
Test loop variable for
exit condition TRUE
i < n expression22??
expression statement
statement

FALSE

int i;

for (i = 0; i < 5; i++)

{
printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i);
}

Expected Output:
Loop iteration 0
Loop iteration 1
Loop iteration 2
Loop iteration 3
Loop iteration 4

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 174
for Loop
Any or all of the three expressions may be
left blank (semi-colons must remain)
If expression1 or expression3 are
missing, their actions simply disappear
If expression2 is missing, it is assumed
to always be true
Note
Infinite Loops for ( ; ; )
A for loop without any
expressions will execute
{
indefinitely (can leave loop …
via break statement) }
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 175
while Loop
Syntax

while (expression) statement

If expression is true, statement will be

executed and then expression will be re-
evaluated to determine whether or not to
execute statement again
It is possible that statement will never
execute if expression is false when it is
first evaluated
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 176
while Loop
Flow Diagram
Syntax

while (expression) statement

TRUE

FALSE

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 177
while Loop
Example
Example (Code Fragment)

Loop counter initialized

int i = 0; outside of loop
Loop counter
Condition checked at incremented manually
while (i < 5) start of loop iterations inside loop
{
printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i++);
}
Expected Output:
Loop iteration 0
Loop iteration 1
Loop iteration 2
Loop iteration 3
Loop iteration 4

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 178
while Loop
The expression must always be there,
unlike with a for loop
while is used more often than for when
implementing an infinite loop, though it is
only a matter of personal taste
Frequently used for main loop of program
Note
Infinite Loops while (1)
A while loop with
expression = 1 will
{
execute indefinitely (can …
leave loop via break }
statement)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 179
do-while Loop
Syntax

do statement while (expression);

statement is executed and then

expression is evaluated to determine
whether or not to execute statement
again
statement will always execute at least
once, even if the expression is false when
the loop starts
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 180
do-while Loop
Flow Diagram
Syntax

do statement while (expression);

TRUE

FALSE

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 181
do-while Loop
Example
Example (Code Fragment)
Loop counter initialized
int i = 0; outside of loop
Loop counter
incremented manually
do inside loop
{
printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i++);
} while (i < 5); Condition checked at
end of loop iterations

Expected Output:
Loop iteration 0
Loop iteration 1
Loop iteration 2
Loop iteration 3
Loop iteration 4

break;

Causes immediate termination of a loop

even if the exit condition hasn't been met
Exits from a switch statement so that
execution doesn't fall through to next case
clause

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 183
break Statement
Flow Diagram Within a while Loop
Syntax

break;

TRUE

FALSE

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 184
break Statement
Example
Example (Code Fragment)

int i = 0;

while (i < 10)

{ Exit from the loop when i = 5.
Iteration 6-9 will not be executed.
i++;
if (i == 5) break;
printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i++);
}
Expected Output:
Loop iteration 1
Loop iteration 2
Loop iteration 3
Loop iteration 4

continue;

Causes program to jump back to the

beginning of a loop without completing the
current iteration

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 186
continue Statement
Flow Diagram Within a while Loop
Syntax

continue;

TRUE

FALSE

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 187
continue Statement
Example
Example (Code Fragment)

int i = 0;

while (i < 6)
{ Skip remaining iteration when i = 2.
Iteration 2 will not be completed.
i++;
if (i == 2) continue;
printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i++);
}
Expected Output:

Loop iteration 1
Loop iteration 3 Iteration 2 does not print
Loop iteration 4
Loop iteration 5

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab07\Lab07.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

/*###########################################################################
# STEP 1: Create a for loop to iterate the block of code below. The loop
# should do the following:
# * Initialize counter1 to 1
# * Loop as long as counter1 is less than 5
# * Increment counter1 on each pass of the loop
# (HINT: for(init; test; action))
###########################################################################*/
//Write the opening line of the for loop
for( counter1 = 1 ; counter1 < 5 ; counter1++)
{
intVariable1 *= counter1;
printf("FOR: intVariable1 = %d, counter1 = %d\n", intVariable1, counter1);
}
//end of for loop block

/*###########################################################################
# STEP 2: Create a while loop to iterate the block of code below. The loop
# should run until charVariable1 is 0.
###########################################################################*/
//Loop as long as charVariable1 is not 0
while( charVariable1 != 0)
{
charVariable1--;
charVariable2 += 5;
printf("WHILE: charVariable1 = %d, charVariable2 = %d\n",
charVariable1, charVariable2);
}
//end of while loop block

/*###########################################################################
# STEP 3: Create a do...while loop to iterate the block of code below.
# The loop should run until counter1 is greater than 100
###########################################################################*/
do //Write opening line of do loop
{
counter1 += 5;
counter2 = counter1 * 3;
printf("DO: counter1 = %d, counter2 = %d\n", counter1, counter2);
} while(counter1 <= 100); //Write closing line of loop - test counter1
//end of do...while block

C Provides three basic looping structures

if – checks loop condition at top,
automatically executes iterator at bottom
while – checks loop condition at top, you must
create iterator if needed
do…while – checks loop condition at bottom,
you must create iterator if needed

eat()
{
main() ...
{ return;
} be_merry()
... {
eat(); ...
... drink() return;
drink(); { }
... ...
} be_merry();
return;
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 196
Functions
What is a function?
Definition

Functions are self contained program segments designed

to perform a specific, well defined task.

All C programs have one or more functions

The main() function is required
Functions can accept parameters from the
code that calls them
Functions usually return a single value
Functions help to organize a program into
logical, manageable segments
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 197
Functions
Remember Algebra Class?

Functions in C are conceptually like an

algebraic function from math class…
Function Definition

Function Name f(x) = x2 + 4x +3

Function Parameter

If you pass a value of 7 to the function:

f(7), the value 7 gets "copied" into x and
used everywhere that x exists within the
function definition: f(7) = 72 + 4*7 + 3 = 80
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 198
Functions
Definitions
Syntax

Data type of
return expression Parameter List
Name (optional)

type identifier(type1 arg1,…,typen argn)

{
declarations
statements Body
return expression;
}

Header Return Value (optional)

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 199
Functions
Function Definitions: Syntax Examples
Example

int maximum(int x, int y)

{
int z;

z = (x >= y) ? x : y;
return z;
}

Example – A more efficient version

int maximum(int x, int y)
{
return ((x >= y) ? x : y);
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 200
Functions
Function Definitions: Return Data Type
Syntax

type identifier(type1 arg1,…,typen argn)

{
declarations
statements
return expression;
}

A function's type must match the type of

data in the return expression

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 201
Functions
Function Definitions: Return Data Type

A function may have multiple return

statements, but only one will be executed
and they must all be of the same type

Example

int bigger(int a, int b)

{
if (a > b)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 202
Functions
Function Definitions: Return Data Type
The function type is void if:
The return statement has no expression
The return statement is not present at all
This is sometimes called a procedure
function since nothing is returned
Example
void identifier(type1 arg1,…,typen argn)
{
declarations
statements
return; return; may be omitted if
} nothing is being returned

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 203
Functions
Function Definitions: Parameters

A function's parameters are declared just

like ordinary variables, but in a comma
delimited list inside the parentheses
The parameter names are only valid inside
the function (local to the function)
Syntax
type identifier(type1 arg1,…,typen argn)
{
declarations Function Parameters
statements
return expression;
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 204
Functions
Function Definitions: Parameters

Parameter list may mix data types

int foo(int x, float y, char z)
Parameters of the same type must be
declared separately – in other words:
int maximum(int x, y) will not work
int maximum(int x, int y) is correct
Example
int maximum(int x, int y)
{
return ((x >= y) ? x : y);
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 205
Functions
Function Definitions: Parameters

If no parameters are required, use the

keyword void in place of the parameter
list when defining the function

Example
type identifier(void)
{
declarations
statements
return expression;
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 206
Functions
How to Call / Invoke a Function
Function Call Syntax

No parameters and no return value

foo();
No parameters, but with a return value
x = foo();
With parameters, but no return value
foo(a, b);
With parameters and a return value
x = foo(a, b);

Just like variables, a function must be

declared before it may be used
Declaration must occur before main() or
other functions that use it
Declaration may take two forms:
The entire function definition
Just a function prototype – the function
definition itself may then be placed anywhere
in the program
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 208
Functions
Function Prototypes

Function prototypes may take on two

different formats:
An exact copy of the function header:
Example – Function Prototype 1

int maximum(int x, int y);

Like the function header, but without the

parameter names – only the types need be
present for each parameter:
Example – Function Prototype 2
int maximum(int, int);
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 209
Functions
Declaration and Use: Example 1
Example 1

int a = 5, b = 10, c;

int maximum(int x, int y) Function is

{ declared and
return ((x >= y) ? x : y); defined before it
} is used in main()
int main(void)
{
c = maximum(a, b);
printf("The max is %d\n", c)
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 210
Functions
Declaration and Use: Example 2
Example 2

int a = 5, b = 10, c;
Function is
int maximum(int x, int y); declared with
prototype before
int main(void) use in main()
{
c = maximum(a, b);
printf("The max is %d\n", c)
}

int maximum(int x, int y) Function is

{ defined after it is
return ((x >= y) ? x : y); used in main()
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 211
Functions
Passing Parameters by Value

Parameters passed to a function are

passed by value
Values passed to a function are copied
into the local parameter variables
The original variable that is passed to a
function cannot be modified by the
function since only a copy of its value was
passed
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 212
Functions
Passing Parameters by Value
Example
int a, b, c;

int foo(int x, int y)

{
x = x + (++y);
return x;
The value of a is copied into x.
}
The value of b is copied into y.
int main(void) The function does not change
{ the value of a or b.
a = 5;
b = 10;
c = foo(a, b);
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 213
Functions
Recursion

A function can call itself repeatedly

Useful for iterative computations (each
action stated in terms of previous result)
Example: Factorials (5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1)
Example
long int factorial(int n)
{
if (n <= 1)
return(1);
else
return(n * factorial(n - 1));
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 214
Functions
Evaluation of Recursive Functions

