EXPAERIMENT 1

Aim

To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a

resistor on the current (I) passing through it and determine
its resistance. Also, plot a graph between V and I.

Theory
Ohm’s law:- The potential difference V across the metallic wire is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its
temperature is constant.

V∝I.
∴ V=IR, where R is the resistance, which is constant for a given
metallic wire.

Materials Required

1. A battery
2. An insulated copper wire
3. A key
4. An ammeter
5. A voltmeter
6. A rheostat
7. A resistor
8. A piece of sandpaper

Circuit Diagram
Procedure

1. Arrange the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the devices with the connecting wires keeping the key open.
3. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive
terminal of the ammeter.
4. Before connecting the voltmeter in the circuit, check for +ve and -ve
terminals.
5. Check for ammeter and voltmeter reading once the circuit is connected
and also adjust the slider of rheostat after inserting the key.
6. For current I and voltmeter V, record three different readings using a
slider.
7. Record the observations in the observation table.
8. Using the formula R=V/I, calculate the resistance.
9. To plot the graph between V and I, take V on the x-axis and I on the y-
axis.
10.For pure metals, resistance increases with an increase in temperature.

Observation Table
i) Least count of ammeter and voltmeter
Ammeter Voltmeter
Sl.no
(A) (V)

1 Range 0-0.5 A 0-0.1 V

Least
2 0.01 A 0.01 V
count

ii) For the reading of ammeter and voltmeter

Current in Ampere
Potential difference in
(I) Resistance in
volts (V)
Sl.no (ammeter ohms
(voltmeter reading)
reading) R = V/I (Ω)

1 0.02 0.04 R1= 2Ω

2 0.03 0.06 R2= 2Ω

3 0.04 0.08 R3= 2Ω

Graph

Conclusions

1. For all the three readings, the R-value is the same and constant.
2. The ratio of potential difference V and current I is the resistance of a
resistor.
3. With the help of the graph between V and I, Ohm’s law is verified as the
plot is a straight line.

Precautions

1. Thick copper wires should be used as connecting wires and using

sandpaper, their insulation should be removed.
2. To avoid external resistance, the connections should be tight.
3. The connections should be as per the circuit diagram and should be
approved by the teacher before conducting the experiment.
4. The current should enter from the positive terminal and exit from the
negative terminal of the ammeter and it should be connected in series
with the resistor.
5. Resistor and voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
6. The least count of ammeter and voltmeter should be recorded properly.
7. When there is no current flow, the pointers of ammeter and voltmeter
should be at zero.
8. To avoid unnecessary heating in the circuit, the current should be passed
for a short time.
 EXPERIMENT 2 (A)
Aim

To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when

connected in parallel.

Theory:-If the resistors are connected in parallel along with a battery,

then

I = I1+I2+I3

Materials Required

1. A battery
2. A plug key
3. Connecting wires
4. An ammeter
5. A voltmeter
6. Rheostat
7. A piece of sandpaper
8. Two resistors of different values

Procedure

1. Make all the connections as shown in the experimental setup I by

keeping the key off.
2. Insert the key when the circuit is connected appropriately.
3. For resistors R1 and R2, note three readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
4. Connect the circuit as shown in the experimental setup II.
5. Resistors and voltmeter both are connected in parallel.
6. Record three readings of ammeter and voltmeter and use a rheostat.
7. Remove the key.
8. With the help of the observation table, do the calculations.
Observation Table
Mean value
Voltmeter Ammeter R=V/I
No.of of
Resistor used reading in reading in (in
observations resistance
Volts (V) Ampere (I) Ohm)
(Ohm)

a 0.01 0.01 1
R1 (first resistor) R1 = 1 ohm
b 0.02 0.02 1

a 0.02 0.01 2
R2 (second
R2 = 2 ohm
resistor) b 0.06 0.03 2

Rp=0.67
1/Rp=(1/R1)+(1/R2)
ohm
a 0.026 0.04 0.67
Parallel
1/Rp=1.5
combination
ohm

Precautions

1. The connecting wires used should be thick copper wire and using
sandpaper, the insulation at the end of the wires should be removed.
2. The connections should be tight to avoid introducing external resistance.
3. To make connections, the circuit diagram should be referred to.
4. To make the current entry from the positive terminal and exit from the
negative terminal, the ammeter should be connected in series.
5. Resistor and voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
6. The least count of ammeter and voltmeter should be calculated properly.
7. When there is no current flow, the ammeter and voltmeter should be at
zero.
8. To avoid heating and change the resistor’s resistance value, the current
should flow while taking the readings.
 EXPERIMENT 2(B)
Aim

To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when

connected in series.

Theory

Resistors are said to be connected in series if their ends are joined.

The potential difference across each resistor would be different, but
the current would be the same.

If two resistors are connected in series, then;

Resistance, R = R1+R2

Current, I = constant

Potential difference, V = V1+V2

On applying Ohm’s law, we get,

V1 = IR1

V2 +IR2

V = V1+V2

V = I(R1+R2)

∴ R = R1+R2

Materials Required

• Two resistors of different values

• A battery of 6 volts
• Ammeter
• Plug key
• Connecting wires
• A piece of sandpaper
• Voltmeter
• Rheostat
Circuit Diagram

Observation Table
Precautions

1. Voltmeter and resistor should always be in parallel.

2. The least count of voltmeter and ammeter should be calculated properly.
3. Connections should be as per the experimental setup.
4. When no current flows through the ammeter and voltmeter, the pointers
should be at zero.
5. The connecting wires that are used should be thick copper wire and
using sandpaper the insulation at the end of the wires should be
removed.
6. The connections should be tight to avoid introducing external resistance.
7. To avoid heating and change the resistor’s resistance value, the current
should flow while taking the readings.
 EXPERIMENT 3(A)
To Determine Focal Length of a Given Concave Mirror
Materials Required

1. A concave mirror
2. A measuring scale
3. A screen holder
4. A mirror holder
5. A mirror stand

Procedure

1. The distance between the selected distinct object should be more than
50 ft.
2. The concave mirror placed on the mirror stand and the distant object
should be facing each other.
3. The screen should be placed in front of the reflecting surface of the
mirror. To obtain a clear, sharp image the screen should be adjusted.
4. Using a metre scale the distance between the concave mirror and screen
can be determined. The distance is the same as the focal length of the
given concave mirror.
5. Repeat the above procedure thrice to calculate the average focal length.

