City Basic

DesignMechanical Engineering

Dr. R. Vaira Vignesh

Assistant Professor (Selection Grade) – Research Track
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering – Coimbatore
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham (Coimbatore Campus)

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Second Law of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics
▪ Energy is a conserved property – no process is known to have taken
place in violation of first law

▪ Process must satisfy first law to occur

▪ However, satisfying first law alone does not ensure that process
will actually take place

▪ Instance 1: Heating of coffee through the heat available in room

▪ Instance 2: Generating electricity from the heat available in the room

▪ Instance 3: Paddle-wheel mechanism

▪ Processes proceed in a certain direction and not in reverse direction

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Second Law of Thermodynamics
▪ First law – no restriction on the direction of a process

▪ But, satisfying the first law does not ensure that the process can actually occur

▪ Inadequacy of the first law to identify whether a process can take place is remedied by introducing another
general principle, the second law of thermodynamics

▪ Second law provides the necessary means to determine the quality as well as degree of degradation of
energy during a process

▪ Second law also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity

▪ Preserving quality of energy – major concern to engineers

Conclude: Process cannot occur unless it satisfies both the first and second laws of thermodynamics

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Second Law of Thermodynamics
▪ Determine theoretical limits for performance
of commonly used engineering systems heat
engines and refrigerators

▪ Predict degree of completion of chemical

reactions

Reverse processes – violate second law of

thermodynamics

Violation – easily detected with help of a

property, called entropy

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Thermal Energy Reservoirs
▪ Hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity – supply or absorb finite amounts of heat
without undergoing any change in temperature – thermal energy reservoir
▪ Large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as the atmospheric air – modeled accurately
as thermal energy reservoirs

▪ Because of their large thermal energy storage capabilities or thermal masses

▪ Instance 1: Atmosphere – does not warm up as a result of heat losses from residential buildings in winter
▪ Instance 2: Megajoules of waste energy dumped into large rivers by power plants do not cause any
significant change in water temperature
▪ Reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat – source
▪ Reservoir that absorbs energy in the form of heat – sink

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Kelvin–Planck Statement
▪ Even under ideal conditions, a heat engine must reject
some heat to a low temperature reservoir in order to
complete the cycle

▪ No heat engine can convert all the heat it receives to

useful work
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.

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Heat Engine, Heat Pump, Refrigerator
Heat Engines
▪ Work – converted to heat directly and completely ?

▪ Converting heat to work requires use of some special devices

▪ Devices are called heat engines

▪ Receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil
furnace, nuclear reactor)

▪ Convert part of this heat to work (usually in form of a rotating

shaft)

▪ Reject remaining waste heat to low-temperature sink

(atmosphere, rivers)

▪ Operate on a cycle
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Heat Engines
▪ Heat engines and other cyclic devices usually involve a fluid
(also called working fluid) to and from which heat is
transferred while undergoing a cycle

▪ Work-producing device that best fits into the definition of a

heat engine – steam power plant, which is an external-
combustion engine

▪ Combustion takes place outside the engine, and thermal

energy released during this process is transferred to steam as
heat

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Heat Engines
▪ Net work output of this power plant is simply the difference between the total work output of plant and
total work input

▪ Net work can also be determined from heat transfer data alone

▪ Thermal Efficiency

▪ Cyclic devices of practical interest such as heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps operate between a
high-temperature medium (or reservoir) at temperature TH and a low-temperature medium (or reservoir)
at temperature TL

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Heat Engines
▪ Uniformity to the treatment of heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps, we define these two quantities

▪ QL and QH – magnitudes and therefore are positive quantities

▪ Thermal efficiency is a measure of how efficiently a heat engine converts the heat that it receives to work

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Problems and Discussions

An experimentalist claims to have raised the temperature of a small amount of water to 150°C by transferring
heat from high-pressure steam at 120°C. Is this a reasonable claim? Why? Assume no refrigerator or heat
pump is used in the process.

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Problems and Discussions

Consider the process of baking potatoes in a conventional oven. Can the hot air in the oven be treated as a
thermal energy reservoir? Explain.

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Problems and Discussions

Is it possible for a heat engine to operate without rejecting any waste heat to a low-temperature reservoir?
Explain.

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Refrigerators
▪ Transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a
high-temperature one requires special devices –
refrigerators

▪ Refrigerators – cyclic devices

▪ Working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle – refrigerant

▪ Most frequently used refrigeration cycle – vapor-

compression refrigeration cycle

▪ Four main components: a compressor, a condenser, an

expansion valve, and an evaporator

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Refrigerators
▪ Refrigerant enters compressor as a vapor

▪ Compressed to the condenser pressure

▪ Leaves the compressor at a relatively high temperature

▪ Cools down and condenses as it flows through the coils of the condenser by
rejecting heat to surrounding medium

▪ Enters a capillary tube where its pressure and temperature drop

drastically due to the throttling effect
▪ Low-temperature refrigerant then enters the evaporator, where it
evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space

▪ Cycle is completed – refrigerant leaves evaporator and reenters compressor.