Evaluation of 5!
(based on code from previous slide)
Recursive Factorial term Result
iterations of Partial results replaced with result evaluated from
function pushed on stack of expression above TOS downward

[0] 1! = 1 =1
[1] 2! = 2 * 1! =2*1=2
[2] 3! = 3 * 2! =3*2=6
[3] 4! = 4 * 3! = 4 * 6 = 24
[4] 5! = 5 * 4! = 5 * 24 = 120
Conceptual evaluation of recursive function
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 215
Functions and Scope
Parameters

A function's parameters are local to the

function – they have no meaning outside
the function itself
Parameter names may have the same
identifier as a variable declared outside
the function – the parameter names will
take precedence inside the function
These are not the same n.
int n;
long int factorial(int n){…}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 216
Functions and Scope
Variables Declared Within a Function
Variables declared within a function block
are local to the function
Example

int x, y, z;

int foo(int n)
{
int a;
The n refers to the function parameter n
a += n;
} The a refers to the a declared locally
within the function body
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 217
Functions and Scope
Variables Declared Within a Function
Variables declared within a function block
are not accessible outside the function
Example
int x;
int foo(int n)
{
int a;
return (a += n);
}
int main(void)
{
x = foo(5); This will generate an error. a may not
x = a; be accessed outside of the function
} where it was declared.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 218
Functions and Scope
Global versus Local Variables
Example
int x = 5; x can see be seen by everybody

int foo(int y)
{ foo 's local parameter is y
foo's
int z = 1; foo 's local variable is z
foo's
foo cannot see main 's a
main's
return (x + y + z);
foo can see x
}

int main(void)
{ main 's local variable is a
main's
main cannot see foo 's y or z
foo's
int a = 2;
main can see x
x = foo(a);
a = foo(x);
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 219
Functions and Scope
Parameters

"Overloading" variable names:

n Declared Locally and Globally n Declared Globally Only

int n; int n;

int foo(int n) int foo(int x)

{ {
… …
y += n; y += n;
local n
… …
hides
} global n
}

A locally defined identifier takes precedence over a

globally defined identifier.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 220
Functions and Scope
Parameters
Example Different functions
int n; may use the same
parameter names
int foo(int n)
{ The function will
y += n; only use its own
} parameter by that
int bar(int n)
name
{
z *= n;
}

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 221
Functions and Scope
#define Within a Function
Example
Running this code will
#define x 2 result in the following
output in the Uart1 IO
void test(void) window:
{
#define x 5 5
printf("%d\n", x);
} 5
void main(void) Why?
{ Remember: #define is
printf("%d\n", x); used by the preprocessor
test(); to do text substitution
} before the code is
compiled.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 222
Functions
Historical Note

C originally defined functions like this:

int maximum(x, y)
int x, int y
{
return ((x >= y) ? x : y);
}

Do not use the old method – use the new

one only:
int maximum(int x, int y)
{
return ((x >= y) ? x : y);
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 223
Lab 08
Functions

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab08\Lab08.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

/*############################################################################
# STEP 1: Write two function prototypes based on the following information:
# + Function Name: multiply_function()
# - Parameters: int x, int y
# - Return type: int
# + Function Name: divide_function()
# - Parameters: float x, float y
# - Return type: float
############################################################################*/

int multiply_function( int x, int y); //multiply_function() prototype

float divide_function( float x, float y ); //divide_function() prototype

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 226
Lab 08
Functions
Solution: Step 2
/*############################################################################
# STEP 2: Call the multiply_function() and divide_function().
# (a) Pass the variables intVariable1 and intVariable2 to the
# multiply_function().
# (b) Store the result of multiply_function() in the variable "product".
# (c) Pass the variables floatVariable1 and floatVariable2 to the
# divide_function().
# (d) Store the result of divide_function() in the variable "quotient".
############################################################################*/

//Call multiply_function
product = multiply_function( intVariable1 , intVariable2 );

//Call divide_function
quotient = divide_function( floatVariable1 , floatVariable2 );

// intQuotient will be 0 since it is an integer

intQuotient = divide_function( floatVariable1 , floatVariable2 );

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 227
Lab 08
Functions
Solution: Steps 3 and 4
/*############################################################################
# STEP 3: Write the function multiply_function(). Use the function prototype
# you wrote in STEP 1 as the function header. In the body, all you
# need to do is return the product of the two input parameters (x * y)
############################################################################*/
//Function Header
int multiply_function( int x, int y)
{
return (x * y); //Function Body
}

/*############################################################################
# STEP 4: Write the function divide_function(). Use the function prototype
# you wrote in STEP 1 as the function header. In the body, all you
# need to do is return the quotient of the two input parameters (x / y)
############################################################################*/
//Function Header
float divide_function( float x, float y )
{
return (x / y); //Function Body
}

Functions provide a way to modularize

code
Functions make code easier to maintain
Functions promote code reuse

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 229
Section 1.11
Multi-File Projects and
Storage Class Specifiers

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 230
Storage Class Specifiers
Scope and Lifetime of Variables

Scope and lifetime of a variable depends

on its storage class:
Automatic Variables
Static Variables
External Variables
Register Variables
Scope refers to where in a program a
variable may be accessed
Lifetime refers to how long a variable will
exist or retain its value
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 231
Storage Class Specifiers
Automatic Variables

Local variables declared inside a function

Created when function called
Destroyed when exiting from function
auto keyword usually not required – local
variables are automatically automatic*
Typically created on the stack
int foo(int x, int y)
{
int a, b;
... Automatic Variables

*Except when the compiler provides an option to make parameters and locals static by default.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 232
Storage Class Specifiers
auto Keyword with Variables

int foo(auto int x, auto int y)

{
... ;
}

auto is almost never used

Many books claim it has no use at all
Some compilers still use auto to explicitly
specify that a variable should be allocated
on the stack when a different method of
parameter passing is used by default
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 233
Storage Class Specifiers
Static Variables

Given a permanent address in memory

Exist for the entire life of the program
Created when program starts
Destroyed when program ends
Global variables are always static (cannot
be made automatic using auto)
int x; Global variable is always static

int main(void)
{
...
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 234
Storage Class Specifiers
static Keyword with Variables

A variable declared as static inside a

function retains its value between function
calls (not destroyed when exiting function)
Function parameters cannot be static
with some compilers (MPLAB® C30)
int foo(int x) a will remember its value
{ from the last time the
static int a = 0; function was called.
... If given an initial value, it
a += x; is only initialized when
first created – not during
return a;
each function call
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 235
Storage Class Specifiers
External Variables

Variables that are defined outside the

scope where they are used
Still need to be declared within the scope
where they are used
extern keyword used to tell compiler that
a variable defined elsewhere will be used
within the current scope
External Variable
Declaration Syntax:
extern type identifier;

External Variable
Declaration Example:
extern int x;
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 236
Storage Class Specifiers
External Variables
A variable declared as extern within a
function is analogous to a function
prototype – the variable may be defined
outside the function after it is used
Example
int foo(int x)
{
extern int a;
...
return a;
}

int a;

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 237
Storage Class Specifiers
External Variables
A variable declared as extern outside of
any function is used to indicate that the
variable is defined in another source file –
memory only allocated when it's defined
Main.c SomeFileInProject.c
extern int x; int x;

int main(void) int foo(void)

{ {
x = 5; ...
... }
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 238
Storage Class Specifiers
Register Variables

Variables placed in a processor's

"hardware registers" for higher speed
access than with external RAM (mostly
used for microprocessor based systems)
Doesn't usually make sense in embedded
microcontroller system where RAM is
integrated into processor package
May be done with PIC® MCU/dsPIC® DSC,
but it is architecture/compiler specific…
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 239
Storage Class Specifiers
Scope of Functions

Scope of a function depends on its

storage class:
Static Functions
External Functions
Scope of a function is either local to the
file where it is defined (static) or globally
available to any file in a project (external)

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 240
Storage Class Specifiers
External Functions

Functions by default have global scope

within a project
extern keyword not required, but function
prototype is required in calling file (or .h)
Main.c SomeFileInProject.c
int foo(void); int foo(void)
{
int main(void) ...
{ }
...
x = foo();
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 241
Storage Class Specifiers
Static Functions
If a function is declared as static, it will
only be available within the file where it
was declared (makes it a local function)

Main.c SomeFileInProject.c
int foo(void); static int foo(void)
{
int main(void) ...
{ }
...
x = foo();
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 242
Lab 09
Multi-File Projects

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab09\Lab09.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 244
Lab 09
Multi-File Projects
Solution: Step 1a and 1b (File1_09.h)
/*############################################################################
# STEP 1a: Add variable declarations to make the variables defined in
# File1_09.c available to any C source file that includes this
# header file. (intVariable1, intVariable2, product)
############################################################################*/
//Reference to externally defined "intVariable1"
extern int intVariable1;
//Reference to externally defined "intVariable2"
extern int intVariable2;
//Reference to externally defined "product"
extern int product;

/*###############################################################################
# STEP 1b: Add a function prototype to make multiply_function() defined in
# File1_09.c available to any C source file that includes this header
# file.
###############################################################################*/
//Function prototype for multiply_function()
int multiply_function(int x, int y);

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 245
Lab 09
Multi-File Projects
Solution: Step 2a and 2b (File2_09.h)
/*############################################################################
# STEP 2a: Add variable declarations to make the variables defined in
# File2_09.c available to any C source file that includes this header
# file.(floatVariable1, floatVariable2, quotient, intQuotient)
############################################################################*/
//Reference to externally defined "floatVariable1"
extern float floatVariable1;
//Reference to externally defined "floatVariable2"
extern float floatVariable2;
//Reference to externally defined "quotient"
extern float quotient;
//Reference to externally defined "intQuotient"
extern int intQuotient;

/*############################################################################
# STEP 2b: Add a function prototype to make divide_function() defined in
# File2_09.c available to any C source file that includes this header
# file.
############################################################################*/
//Function prototype for divide_function()
float divide_function(float x, float y );

Multi-file projects take the concept of

functions further, by providing an
additional level of modularization
Globally declared variables and all normal
functions are externally available if
external declarations and function
prototypes are available
Static functions are not available
externally

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 248
Arrays
Definition
Arrays are variables that can store many items of the same
type. The individual items known as elements, are stored
sequentially and are uniquely identified by the array index
(sometimes called a subscript).