Experimental Setup
Observation Table
Focal length = (M-
Position of concave mirror Position of screen S)
Sl.no
(M) (S)
cm
1 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

2 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

3 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

Result

10 cm is the focal length of the concave mirror.

Precautions

1. To get a well illuminated and distinct image of the distinct object, the
distant object should be well illuminated.
2. A concave mirror should be always placed near an open window.
3. The polished surface of the concave mirror and the distinct object should
be facing each other.
4. There should not be any hurdle between the rays of light from the object
and the concave mirror.
5. The screen and the concave mirror stand should be parallel to the
measuring scale.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be perpendicular to the
measuring scale.
 EXPERIMENT 3(B)
To determine focal length of a convex lens
Materials Required

1. A wooden bench
2. A convex lens
3. A lens holder
4. A screen fixed to a stand
5. A measuring scale

Experimental Setup

Procedure

1. Without disturbing the lens and screen, arrange both of them on the
wooden bench.
2. Place the lens on the holder facing a distant object.
3. Place the holder with the screen on the bench.
4. The position of the screen should be such that the sharp image of the
distant object is obtained on it.
5. The difference between the position of the lens and the screen is equal
to the focal length of the given convex lens.
6. Now shift the focus to towards various other distant object and calculate
the focal length of the convex lens.
Observation Table
Sl.no Position of convex lens (L) Position of screen (S) Focal length = (L-S) cm

1 60 cm 50 cm f1 = 10cm

2 60 cm 50 cm f2 = 10cm

3 60 cm 50 cm f3 = 10cm

Calculation

Result

10 cm is the focal length of the convex lens.

Precautions

1. The placing of the convex lens should be vertical.

2. There should not be any hurdle between the rays of light from the object
and the convex lens.
3. To get a well illuminated and distinct image of the distinct object, the
distant object should be well illuminated.
4. The convex lens stand and the screen should be parallel to the
measuring scale.
 EXPERIMENT 4
Aim

To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass

slab for different angles of incidence. Measure the angle of
incidence, angle of refraction, and angle of emergence, and interpret
the result.

Theory
the laws of refraction

• The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence, and the refracted
ray lie in the same plane.
• Snell’s law states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to
the sine of the angle of refraction is constant.

Materials Required

1. A drawing board
2. 4-6 all pins
3. White sheet of paper
4. Rectangular glass slab
5. A protractor
6. A scale
7. A pencil
8. Thumb pins
Ray Diagram
Conclusion

1. The angle of incidence and the angle of emergence are almost equal.
2. As the light is traveling from rarer to denser optical medium, the angle of
refraction will be lesser than the angle of incidence.
3. For different angles of incidence, the lateral displacement will remain the
same.
4. The light will bend towards the normal when it travels from an optically
rarer medium to an optically denser medium.

Precautions

1. The rectangular glass slab used should have perfectly smooth faces.
2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
4. All pins base should be in a straight line.
 EXPERIMENT 5
Aim

To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Theory
What Is a prism?

A prism is defined as a polyhedron with a triangular base and three

rectangular lateral surfaces. It is used as an optical object to study
the behaviour of white light when it is passed through it. The light
bends at various angles like an angle of incidence, angle of reflection,
angle of refraction, and angle of deviation.

angle of deviation:-The angle of deviation is defined as the angle

between the incident ray and the emerging ray.
Materials Required

Following are the list of materials required for this experiment:

• A white sheet
• Soft board
• Thumb pins
• 4-6 all pins
• Prism
• Pencil
• Scale
• Protractor
• Drawing board

Experimental Setup
Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place the triangular prism resting on its triangular base. Using a pencil,
draw the outline of the prism.
3. Draw NEN normal to the face of the prism AB. Make an angle between
30° and 60° with the normal.
4. On the line PE, fix two pins at a distance of 5cm from each other and
mark these as P and Q.
5. Look for the images of the pins at P and Q through the other face of the
prism AC.
6. Fix two pins at R and S such that they appear as a straight line as that of
the P and Q when it is viewed from the AC face of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the prism.
8. At point F, make the points R and S meet by extending them.
9. PQE is the incident ray which is extended till it meets face AC. SRF is the
emergent ray which is extended backward to meet at point G.
10.Now mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle
of emergence ∠e and the angle of deviation ∠D as shown in the
experimental setup.
11.Repeat the experiment for more angles between 30° and 60°.

Observations

1. At surface AB, the light ray enters and bends towards the normal on
refraction.
2. At surface AC, the light ray bends away from the normal as it travels from
one medium (glass) to the other (air).
3. The angle of deviation is observed. Here, the emergent ray bends at an
angle from the direction of the incident ray.

Conclusion

1. The incident ray bends towards the normal when it enters the prism and
while leaving the prism it bends away from the normal.
2. With the increase in the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation
decreases. After attaining the minimum value, it increases with an
increase in the angle of incidence.

Precautions

• For drawing the boundary of the prism, a sharp pencil should be used.
• Soft board and pointed pins should be used.
• The distance between the pins should be 5cm or more.
• The pins should be fixed vertically and should be encircled when they are
removed from the board.
• The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.