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Refrigerators
▪ Household refrigerator

▪ Freezer compartment – heat absorbed by the refrigerant serves as

the evaporator

▪ Coils, usually behind the refrigerator where heat is dissipated to the

kitchen air, serve as the condenser

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Refrigerators
▪ Efficiency of a refrigerator – expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance (COP)

▪ Objective of refrigerator – remove heat (QL) from refrigerated space

▪ Value of COPR – greater than unity

▪ Amount of heat removed from refrigerated space can be greater than the amount of work input

▪ Contrast to the thermal efficiency

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Heat Pumps
▪ Device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high
temperature one – heat pump

▪ Measure of performance of a heat pump – expressed in terms of the

coefficient of performance

▪ Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on the same cycle but differ in
their objectives

▪ Accomplished by absorbing heat from a low-temperature source, such

as well water or cold outside air in winter, and supplying this heat to the
high-temperature medium such as a house

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Clausius Statement
Related to refrigerators or heat pumps

▪ It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a

cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of
heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-
temperature body

▪ Clausius statement – does not imply that a cyclic device

that transfers heat from a cold medium to a warmer one is
impossible to construct

▪ Household refrigerator is in complete compliance –

Clausius statement of the second law

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Problems and Discussions

Determine the COP of a refrigerator that removes heat from the food compartment at a rate of 5040 kJ/h for
each kW of power it consumes. Also, determine the rate of heat rejection to the outside air.

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 Problems and Discussions

An air conditioner removes heat steadily from a house at a rate of 750 kJ/min while drawing electric power at
a rate of 6 kW. Determine (a) the COP of this air conditioner and (b) the rate of heat transfer to the outside
air.

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Problems and Discussions

A heat pump with a COP of 2.5 supplies energy to a house at a rate of 60,000 Btu/h. Determine (a) the electric
power drawn by the heat pump and (b) the rate of heat absorption from the outside air.

1 HP = 2545 BTU/hr

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Problems and Discussions

A household refrigerator runs one-fourth of the time and removes heat from the food compartment at an
average rate of 800 kJ/h. If the COP of the refrigerator is 2.2, determine the power the refrigerator draws
when running.

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Reversible and Irreversible Process
▪ No heat engine has 100% efficiency – Second law of thermodynamics

▪ Highest efficiency that a heat engine can possibly have?

▪ Define an idealized process first – called reversible process

▪ Reversible process – can be reversed without leaving any trace on

the surroundings

▪ System and surroundings – returned to their initial states at end

of the reverse process

▪ Possible only if the net heat and net work exchange between
system and surroundings is zero

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Reversible and Irreversible Process
▪ Reversible processes actually do not occur in
nature

▪ Merely idealizations of actual processes

▪ Approximated by actual devices, but they can

never be achieved
▪ Irreversible processes – surroundings usually do
some work on the system and therefore do not
return to their original state

▪ Reversible processes – viewed as theoretical limits

for the corresponding irreversible ones

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Irreversibilities
▪ Factors – cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities

▪ Friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat transfer

across a finite temperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic
deformation of solids, and chemical reaction
▪ Friction – familiar form of irreversibility associated with bodies in
motion

▪ Two bodies in contact are forced to move relative to each other

▪ Friction force that opposes the motion develops at the interface of

these two bodies

▪ Some work is needed to overcome this friction force

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Irreversibilities
▪ Energy supplied as work – eventually converted to heat during the
process and is transferred to the bodies in contact

▪ Evidenced by a temperature rise at the interface

▪ Direction of the motion is reversed

▪ Bodies are restored to their original position

▪ Interface does not cool, and heat is not converted back to work

▪ Instead, more of the work is converted to heat while overcoming

the friction forces that also oppose the reverse motion
▪ System (the moving bodies) and surroundings cannot be returned to
their original => irreversible process
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 ▪ [email protected]

Thank You ▪ [email protected]

▪ sites.google.com/site/rvairavignesh
▪ www.amrita.edu/faculty/r-vairavignesh
The contents and images in the presentation are obtained from internet or articles or books that may be protected by copyright. The
presentation is distributed freely but only for classroom instruction or the use of students. The presentation may not be retained or
disseminated. Any further use of this material may be in violation of Exceptions To Infringement Under Copyright Act, 1957 (Government
of India)

Please do not remove the credit line on the title page and republish the file as your own, in whole or in part.