Arrays:
May contain any number of elements
Elements must be of the same type
The index is zero based
Array size (number of elements) must be
specified at declaration
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 249
Arrays
How to Create an Array
Arrays are declared much like ordinary variables:
Syntax

type arrayName[size];

size refers to the number of elements

size must be a constant integer

Example

int a[10]; // An array that can hold 10 integers

char s[25]; // An array that can hold 25 characters

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 250
Arrays
How to Initialize an Array at Declaration
Arrays may be initialized with a list when declared:
Syntax
type arrayName[size] = {item1,…,itemn};

The items must all match the type of the array

Example
int a[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

char b[5] = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'};

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 251
Arrays
How to Use an Array
Arrays are accessed like variables, but with an index:
Syntax
arrayName[index]
index may be a variable or a constant
The first element in the array has an index of 0
C does not provide any bounds checking
Example
int i, a[10]; //An array that can hold 10 integers

for(i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

a[i] = 0; //Initialize all array elements to 0
}
a[4] = 42; //Set fifth element to 42
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 252
Arrays
Creating Multidimensional Arrays
Add additional dimensions to an array declaration:
Syntax
type arrayName[size1]...[sizen];

Arrays may have any number of dimensions

Three dimensions tend to be the largest used in
common practice
Example

int a[10][10]; //10x10 array for 100 integers

float b[10][10][10]; //10x10x10 array for 1000 floats

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 253
Arrays
Initializing Multidimensional Arrays at Declaration
Arrays may be initialized with lists within a list:
Syntax

type arrayName[size0]…[sizen] =
{{item,…,item},

{item,…,item}};

Example

char a[3][3] = {{'X', 'O', 'X'},

{'O', 'O', 'X'},
{'X', 'X', 'O'}};

int b[2][2][2] = {{{0, 1},{2, 3}},{{4, 5},{6, 7}}};

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 254
Arrays
Visualizing 2-Dimensional Arrays
int a[3][3] = {{0, 1, 2},
{3, 4, 5},
Row, Column {6, 7, 8}};
a[y][x] Column

a[0][0] = 0; 0 1 2 x
Row 0

a[0][1] = 1;
a[0][2] = 2;
0 0 1 2
0,0 0,1 0,2
a[1][0] = 3;
Row 1

a[1][1] = 4; Row 1 3 4 5
a[1][2] = 5; 1,0 1,1 1,2

a[2][0] = 6;
2 6 7 8
Row 2

a[2][1] = 7; 2,0 2,1 2,2

a[2][2] = 8; y
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 255
Arrays
Visualizing 3-Dimensional Arrays
int a[2][2][2] = {{{0, 1},{2, 3}},
{{4, 5},{6, 7}}};
Plane, Row, Column
1 z
a[z][y][x]
la ne
P
a[0][0][0] = 0; 0
Plane 0

a[0][0][1] = 1; Co 4
a[0][1][0] = 2; 0 lu
m 5
n
a[0][1][1] = 3; 0
Row
1 ,0
,1
a[1][0][0] = 4; 0 ,0
,0
1 x
1 7
Plane 1

a[1][0][1] = 5; 0 ,0

a[1][1][0] = 6;
2 ,1
1 ,1
,1
y 3
0 ,1
,0
a[1][1][1] = 7; 0 0 ,1
,1
1
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 256
Arrays
Example of Array Processing

/**************************************************
* Print out 0 to 90 in increments of 10
**************************************************/
int main(void)
{
int i = 0;
int a[10] = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9};
while (i < 10)
{
a[i] *= 10;
printf("%d\n", a[i]);
i++;
}
while (1);
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 257
Strings
Character Arrays and Strings
Definition
Strings are arrays of char whose last element is a null
character '\0' with an ASCII value of 0. C has no native
string data type, so strings must always be treated as
character arrays.

Strings:
Are enclosed in double quotes "string"
Are terminated by a null character '\0'
Must be manipulated as arrays of characters
(treated element by element)
May be initialized with a string literal
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 258
Strings
Creating a String Character Array
Strings are created like any other array of char:
Syntax
char arrayName[length];

length must be one larger than the length of the string

to accommodate the terminating null character '\0'
A char array with n elements holds strings with n-1 char

Example
char str1[10]; //Holds 9 characters plus '\0'

char str2[6]; //Holds 5 characters plus '\0'

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 259
Strings
How to Initialize a String at Declaration
Character arrays may be initialized with string literals:
Syntax
char arrayName[] = "Microchip";

Array size is not required

Size automatically determined by length of string
NULL character '\0' is automatically appended
Example
char str1[] = "Microchip"; //10 chars "Microchip\0"

char str2[6] = "Hello"; //6 chars "Hello\0"

//Alternative string declaration – size required

char str3[4] = {'P', 'I', 'C', '\0'};
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 260
Strings
How to Initialize a String in Code
In code, strings must be initialized element by element:
Syntax
arrayName[0] = char1;
arrayName[1] = char2;

arrayName[n] = '\0';

Null character '\0' must be appended manually

Example
str[0] = 'H';
str[1] = 'e';
str[2] = 'l';
str[3] = 'l';
str[4] = 'o';
str[5] = '\0';
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 261
Strings
Comparing Strings

Strings cannot be compared using logical

operators (==, !=, etc.)
Must use standard C library string
manipulation functions
strcmp() returns 0 if strings equal
Example

char str[] = "Hello";

if (!strcmp( str, "Hello"))

printf("The string is \"%s\".\n", str);

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 262
Functions
Array Parameters
Arrays are passed by reference rather than by
value for greater efficiency
A pointer to the array, rather than the array itself
is passed to the function

This declaration…
void WriteLCD(char greetings[]){…}

…is equivalent to this declaration.

void WriteLCD(char *greetings){…}

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab10\Lab10.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

/*############################################################################
# STEP 1: Create two initialized arrays with 10 elements each named array1 and
# array2 (you may use the pre-defined constant ARRAY_SIZE as part of
# the array declaration).
# The arrays should be initialized with the following values:
# + array1: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
# + array2: 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0
# Note: the elements are all of type int
############################################################################*/
// array1 declaration & definition
int array1[ARRAY_SIZE] = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9};
// array2 declaration & definition
int array2[ARRAY_SIZE] = {9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0};

/*############################################################################
# STEP 2: Pass the two arrays you declared above (array1 & array2) to the
# function add_function() (see its definition below). Store the
# result of the function call in the array result[]. The idea here is
# to add each corresponding element of array1 and array2 and store the
# result in result[]. In other words, add the first element of
# array1[] to the first element of array2[] and store the result in
# the first element of result[]. Next add the second elements…
############################################################################*/
// result = sum of elements of array1 & array2
result[i] = add_function(array1[i], array2[i]);
i++;

Arrays may be used to store a group of

related variables of the same type under a
common name
Individual elements are accessed by using
the array index in conjunction with the
array name
Arrays may be used in many places that
an ordinary variable would be used

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 269
Pointers
A Variable's Address versus A Variable's Value
In some situations, we will want to work with a
variable's address in memory, rather than the
value it contains…
16-bit Data Memory
Variable stored (RAM)
at Address Address
Variable name 005A 0x0800
from C code x 0123 0x0802
int x; DEAD 0x0804
Address of
BEEF 0x0806 variable x
Value of
variable x F00D 0x0808 = 0x0802
= 0x0123 0456 0x080A
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 270
Pointers
What are pointers?
A pointer is a variable or constant that holds the
address of another variable or function

16-bit Data Memory

Variable at (RAM)
Address Address
FFFF 0x0800

Integer Variable: x 0123 0x0802

FFFF 0x0804
Pointer Variable: p 0802 0x0806
FFFF 0x0808
FFFF 0x080A

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 271
Pointers
What do they do?
A pointer allows us to indirectly access a
variable (just like indirect addressing in assembly language)

16-bit Data Memory

(RAM)
Direct Access Address
via x 005A 0x0800
x = 0x0123; x 0123 0x0802
DEAD 0x0804
*p = 0x0123; p 0802 0x0806
F00D 0x0808 p points to x
Indirect Access
via *p 0456 0x080A

Pointers make it possible to write a very

short loop that performs the same task on
a range of memory locations / variables.
Example: Data Buffer
//Point to RAM buffer starting address
char *bufPtr = &buffer;

while ((DataAvailable) && (*bufPtr != '/0'))

{
//Read byte from UART and write it to RAM buffer
ReadUART(bufPtr);
//Point to next available byte in RAM buffer
bufPtr++;
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 273
Pointers
Why would I want to do that?
Example: Data Buffer
16-bit Data Memory
RAM buffer allocated over (RAM)
a range of addresses Address
(perhaps an array)
0123 0x08BA
Pseudo-code: 4567 0x08BC
(1) Point arrow to first
address of buffer 89AB 0x08BE
(2) Write data from UART to
location pointed to by
CDEF 0x08C0
arrow 1357 0x08C2
(3) Move arrow to point to
next address in buffer 9BDF 0x08C4
(4) Repeat until data from
0246 0x08C6
UART is 0, or buffer is full
(arrow points to last 8ACE 0x08C8
address of buffer)

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 274
Pointers
Where else are they used?
Used in conjunction with dynamic memory
allocation (creating variables at runtime)
Provide method to pass arguments by reference
to functions
Provide method to pass more than one piece of
information into and out of a function
A more efficient means of accessing arrays and
dealing with strings

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 275
Pointers
How to Create a Pointer Variable
Syntax
type *ptrName;

In the context of a declaration, the * merely indicates

that the variable is a pointer
type is the type of data the pointer may point to
Pointer usually described as “a pointer to type”
Example

int *iPtr; // Create a pointer to int

float *fPtr; // Create a pointer to float

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 276
Pointers
How to Create a Pointer Type with typedef
Syntax
typedef type *typeName;

A pointer variable can now be declared as type

typeName which is a synonym for type
The * is no longer needed since typeName explicitly
identifies the variable as a pointer to type
Example
typedef int *intPtr; // Create pointer to int type

intPtr p; // Create pointer to int

// Equivalent to: int *p;
No * is used

To set a pointer to point to another

variable, we use the & operator (address
of), and the pointer variable is used
without the dereference operator *:

p = &x;
This assigns the address of the variable x
to the pointer p (p now points to x)
Note: p must be declared to point to the
type of x (e.g. int x; int *p;)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 278
Pointers
Usage

When accessing the variable pointed to by

a pointer, we use the pointer with the
dereference operator *:

y = *p;
This assigns to the variable y, the value of
what p is pointing to (x from the last slide)
Using *p, is the same as using the variable
it points to (e.g. x)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 279
Pointers
Another Way To Look At The Syntax
Example

int x, *p; //int and a pointer to int

p = &x; //Assign p the address of x

*p = 5; //Same as x = 5;

&x is a constant pointer

It represents the address of x
The address of x will never change
p is a variable pointer to int
It can be assigned the address of any int
It may be assigned a new address any time
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 280
Pointers
Another Way To Look At The Syntax
Example

int x, *p; //1 int, 1 pointer to int

p = &x; //Assign p the address of x

*p = 5; //Same as x = 5;

*p represents the data pointed to by p

*p may be used anywhere you would use x
* is the dereference operator, also called the
indirection operator
In the pointer declaration, the only significance of * is
to indicate that the variable is a pointer rather than an
ordinary variable
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 281
Pointers
Another Way To Look At The Syntax
Contents of Letter Contents of the Mailbox
(integer literal 5) (variable x or *p)
Address of
Mailbox
*p = 5; (&x)

105
105

Address on Envelope
(pointer p)
p = &x;
Bank of Mailboxes
(memory locations)
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 282
Pointers
How Pointers Work
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ Variable at (RAM)
int x, y; Address Address

int *p; 0000 0x08BA

x 0000 0x08BC
x = 0xDEAD; 0000
y 0x08BE
y = 0xBEEF;
p = &x; p 0000 0x08C0
0000 0x08C2
*p = 0x0100; 0000 0x08C4
p = &y; 0000 0x08C6
*p = 0x0200;
} 0000 0x08C8

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 283
Pointers
How Pointers Work
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ Variable at (RAM)
int x, y; Address Address

int *p; 0000 0x08BA

x DEAD 0x08BC
x = 0xDEAD; 0000
y 0x08BE
y = 0xBEEF;
p = &x; p 0000 0x08C0
0000 0x08C2
*p = 0x0100; 0000 0x08C4
p = &y; 0000 0x08C6
*p = 0x0200;
} 0000 0x08C8

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 284
Pointers
How Pointers Work
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ Variable at (RAM)
int x, y; Address Address

int *p; 0000 0x08BA

x DEAD 0x08BC
x = 0xDEAD; BEEF
y 0x08BE
y = 0xBEEF;
p = &x; p 0000 0x08C0
0000 0x08C2
*p = 0x0100; 0000 0x08C4
p = &y; 0000 0x08C6
*p = 0x0200;
} 0000 0x08C8

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 285
Pointers
How Pointers Work
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ Variable at (RAM)
int x, y; Address Address

int *p; 0000 0x08BA

x DEAD 0x08BC
x = 0xDEAD; BEEF
y 0x08BE
y = 0xBEEF;
p = &x; p 08BC 0x08C0
0000 0x08C2
*p = 0x0100; 0000 0x08C4
p = &y; 0000 0x08C6
*p = 0x0200;
} 0000 0x08C8

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 286
Pointers
How Pointers Work
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ Variable at (RAM)
int x, y; Address Address

int *p; 0000 0x08BA

x 0100 0x08BC
x = 0xDEAD; BEEF
y 0x08BE
y = 0xBEEF;
p = &x; p 08BC 0x08C0
0000 0x08C2
*p = 0x0100; 0000 0x08C4
p = &y; 0000 0x08C6
*p = 0x0200;
} 0000 0x08C8

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 287
Pointers
How Pointers Work
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ Variable at (RAM)
int x, y; Address Address

int *p; 0000 0x08BA

x 0100 0x08BC
x = 0xDEAD; BEEF
y 0x08BE
y = 0xBEEF;
p = &x; p 08BE 0x08C0
0000 0x08C2
*p = 0x0100; 0000 0x08C4
p = &y; 0000 0x08C6
*p = 0x0200;
} 0000 0x08C8

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 288
Pointers
How Pointers Work
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ Variable at (RAM)
int x, y; Address Address

int *p; 0000 0x08BA

x 0100 0x08BC
x = 0xDEAD; 0200
y 0x08BE
y = 0xBEEF;
p = &x; p 08BE 0x08C0
0000 0x08C2
*p = 0x0100; 0000 0x08C4
p = &y; 0000 0x08C6
*p = 0x0200;
} 0000 0x08C8

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 289
Pointers and Arrays
A Quick Reminder…
Array elements occupy consecutive memory
locations
16-bit Data Memory
(RAM)
Address
int x[3] = {1,2,3};
FFFF 0x07FE
x[0] 0001 0x0800
x[1] 0002 0x0802
x[2] 0003 0x0804
FFFF 0x0806

Pointers can provide an alternate method for

accessing array elements
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 290
Pointers and Arrays
Initializing a Pointer to an Array

The array name is the same thing as the

address of its first (0th) element
If we declare the following array and pointer variable:

int x[5] = {1,2,3,4,5};

int *p;

We can initialize the pointer to point to the array using any

one of these three methods:

p = x; //Works only for arrays!

p = &x; //Works for arrays or variables
p = &x[0]; //This one is the most obvious
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 291
Pointers and Arrays
A Preview of Pointer Arithmetic

Incrementing a pointer will move it to the

next element of the array
16-bit Data Memory
(RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int *p; FFFF 0x07FE
x[0] 0001 0x0800
p = &x;
x[1] 0002 0x0802
p++;
x[2] 0003 0x0804
p FFFF 0x0806

More on this in just a bit…

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 292
Pointers and Arrays
A Preview of Pointer Arithmetic

Incrementing a pointer will move it to the

next element of the array
16-bit Data Memory
(RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int *p; FFFF 0x07FE
x[0] 0001 0x0800
p = &x;
x[1] 0002 0x0802
p++;
x[2] 0003 0x0804
p 0800 0x0806

More on this in just a bit…

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 293
Pointers and Arrays
A Preview of Pointer Arithmetic

Incrementing a pointer will move it to the

next element of the array
16-bit Data Memory
(RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int *p; FFFF 0x07FE
x[0] 0001 0x0800
p = &x;
x[1] 0002 0x0802
p++;
x[2] 0003 0x0804
p 0802 0x0806

More on this in just a bit…

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 294
Pointer Arithmetic
Incrementing Pointers

Incrementing or decrementing a pointer

will add or subtract a multiple of the
number of bytes of its type
If we have:

float x;
float *p = &x;
p++;

We will get p = &x + 4 since a float

variable occupies 4 bytes of memory
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 295
Pointer Arithmetic
Incrementing Pointers
Example

float *ptr; 0x0050

0x0052
ptr = &a; float a[0] 0x0054
0x0056
ptr++; float a[1] 0x0058
0x005A
float a[2] 0x005C
0x005E

Incrementing ptr moves it float a[3] 0x0060

0x0062
to the next sequential float a[4] 0x0064
0x0066
float array element float a[5] 0x0068
0x006A
float a[6] 0x006C
0x006E
float a[7] 0x0070
0x0072
float a[8] 0x0074
0x0076
16-bit Data Memory Words

Adding or subtracting any other number

with the pointer will change it by a multiple
of the number of bytes of its type
If we have

int x;
int *p = &x;
p += 3;

We will get p = &x + 6 since an int

variable occupies 2 bytes of memory
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 297
Pointer Arithmetic
Larger Jumps
Example

float *ptr; 0x0050

0x0052
ptr = &a; float a[0] 0x0054
0x0056
float a[1] 0x0058
0x005A
float a[2] 0x005C
Adding 6 to ptr moves it 6 0x005E
float a[3]
float array elements 0x0060
0x0062

ahead (24 bytes ahead) float a[4] 0x0064

0x0066
float a[5] 0x0068
0x006A
ptr += 6; float a[6] 0x006C
0x006E
float a[7] 0x0070
0x0072
float a[8] 0x0074
0x0076
16-bit Data Memory Words

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 298
Pointers
Pointer Arithmetic
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
long x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address

long *p = &x; 0000 0x07FE

x[0] 0001 0x0800

*p += 4;
0000 0x0802
p++;
*p = 0xDEADBEEF; x[1] 0002 0x0804
p++; 0000 0x0806
*p = 0xF1D0F00D; x[2] 0003 0x0808
p -= 2;
0000 0x080A
*p = 0xBADF00D1;
} p 0800 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 299
Pointers
Pointer Arithmetic
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
long x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address

long *p = &x; 0000 0x07FE

x[0] 0005 0x0800

*p += 4;
0000 0x0802
p++;
*p = 0xDEADBEEF; x[1] 0002 0x0804
p++; 0000 0x0806
*p = 0xF1D0F00D; x[2] 0003 0x0808
p -= 2;
0000 0x080A
*p = 0xBADF00D1;
} p 0800 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 300
Pointers
Pointer Arithmetic
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
long x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address

long *p = &x; 0000 0x07FE

x[0] 0005 0x0800

*p += 4;
0000 0x0802
p++;
*p = 0xDEADBEEF; x[1] 0002 0x0804
p++; 0000 0x0806
*p = 0xF1D0F00D; x[2] 0003 0x0808
p -= 2;
0000 0x080A
*p = 0xBADF00D1;
} p 0804 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 301
Pointers
Pointer Arithmetic
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
long x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address

long *p = &x; 0000 0x07FE

x[0] 0005 0x0800

*p += 4;
0000 0x0802
p++;
*p = 0xDEADBEEF; x[1] BEEF 0x0804
p++; DEAD 0x0806
*p = 0xF1D0F00D; x[2] 0003 0x0808
p -= 2;
0000 0x080A
*p = 0xBADF00D1;
} p 0804 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 302
Pointers
Pointer Arithmetic
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
long x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address

long *p = &x; 0000 0x07FE

x[0] 0005 0x0800

*p += 4;
0000 0x0802
p++;
*p = 0xDEADBEEF; x[1] BEEF 0x0804
p++; DEAD 0x0806
*p = 0xF1D0F00D; x[2] 0003 0x0808
p -= 2;
0000 0x080A
*p = 0xBADF00D1;
} p 0808 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 303
Pointers
Pointer Arithmetic
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
long x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address

long *p = &x; 0000 0x07FE

x[0] 0005 0x0800

*p += 4;
0000 0x0802
p++;
*p = 0xDEADBEEF; x[1] BEEF 0x0804
p++; DEAD 0x0806
*p = 0xF1D0F00D; x[2] F00D 0x0808
p -= 2;
F1D0 0x080A
*p = 0xBADF00D1;
} p 0808 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 304
Pointers
Pointer Arithmetic
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
long x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address

long *p = &x; 0000 0x07FE

x[0] 0005 0x0800

*p += 4;
0000 0x0802
p++;
*p = 0xDEADBEEF; x[1] BEEF 0x0804
p++; DEAD 0x0806
*p = 0xF1D0F00D; x[2] F00D 0x0808
p -= 2;
F1D0 0x080A
*p = 0xBADF00D1;
} p 0800 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 305
Pointers
Pointer Arithmetic
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
long x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address

long *p = &x; 0000 0x07FE

x[0] 00D1 0x0800

*p += 4;
BADF 0x0802
p++;
*p = 0xDEADBEEF; x[1] BEEF 0x0804
p++; DEAD 0x0806
*p = 0xF1D0F00D; x[2] F00D 0x0808
p -= 2;
F1D0 0x080A
*p = 0xBADF00D1;
} p 0800 0x080C

Care must be taken with respect to operator

precedence when doing pointer arithmetic:

Syntax Operation Description by Example

z = *(p++);
*p++
Post-Increment is equivalent to:
Pointer z = *p;
*(p++) p = p + 1;
z = (*p)++;
(*p)++ Post-Increment
is equivalent to:
data pointed to z = *p;
by Pointer *p = *p + 1;

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 307
Pointers
Post-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(p++); x[1] 0002 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + (*p)++; p 0800 0x0806
} y 0000 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(p++) is the same as *p++
0000 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 308
Pointers
Post-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(p++); x[1] 0002 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + (*p)++; p 0800 0x0806
} y 0006 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(p++) is the same as *p++
0000 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 309
Pointers
Post-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(p++); x[1] 0002 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + (*p)++; p 0802 0x0806
} y 0006 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(p++) is the same as *p++
0000 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 310
Pointers
Post-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(p++); x[1] 0002 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + (*p)++; p 0802 0x0806
} y 0007 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(p++) is the same as *p++
0000 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 311
Pointers
Post-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(p++); x[1] 0003 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + (*p)++; p 0802 0x0806
} y 0007 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(p++) is the same as *p++
0000 0x080C

Care must be taken with respect to operator

precedence when doing pointer arithmetic:

Syntax Operation Description by Example

z = *(++p);
++*p
Pre-Increment is equivalent to:
Pointer p = p + 1;
*(++p) z = *p;
z = ++(*p);
++(*p) Pre-Increment
is equivalent to:
data pointed to *p = *p + 1;
by Pointer z = *p;

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 313
Pointers
Pre-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(++p); x[1] 0002 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + ++(*p); p 0800 0x0806
} y 0000 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(++p) is the same as *++p
0000 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 314
Pointers
Pre-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(++p); x[1] 0002 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + ++(*p); p 0802 0x0806
} y 0000 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(++p) is the same as *++p
0000 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 315
Pointers
Pre-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(++p); x[1] 0002 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + ++(*p); p 0802 0x0806
} y 0007 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(++p) is the same as *++p
0000 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 316
Pointers
Pre-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(++p); x[1] 0003 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + ++(*p); p 0802 0x0806
} y 0007 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(++p) is the same as *++p
0000 0x080C

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 317
Pointers
Pre-Increment / Decrement Syntax
Example
16-bit Data Memory
{ (RAM)
int x[3] = {1,2,3}; Address
int y; 0000 0x07FE
int *p = &x; x[0] 0001 0x0800

y = 5 + *(++p); x[1] 0003 0x0802

x[2] 0003 0x0804
y = 5 + ++(*p); p 0802 0x0806
} y 0008 0x0808
0000 0x080A
Remember:
*(++p) is the same as *++p
0000 0x080C

The parentheses determine what gets

incremented/decremented:
Modify the pointer itself

(++p) or ++p and (p++) or p++

Modify the value pointed to by the pointer

++(p) and (p)++

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 319
Pointers
Initialization Tip
If a pointer isn't initialized to a specific
address when it is created, it is a good
idea to initialize it as NUL (pointing to
nowhere)
This will prevent it from unintentionally
corrupting a memory location if it is
accidentally used before it is initialized
Example

int *p = NUL;
NULL is the character '\0' but NUL is the value of a
pointer that points to nowhere
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 320
Lab 11
Pointers and Pointer
Arithmetic

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab11\Lab11.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 322
Lab 11
Pointers and Pointer Arithmetic
Solution: Steps 1, 2 and 3
/*############################################################################
# STEP 1: Initialize the pointer p with the address of the variable x
############################################################################*/
//Point to address of x
p = &x;

/*############################################################################
# STEP 2: Complete the following printf() functions by adding in the
# appropriate arguments as described in the control string.
############################################################################*/
printf("The variable x is located at address 0x%X\n", &x);
printf("The value of x is %d\n", x);
printf("The pointer p is located at address 0x%X\n", &p);
printf("The value of p is 0x%X\n", p);
printf("The value pointed to by *p = %d\n", *p);

/*############################################################################
# STEP 3: Write the int value 10 to the location p is currently pointing to.
############################################################################*/
*p = 10;

/*############################################################################
# STEP 4: Increment the value that p points to.
############################################################################*/
//Increment array element's value
(*p)++;

printf("y[%d] = %d\n", i, *p);

/*############################################################################
# STEP 5: Increment the pointer p so that it points to the next item.
############################################################################*/
//Increment pointer to next array element
p++;

Pointers are variables that hold the

address of other variables
Pointers make it possible for the program
to change which variable is acted on by a
particular line of code
Incrementing and decrementing pointers
will modify the value in multiples of the
size of the type they point to

Normally, functions operate on copies of

the data passed to them (pass by value)
int x = 2, y = 0; Value of variable passed to function
is copied into local variable n
int square(int n);
{
return (n * n);
}

int main(void);
{ After Function Call: y=4
y = square(x); x=2
} x was not changed by function

Pointers allow a function to operate on the

original variable (pass by reference)
int x = 2 , y = 0; Address of variable passed to
function and stored in local
void square(int *n); pointer variable n
{
*n *= *n;
}

int main(void);
{ After Function Call: x = 4
square(&x); x was changed by function
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 327
Pointers and Functions
Passing Pointers to Functions

A function with a pointer parameter:

Example

int foo(int *q)

Must be called in one of two ways:
(assume: int x, *p = &x;)
Pass an address to the function so the address
foo(&x) may be assigned to the pointer parameter:
q = &x
Pass a pointer to the function so the address
foo(p) may be assigned to the pointer parameter:
q = p
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 328
Pointers and Functions
Passing Parameters By Reference
Example – Part 1

We know where
Swap function definition: you live!
void swap(int *n1, int *n2);
{
int temp;
Addresses of parameters
copied to local pointer
temp = *n1; variables: Function can
*n1 = *n2; now modify the original
*n2 = temp; variables via pointers.
}

Main function definition:

int main(void); Swap function prototype:
void swap(int *n1, int *n2)
{
int x = 5, y = 10;
int *p = &y; Tell function where
x and y live…
n1 = &x
swap(&x, p); n2 = p

while(1); After running program:

} x = 10
y=5

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 330
Pointers and Strings
So far, we have worked with strings
strictly as arrays of char
Strings may be created and used with
pointers much more elegantly
16-bit Data Memory (RAM)
String declaration with a pointer: Address

char *str = "PIC"; str 91C0 0x08C2

Implementation
varies depending on I P 49 50 0x91C0
compiler and
architecture used. \
\00 C 00 43 0x91C2

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 331
Pointers and Strings
When initialized, a pointer to a string
points to the first character:
char *str = "Microchip";
str

M i c r o c h i p \0
\0

str += 4

Increment or add an offset to the pointer to

access subsequent characters
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 332
Pointers and Strings
Pointers may also be used to access
characters via an offset:
char *str = "Microchip";
*str == 'M'

M i c r o c h i p \0
\0

*(str + 4) == 'o'
Pointer always points to "base address"
Offsets used to access subsequent chars
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 333
Pointers and Strings
Pointer versus Array: Initialization at Declaration
Initializing a character string when it is
declared is essentially the same for both a
pointer and an array:
Example: Pointer Variable Example: Array Variable

char *str = "PIC"; char str[] = "PIC";

or
char str[4] = "PIC";

The NULL character '\0' is automatically appended to

strings in both cases (array must be large enough).
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 334
Pointers and Strings
Pointer versus Array: Assignment in Code
An entire string may be assigned to a pointer
A character array must be assigned character by
character
Example: Pointer Variable Example: Array Variable

char *str; char str[4];

str = "PIC"; str[0] = 'P';

str[1] = 'I';
str[2] = 'C';
str[3] = '\0';

Must explicitly add NULL character '\0' to array.

If you want to test a string for equivalence,

the natural thing to do is:
if (str == "Microchip")
This is not correct, though it might appear
to work sometimes
This compares the address in str to the
address of the string literal "Microchip"
The correct way is to use the strcmp()
function in the standard library which
compares strings character by character
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 336
Pointers and Strings
Comparing Strings

strcmp() prototype:
Function Prototype

int strcmp(const char s1, const char s2);

strcmp() return values:

<0 if s1 is less than s2
0 if s1 is equal to s2
>0 if s1 is greater than s2

The strcmp() prototype is in

#include <string.h>

char *str = "Microchip";

int main(void)
{
if (0 == strcmp(str, "Microchip"))
printf("They match!\n");

An array of pointers is an ordinary array

variable whose elements happen to all be
pointers.

char *p[4];
This creates an array of 4 pointers to char
The array p[] itself is like any other array
The elements of p[], such as p[1], are
pointers to char

16-bit Data Memory

(RAM)
91C0
0000 O n \
\00
p[0] 91C0 91C3

p[1] 91C3 O f f \
\00
p[2] 91C7 91C7

p[3] 91CC M a i n \
\00
0000 91CC

0000 A u x \
\00
0000

A pointer array element may be initialized

just like an its ordinary variable
counterpart:

p[0] = &x;
Or, when working with strings:

p[0] = "My string";

To use the value pointed to by a pointer

array element, just dereference it like you
would an ordinary variable:

y = *p[0];
Using *p[0] is the same as using the
object it points to, such as x or the string
literal "My String" from the previous
slide

int i = 0;
char *str[] = {"Zero", "One", "Two",
"Three", "Four", "\0"};

int main(void)
{
while(*str[i] != '\0')
printf("%s\n", str[i++]);

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab12\Lab12.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

/*############################################################################
# STEP1: Pass the variable x to the function twosComplement such that the
# value of x itself may be changed by the function. Note: The function
# expects a pointer (address) as its parameter.
############################################################################*/
//Perform twos complement on x
twosComplement(&x);

/*############################################################################
# STEP 2: Pass the array 'a' to the function reverse1(). Use the constant
# ARRAY_SIZE for the second parameter.
# See definition of function reverse1() below.
############################################################################*/
//Reverse order of elements by passing array
reverse1(a, ARRAY_SIZE);

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 346
Lab 12
Pointers, Arrays, and Functions
Solution: Steps 3 and 4
/*############################################################################
# STEP 3: Pass a pointer to array 'a' to the function reverse2(). Use the
# constant ARRAY_SIZE for the second parameter.
# See definition of function reverse2() below.
# Hint: You do not need to define a new pointer variable to do this.
############################################################################*/
//Reverse order of elements by passing pointer
reverse2(a, ARRAY_SIZE);

/*############################################################################
# STEP 4: Complete the function header by defining a parameter called 'number'
# that points to an integer (i.e. accepts the address of an integer
# variable).
############################################################################*/
//void twosComplement(/*### Your Code Here ###*/)
void twosComplement(int *number)
{
*number = ~(*number); //Bitwise complement value
*number += 1; //Add 1 to result
}

Pointers make it possible to pass a

variable by reference to a function (allows
function to modify original variable – not a
copy of its contents)
Arrays are frequently treated like pointers
An array name alone represents the
address of the first element of the array

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 349
Function Pointers
Pointers may also be used to point to
functions
Provides a more flexible way to call a
function, by providing a choice of which
function to call
Makes it possible to pass functions to
other functions
Not extremely common, but very useful in
the right situations

A function pointer is declared much like a

function prototype:

int (*fp)(int x);

Here, we have declared a function pointer

with the name fp
The function it points to must take one int
parameter
The function it points to must return an int

A function pointer is initialized by setting

the pointer name equal to the function
name
If we declare the following:

int (*fp)(int x); //Function pointer

int foo(int x); //Function prototype

We can initialize the function pointer like this:

fp = foo; //fp now points to foo

The function pointed to by fp from the

previous slide may be called like this:

y = fp(x);

This is the same as calling the function

directly:
y = foo(x);

int x;
int foo(int a, int b); //Function prototype
int bar(int a, int b); //Function prototype

//Function definition with function pointer parameter

int foobar(int a, int b, int (*fp)(int, int));
{
return fp(a, b); //Call function passed by pointer
}

void main(void)
{
x = foobar(5, 12, &foo); //Pass address of foo
}

float integral(float a, float b, float (*f)(float))

{ bounds of integral function to be evaluated
float sum = 0.0;

∫
b
float x; y= f(x) dx
int n; a

//Evaluate integral{a,b} f(x) dx

for (n = 0; n <= 100; n++)
{
x = ((n / 100.0) * (b – a)) + a;
sum += (f(x) * (b – a)) / 101.0;
}
return sum;
}
Adapted from example at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_pointer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_pointer

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab13\Lab13.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

Compile and run the code:

22 Compile (Build All) 33 Run 44 Halt

2 Click on the Build All button.

3 If no errors are reported,

click on the Run button.

4 Click on the Halt button.

Three separate functions are integrated over the interval 0 to 1:

y1 = ∫x dx = ½ x2 + C [0,1] = 0.500000
y2 = ∫x2 dx = ⅓ x3 + C [0,1] = 0.335000
y3 = ∫x3 dx = ¼ x4 + C [0,1] = 0.252500
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 359
Lab 13
Function Pointers
Function to Evaluate: xsquared()

/*============================================================================
FUNCTION: xsquared()
DESCRIPTION: Implements function y = x^2
PARAMETERS: float x
RETURNS: float (x * x)
REQUIREMENTS: none
============================================================================*/
float xsquared(float x)
{
return (x * x);
}

/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Evaluate y2 = Int x^2 dx over the interval 0 to 1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
y2 = integral(0, 1, xsquared);

/*============================================================================
FUNCTION: integral()
DESCRIPTION: Evaluates the integral of the function passed to it over the
interval a to b.
PARAMETERS: interval end points a & b and function to integrate
RETURNS: integral of function f over interval a to b
REQUIREMENTS: none
SOURCE: Adapted from example at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_pointer
============================================================================*/
float integral(float a, float b, float (*f)(float))
{
float sum = 0.0;
float x;
int n;
//Evaluate integral{a,b} f(x) dx
for (n = 0; n <= 100; n++)
{
x = ((n / 100.0) * (b-a)) + a;
sum += (f(x) * (b-a)) / 101.0;
}
return sum;
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 361
Lab 13
Conclusions

Function pointers, while not frequently

used, can provide a very convenient
mechanism for passing a function to
another function
Many other possible applications exist
Jump tables
Accommodating multiple calling conventions
Callback functions (used in Windows)
Call different versions of a function under
different circumstances
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 362
Section 1.15
Structures

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 363
Structures
Definition
Structures are collections of variables grouped together
under a common name. The variables within a structure are
referred to as the structure’s members, and may be
accessed individually as needed.

Structures:
May contain any number of members
Members may be of any data type
Allow group of related variables to be treated
as a single unit, even if different types
Ease the organization of complicated data
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 364
Structures
How to Create a Structure Definition
Syntax

struct structName
{
type1 memberName1; Members are declared just
... like ordinary variables
typen memberNamen;
}

Example
// Structure to handle complex numbers
struct complex
{
float re; // Real part
float im; // Imaginary part
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 365
Structures
How to Declare a Structure Variable (Method 1)
Syntax

struct structName
{
type1 memberName1;
...
typen memberNamen;
} varName1,...,varNamen;

Example
// Structure to handle complex numbers
struct complex
{
float re;
float im;
} x, y; // Declare x and y of type complex
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 366
Structures
How to Declare a Structure Variable (Method 2)
Syntax
If structName has already been defined:
struct structName varName1,…,varNamen;

Example
struct complex
{
float re;
float im;
}
...
struct complex x, y; // Declare x and y of type complex
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 367
Structures
How to Use a Structure Variable
Syntax

structVariableName.memberName

Example
struct complex
{
float re;
float im;
} x, y; // Declare x and y of type complex

int main(void)
{
x.re = 1.25; // Initialize real part of x
x.im = 2.50; // Initialize imaginary part of x
y = x; // Set struct y equal to struct x
...
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 368
Structures
How to Create a Structure Type with typedef
Syntax
typedef struct structTagoptional
{
type1 memberName1;
...
typen memberNamen;
} typeName;

Example
// Structure type to handle complex numbers
typedef struct
{
float re; // Real part
float im; // Imaginary part
} complex;

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 369
Structures
How to Declare a Structure Type Variable
Syntax
If typeName has already been defined:
typeName varName1,…,varNamen;

The keyword struct is no longer required!

Example
typedef struct
{
float re;
float im;
} complex;
...
complex x, y; // Declare x and y of type complex
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 370
Structures
How to Initialize a Structure Variable at Declaration
Syntax
If typeName or structName has already been defined:
typeName varName = {const1,…,constn};
- or -
struct structName varName = {const1,…,constn};

Example
typedef struct
{
float re;
float im;
} complex;
...
complex x = {1.25, 2.50}; // x.re = 1.25, x.im = 2.50
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 371
Structures
Nesting Structures
Example
typedef struct
{
float x;
float y;
y
} point;
typedef struct point
(xb, yb) = (38.5, 17.8) b
{
point a;
point b; m
} line;
line
int main(void)
{ point
line m; a (xa, ya) = (1.2, 7.6)
m.a.x = 1.2;
m.a.y = 7.6; x
m.b.x = 38.5;
m.b.y = 17.8;
...
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 372
Structures
Arrays and Pointers with Strings
Strings:
May be assigned directly to char array
member only at declaration
May be assigned directly to a pointer to char
member at any time
Example: Structure Example: Initializing Members
struct strings int main(void)
{ {
char a[4]; str.a[0] = ‘B’;
char *b; str.a[1] = ‘a’;
} str; str.a[2] = ‘d’;
str.a[3] = ‘\0’;

str.b = “Good”;

typeName *ptrName;
- or -
struct structName *ptrName;

Example 1 Example 2
typedef struct struct complex
{ {
float re; float re;
float im; float im;
} complex; }
... ...
complex *p; struct complex *p;

ptrName->memberName
Pointer must first be initialized to point to the address of the
structure itself: ptrName = &structVariable;

Example: Definitions Example: Usage

typedef struct int main(void)
{ {
float re; p = &x;
float im; //Set x.re = 1.25 via p
} complex; //complex type p->re = 1.25;
... //Set x.im = 2.50 via p
complex x; //complex var p->im = 2.50;
complex *p; //ptr to complex }

typeName arrName[n];
- or -
struct structName arrName[n];

Example
typedef struct
{
float re;
float im;
} complex;
...
complex a[3];
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 376
Structures
Initializing Arrays of Structures at Declaration
If typeName or structName has already been defined:
Syntax
typeName arrName[n] = {{list1},…,{listn}};
- or -
struct structName arrName[n] = {{list1},…,{listn}};

Example
typedef struct
{
float re;
float im;
} complex;
...
complex a[3] = {{1.2, 2.5}, {3.9, 6.5}, {7.1, 8.4}};
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 377
Structures
Using Arrays of Structures
If arrName has already been defined:
Syntax
arrName[n].memberName

Example: Definitions Example: Usage

typedef struct int main(void)
{ {
float re; a[0].re = 1.25;
float im; a[0].im = 2.50;
} complex; ...
... }
complex a[3];

void display(complex x)
{
printf(“(%f + j%f)\n”, x.re, x.im);
}

int main(void)
{
complex a = {1.2, 2.5};
complex b = {3.7, 4.0};

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab14\Lab14.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

/*############################################################################
# STEP 1: Calculate the difference between maximum and minimum power in
# circuit 1 using the individual power structures (i.e. variables
# PMax1 & PMin1). Algebraic Notation:
# Pdiff = (Vmax * Imax) - (Vmin * Imin)
############################################################################*/
powerDiff1 = (PMax1.v * PMax1.i) - (PMin1.v * PMin1.i);
powerDiff2 = (PMax2.v * PMax2.i) - (PMin2.v * PMin2.i);
powerDiff3 = (PMax3.v * PMax3.i) - (PMin3.v * PMin3.i);

/*############################################################################
# STEP 2: Calculate the difference between maximum and minimum power in
# circuit 1 using the structure of structures (i.e. variable PRange1).
# Algebraic Notation: Pdiff = (Vmax * Imax) - (Vmin * Imin)
############################################################################*/
powerDiff1 = (PRange1.max.v * PRange1.max.i) - (PRange1.min.v * PRange1.min.i);
powerDiff2 = (PRange2.max.v * PRange2.max.i) - (PRange2.min.v * PRange2.min.i);
powerDiff3 = (PRange3.max.v * PRange3.max.i) - (PRange3.min.v * PRange3.min.i);

Structures make it possible to associate

related variables of possibly differing
types under the same name
Structure members (using the dot
notation) may be used anywhere an
ordinary variable would be used
Pointers to structures make it possible to
copy one entire structure to another very
easily

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Labs\Lab15\Lab15.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

/*############################################################################
# STEP 1: Multiply the real (re) part of each array element by 10
# HINT: Use *=
############################################################################*/
//Multiply re part of current array element by 10
x[i].re *= 10;

/*############################################################################
# STEP 2: Multiply the imaginary (im) part of each array element by 5
# HINT: Use *=
############################################################################*/
//Multiply im part of current array element by 5
x[i].im *= 5;

Arrays of structures allow groups of

related structures to be referenced by a
common name
Individual structures may be referenced by
the array index
Individual structure members may be
referenced by the dot notation, in
conjunction with the array name and index

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 388
Unions
Definition
Unions are similar to structures but a union’s members all
share the same memory location. In essence a union is a
variable that is capable of holding different types of data at
different times.

Unions:
May contain any number of members
Members may be of any data type
Are as large as their largest member
Use exactly the same syntax as structures
except struct is replaced with union
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 389
Unions
How to Create a Union
Syntax
union unionName
{
type1 memberName1;
...
typen memberNamen;
}
Example

// Union of char, int and float

union mixedBag
{
char a;
int b;
float c;
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 390
Unions
How to Create a Union Type with typedef
Syntax
typedef union unionTagoptional
{
type1 memberName1;
...
typen memberNamen;
} typeName;
Example

// Union of char, int and float

Union variables may be declared exactly

like structure variables
Memory is only allocated to accommodate
the union’s largest member
Example

typedef union 16-bit Data Memory (RAM)

Space allocated
{ for x is size of
char a; float 0x7FF
int b;
float c;
x 0x800
} mixedBag; 0x802
0x804
mixedBag x;

Union variables may be declared exactly

like structure variables
Memory is only allocated to accommodate
the union’s largest member
Example

typedef union 16-bit Data Memory (RAM)

x.a only
{
occupies the
char a; 0x7FF
int b; lowest byte of
float c; the union x 0x800
} mixedBag; 0x802
0x804
mixedBag x;

Union variables may be declared exactly

like structure variables
Memory is only allocated to accommodate
the union’s largest member
Example

typedef union 16-bit Data Memory (RAM)

x.b only
{
occupies the
char a; 0x7FF
int b; lowest two
float c; bytes of the x 0x800
} mixedBag; union 0x802
0x804
mixedBag x;

Union variables may be declared exactly

like structure variables
Memory is only allocated to accommodate
the union’s largest member
Example

typedef union 16-bit Data Memory (RAM)

x.c occupies
{
all four bytes of
char a; 0x7FF
int b;
the union
float c;
x 0x800
} mixedBag; 0x802
0x804
mixedBag x;

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab16\Lab16.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

/*############################################################################
# STEP 1: Set the int member of unionVar equal to 16877.
############################################################################*/
//Set intVar = 16877
unionVar.intVar = 16877;

/*############################################################################
# STEP 2: Set the float member of unionVar equal to 6.02e23.
############################################################################*/
//Set floatVar = 6.02e23
unionVar.floatVar = 6.02e23;

Unions make it possible to store multiple

variables at the same location
They make it possible to access those
variables in different ways
They make it possible to store different
variable types in the same memory
location(s)

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 400
Bit Fields
Definition
Bit Fields are unsigned int members of structures that
occupy a specified number of adjacent bits from one to
sizeof(int). They may be used as an ordinary int
variable in arithmetic and logical operations.

Bit Fields:
Are ordinary members of a structure
Have a specified bit width
Are often used in conjunction with unions to
provide bit access to a variable without
masking operations
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 401
Bit Fields
How to Create a Bit Field
Syntax
struct structName
{
unsigned int memberName1: bitWidth;
...
unsigned int memberNamen: bitWidth;
}
Example
typedef struct
{
unsigned int bit0: 1;
unsigned int bit1to3: 3; bitfield struct
unsigned int bit4: 1; may be declared
unsigned int bit5: 1; normally or as a
unsigned int bit6to7: 2; typedef
} byteBits;
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 402
Bit Fields
How to Use a Bit Field
Example
struct byteBits
{ Byte in Data Memory (RAM)
unsigned a: 1; 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
unsigned b: 1;
unsigned c: 2; x 11 11 11 00 11 00 00 11
unsigned d: 1;
unsigned e: 3; e d c b a
} x;

int main(void)
{
x.a = 1; //x.a may contain values from 0 to 1
x.b = 0; //x.b may contain values from 0 to 1
x.c = 0b10; //x.c may contain values from 0 to 3
x.d = 0x0; //x.d may contain values from 0 to 1
x.e = 7; //x.e may contain values from 0 to 7
}
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 403
Lab 17
Bit Fields

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab17\Lab17.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

Compile and run the code:

22 Compile (Build All) 33 Run 44 Halt

2 Click on the Build All button.

3 If no errors are reported,

click on the Run button.

4 Click on the Halt button.

/*----------------------------------------------------------------------------
VARIABLE DECLARATIONS
----------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
union {
char fullByte;
struct {
int bit0: 1;
int bit1: 1;
int bit2: 1;
int bit3: 1;
int bit4: 1;
int bit5: 1;
int bit6: 1;
int bit7: 1;
} bitField;
} bitByte;

bitByte.fullByte = 0x55;

bitByte.bitField.bit0 = 0;

bitByte.bitField.bit2 = 0;

bitByte.bitField.bit7 = 1;

Bit fields provide an efficient mechanism

to store Boolean values, flags and
semaphores in data memory
Care must be used if code size or speed is
a concern
Compiler will usually make use of bit set / bit
clear instructions
In some circumstances this isn't possible
(comparing bit values)

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 413
Enumerations
Definition
Enumerations are integer data types that you can create
with a limited range of values. Each value is represented by
a symbolic constant that may be used in conjunction with
variables of the same enumerated type.

Enumerations:
Are unique integer data types
May only contain a specified list of values
Values are specified as symbolic constants

Creates an ordered list of constants

Each label’s value is one greater than the
previous label
Syntax
enum typeName {label0, label1,…,labeln}
Where compiler sets label0 = 0, label1 = 1, labeln = n

Example

enum weekday {SUN, MON, TUE, WED, THR, FRI, SAT};

Label Values:
SUN = 0, MON = 1, TUE = 2, WED = 3, THR = 4 , FRI = 5, SAT = 6
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 415
Enumerations
How to Create an Enumeration Type

Any label may be assigned a specific value

The following labels will increment from
that value
Syntax
enum typeName {label0 = const0,…,labeln}
Where compiler sets label0 = const0, label1 = (const0 + 1), ...

Example

enum people {Rob, Steve, Paul = 7, Bill, Gary};

Label Values:
Rob = 0, Steve = 1, Paul = 7, Bill = 8, Gary = 9
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 416
Enumerations
How to Declare an Enumeration Type Variable
Declared along with type:
Syntax

enum typeName {const-list} varname1,…;

Declared independently:
Syntax

enum typeName varName1,…,varNamen;

Example

enum weekday {SUN, MON, TUE, WED, THR, FRI, SAT} today;

enum weekday someday; //day is a variable of type weekday

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 417
Enumerations
How to Declare a ‘Tagless’ Enumeration Variable
No type name specified:
Syntax
enum {const-list} varName1,…,varNamen;

Only variables specified as part of the enum

declaration may be of that type
No type name is available to declare additional
variables of the enum type later in code
Example

enum {SUN, MON, TUE, WED, THR, FRI, SAT} today;

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 418
Enumerations
How to Declare an Enumeration Type with typedef
Variables may be declared as type typeName
without needing the enum keyword
Syntax

typedef enum {const-list} typeName;

The enumeration may now be used as an

ordinary data type (compatible with int)

Example
typedef enum {SUN, MON, TUE, WED, THR, FRI, SAT} weekday;

weekday day; //Variable of type weekday

varName = labeln;

The labels may be used as any other symbolic constant

Variables defined as enumeration types must be used in
conjunction with the type’s labels or equivalent integer
Example

enum weekday {SUN, MON, TUE, WED, THR, FRI, SAT};

enum weekday day;

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab18\Lab18.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

Compile and run the code:

22 Compile (Build All) 33 Run 44 Halt

2 Click on the Build All button.

3 If no errors are reported,

click on the Run button.

4 Click on the Halt button.

filterTypes filter;

/*============================================================================
FUNCTION: main()
============================================================================*/
int main(void)
{
filter = BANDPASS;

switch (filter)
{
case BANDSTOP: BandStopFilter(); break;
case LOWPASS: LowPassFilter(); break;
case HIGHPASS: HighPassFilter(); break;
case BANDPASS: BandPassFilter(); break;
}

while(1);
}

Enumerations provide a means of

associating a list of constants with one or
more variables
Make code easier to read and maintain
Variables declared as enum are essentially
still int types

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 426
Macros with #define
Definition
Macros are text replacements created with #define that
insert code into your program. Macros may take parameters
like a function, but the macro code and parameters are
always inserted into code by text substitution.

Macros
Are evaluated by the preprocessor
Are not executable code themselves
Can control the generation of code before the
compilation process
Provide shortcuts
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 427
Macros with #define
Simple Macros

Text substitution as seen earlier

Syntax

#define label text

Every instance of label in the current file will be

replaced by text
text can be anything you can type into your editor
Arithmetic expressions evaluated at compile time
Example
#define Fosc 4000000
#define Tcy (0.25 * (1/Fosc))
#define Setup InitSystem(Fosc, 250, 0x5A)

Create a function-like macro

Syntax

#define label(arg1,…,argn) code

The code must fit on a single line or use '\' to split lines
Text substitution used to insert arguments into code
Each instance of label() will be expanded into code
This is not the same as a C function!
Example
#define min(x, y) ((x)<(y)?(x):(y))
#define square(x) ((x)*(x))
#define swap(x, y) { x ^= y; y ^= x; x ^= y; }

#define square(x) ((x)*(x))

Extreme care must be exercised when using macros.
Consider the following use of the above macro:
i = 5;
x = square(i++);
Results: Wrong Answers!
x = square(i++);
x = 30 2
i=7 2 expands to:
x = ((i++)*(i++));
So i gets incremented twice, not
once at the end as expected.

Open the project’s workspace:

On the lab PC
C:\MASTERS\11024\Lab19\Lab19.mcw

1 Open MPLAB® IDE and select Open

Workspace… from the File menu.
Open the file listed above.
If you already have a project open in
MPLAB IDE, close it by selecting
Close Workspace from the File menu
before opening a new one.

Compile and run the code:

22 Compile (Build All) 33 Run 44 Halt

2 Click on the Build All button.

3 If no errors are reported,

click on the Run button.

4 Click on the Halt button.

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 433
Lab 19
#define Macros
#define Macro Definition and Use
/*----------------------------------------------------------------------------
MACROS
----------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
#define square(m) ((m) * (m))
#define BaudRate(DesiredBR, FoscMHz) ((((FoscMHz * 1000000)/DesiredBR)/64)-1)

SPBRG = BaudRate(9600, 16);

printf("SPBRG = %d\n", SPBRG);
}

#define macros can dramatically simplify

your code and make it easier to maintain
Extreme care must be taking when crafting
a macro due to the way they are
substituted within the text of your code

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 435
Resources
A Selection of C Compilers
Microchip Technology MPLAB® C30 and MPLAB® C18
(Free 'student' versions available)
http://www.microchip.com
Hi-Tech PICC™, PICC-18™, C for dsPIC®/PIC24
http://www.htsoft.com
Custom Computer Services Inc. (CCS) C Compilers
http://www.ccsinfo.com
ByteCraft Ltd. MPC
http://www.bytecraft.com
IAR Systems Embedded Workbench
http://www.iar.com
Small Device C Compiler (Free)
http://sourceforge.net/projects/sdcc/
SourceBoost BoostC™
http://www.sourceboost.com/
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 436
Resources
Books – General C Language
The C Programming Language
2nd Edition (March 22, 1988)
Brian W. Kernighan & Dennis Ritchie
ISBN-10: 0131103628
ISBN-13: 978-0131103627

SAMS Teach Yourself C in 21 Days

6th Edition (September 25, 2002)
Bradley L. Jones & Peter Aitken
ISBN-10: 0672324482
ISBN-13: 978-0672324482

Beginning C From Novice to Professional

4th Edition (October 19, 2006)
Ivor Horton
ISBN-10: 1590597354
ISBN-13: 978-1590597354

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 437
Resources
Books – General C Language
Programming Embedded Systems
with C and GNU Development Tools
2nd Edition (October 1, 2006)
Michael Barr & Anthony Massa
ISBN-10: 0596009836
ISBN-13: 978-0596009830

Practical C Programming
3rd Edition (August 1, 1997)
Steve Oualline
ISBN-10: 1565923065
ISBN-13: 978-1565923065

Code Complete
2nd Edition (June 2004) Not about C
Steve McConnell specifically, but a
ISBN-10: 0735619670 must read for all
ISBN-13: 978-0735619678 software engineers

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 438
Resources
Books – PIC® MCU Specific
Programming 16-Bit PIC Microcontrollers in C
Learning to Fly the PIC24
1st Edition (March 16, 2007)
Lucio Di Jasio
ISBN-10: 0750682922
ISBN-13: 978-0750682923

Embedded C Programming and the Microchip PIC

1st Edition (November 3, 2003)
Richard H. Barnett, Sarah Cox, Larry O'Cull
ISBN-10: 1401837484
ISBN-13: 978-1401837488

PICmicro MCU C:
An Introduction to Programming the Microchip PIC in CCS C
2nd Edition (August 19, 2002)
Nigel Gardner
ISBN-10: 0972418105
ISBN-13: 978-0972418102
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 439
Resources
Books – Compiler Specific
MPLAB® C30 C Compiler User's Guide
Current Edition (PDF)
MPLAB® C30 Microchip Technology
Compiler
User’s Guide DS51284F
http://www.microchip.com

MPLAB® ASM30 LINK30 and Utilities User's Guide

Current Edition (PDF)
®
MPLAB ASM30,
LINK30 and
Microchip Technology
Utilities
User’s Guide DS51317F
http://www.microchip.com

The Definitive Guide to GCC

2nd Edition (August 11, 2006) MPLAB® C30 is
William von Hagen based on the
ISBN-10: 1590595858 GCC tool chain
ISBN-13: 978-1590595855
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 440
Resources
Books – Compiler Specific
MPLAB® C18 C Compiler User's Guide
Current Edition (PDF)
MPLAB® C18 Microchip Technology
Compiler
User’s Guide DS51288J
http://www.microchip.com

MPASM™ MPLINK™ and MPLIB™ User's Guide

Current Edition (PDF)
MPASM™
MPLINK™
Microchip Technology
MPLIB™
User’s Guide
DS33014J
http://www.microchip.com

The older books on C are much more relevant to embedded C

programming since they were written back when PCs and other computers
had limited resources and programmers had to manage them carefully.
© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 441
Thank you!

© 2007 Microchip Technology Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. 11024 EPC Slide 442
Trademarks
The Microchip name and logo, the Microchip logo, Accuron, dsPIC, KeeLoq,
KeeLoq logo, microID, MPLAB, PIC, PICmicro, PICSTART, PRO MATE, rfPIC
and SmartShunt are registered trademarks of Microchip Technology
Incorporated in the U.S.A. and other countries.
AmpLab, FilterLab, Linear Active Thermistor, Migratable Memory, MXDEV,
MXLAB, SEEVAL, SmartSensor and The Embedded Control Solutions
Company are registered trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated
in the U.S.A.
Analog-for-the-Digital Age, Application Maestro, CodeGuard, dsPICDEM,
dsPICDEM.net, dsPICworks, ECAN, ECONOMONITOR, FanSense, FlexROM,
fuzzyLAB, In-Circuit Serial Programming, ICSP, ICEPIC, Mindi, MiWi,
MPASM, MPLAB Certified logo, MPLIB, MPLINK, PICkit, PICDEM,
PICDEM.net, PICLAB, PICtail, PowerCal, PowerInfo, PowerMate, PowerTool,
REAL ICE, rfLAB, Select Mode, Smart Serial, SmartTel, Total Endurance,
UNI/O, WiperLock and ZENA are trademarks of Microchip Technology
Incorporated in the U.S.A. and other countries.
SQTP is a service mark of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A.
All other trademarks mentioned herein are property of their respective
companies.

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