J. Ind. Geophys.

Union ( January 2007 )

Vol.11, No.1, pp.1-28
REVIEW ARTICLE

Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

B.S.R.Murthy
Deputy Director General (Geophysics)-Retd., GSI,
273 Indraprastha Colony, Baghamberpet, Hyderabad – 500 013

I. INTRODUCTION II. A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE TECHNIQUES

Airborne Geophysics is a powerful means available to The methodology for airborne geophysical surveys is
the earth scientist for investigating very large areas basically similar to their ground counter part with the
rapidly. The broad view of the earth that the airborne following differences. (a) The airborne instruments
perspective provides has been well recognised since the have to be more sensitive as the signal will be weaker
early days of balloon photography and military due to the increased distance from the source (b) The
reconnaissance. Compared with ground-based measurements are more complex since it becomes
methods, airborne techniques offer the advantages of necessary to eliminate errors from various external
rapid acquisition of data at scales that are suitable for influences (such as the electrical and magnetic
many geophysical problems. Further, airborne surveys disturbances from the aircraft etc.) and (c) elaborate
provide the capability of traversing regions that are instrumentation is required for position location and
otherwise difficult or impossible to cover. Airborne data recording
methods are advantageous for surveys over areas that There are three chief airborne geophysical
are physically accessible but that have social, procedures utilising magnetic, electromagnetic, and
economic, or political barriers or environmentally radiometric methods while a fourth one, airborne
hazardous. gravity, has also become an acceptable technique from
Systematic and precise airborne geophysical surveys the past decade or so. Airborne magnetic method has
may be said to have started immediately after the been established as a cheap and powerful tool for
Second World War with the development of an mapping strongly magnetic (primarily basement)
airborne fluxegate magnetometer by Vacquir (Dobrin structures. Improvements in instrument resolution
1952). By about 1955 countries such as the USA, and acquisition techniques have allowed for the
Canada, Austarlia etc began using the airborne utilization of the airborne magnetic methods for
magnetometer systematically. In the following years mapping the weakly magnetic intra-sedimentary
several contracting companies made considerable R & structures and other minor features also. Airborne
D effort to develop capabilities for meeting the precise electromagnetic surveys are conducted utilizing either
requirements for airborne surveys. The 1960s saw the the frequency or time domain techniques. Their
deployment of proton precession magnetometer for principal utility used to be directly searching for
aeromagnetic surveys and utilization of Doppler economic metallic conductors but latter found
navigational aids for more accurate position fixing. application as a geological mapping tool also. Airborne
There has also been considerable growth with regard radioactive measurements of gamma rays originally
to radiometric surveys by deploying multi-channel applied for uranium and thorium exploration have
instruments for obtaining data on ground latter shown much higher potential as a mapping and
concentrations of potassium, thorium and uranium. mineral exploration tool because of the developments
The air borne geophysical techniques have undergone in data acquisition and processing techniques. Though
continuous development including transition to digital it is not possible to deal the subject of methodologies
technology and refinement of the surveying methods in detail in this review, a brief outline of the different
in the 1980s and 1990s. In the case of airborne techniques is relevant and recounted here.
electromagnetic method (AEM) the numerous
configurations that existed in the initial stages were II-1. AIRBORNE MAGNETICS
considerably reduced and only two types of systems
are mainly in vogue now. Major applications of airborne In 1940-41 Victor Vacquier of Gulf Research and
geophysics in the past decade have seen an increase Development Company perfected a sensitive magnetic
in emphasis for environmental, and engineering saturation type of sensor element for airborne surveys
applications, including hazard mapping. (Reford and Sumner 1964). Also known as fluxgate

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B.S.R.Murthy

magnetometer, this sensor formed the heart of the area (sometimes called the magnetic latitude of the
anti-submarine airborne device, Magnetic Airborne area), and the geological strike that is significant for
Detector (MAD) and could measure magnetic fields the investigation.
as low as 10-5 oersteds. Gulf Company later, in 1946, The preferred flight line direction would be north
modified the MAD to make it more suitable for - south if the anomalies in the area were distributed
airborne geophysical surveys. randomly. Because regional surveys are conducted over
The next advancement for aeromagnetic very large areas usually containing various geological
instrumentation was in the 1950s when Varian strike directions, a north - south traverse line
Associates developed the Proton Precession orientation is usually preferred for aeromagnetic
Magnetometer, which was first used for airborne surveys. On the other hand, if the survey area is
surveys in 1956 (Gimlet 1957). The Proton known to contain a pronounced geological strike
magnetometer measures the total field with a direction and the magnetic latitude is either very high
sensitivity of 1 nT. This is followed by the optical or very low it may be advantageous to orient the
absorption type magnetometers (Cesium, Rubidium traverse line direction perpendicular to the geological
or Helium), which have come to airborne use by the strike direction. The advantages of this orientation
early 1960s (Greet & Malnar 1963). These arise because many of the significant magnetic features
magnetometers can measure the total magnetic field arise from linear features like dykes and or faults, and
up to a sensitivity of 0.01 nT and mostly employed by orienting the traverse lines at right angles to these
for airborne work in recent years including magnetic features, we can be confident that only a very few
gradient measurements. anomalies may be missed by the selected flight lines.
The airborne magnetometer had initial success in When dealing with an assemblage of magnetic
discovering mineral deposits. However, it was soon sources the resolution is related to a ratio of the
realized that aeromagnetic anomalies were too common sensor height above the source to the line spacing.
to be all investigated as possible mineral deposit targets In hard rock environments, the sensor height will
and that the main application of aeromagnetic surveys usually be the distance from the sensor to the surface;
was as an important aid to geological mapping for however in areas covered by sediments or other non-
indirect exploration, and for estimating depth and magnetic material, this height will be the flight height
structure of sedimentary basins thus providing plus the thickness of the overlying non-magnetic
valuable information for hydrocarbon exploration. sediments. As a rule of thumb, the line spacing should
equal the sensor height for complete definition of the
II-1. (a) Aeromagnetic Survey Design anomalous magnetic field. However, economic
considerations may require larger line spacing. Control
Three of the most important factors to be specified lines are flown to allow leveling of the survey data.
for any airborne geophysical survey are the flight In small surveys, at least three control lines should
height, the traverse line separation and the traverse be flown at right angles to the traverse line direction.
line orientation (direction). For aeromagnetic surveys, In large surveys, control lines should be spaced at
the selection of line direction depends on two main intervals of five to ten times the traverse line spacing.
considerations, the magnetic inclination in the survey A typical flight path lay out is shown in Fig 1.

Figure 1. An ideal flight path layout

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 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

II-1. (b) Aeromagnetic Data Processing On-site processing not only provides an excellent
means of quality control but also yields map results for
In any area of survey the magnetic picture ideally immediate evaluation, planning and decision-making.
required is a snap-shot of the magnetic field at all
locations at the same instant of time - with the II-1. (c) Aeromagnetic Data Presentation
earth’s regional magnetic field removed. As this cannot
be directly obtained the acquired aeromagnetic data has The two dimensional display of data is the most
to be processed to achieve a data quality as near as common method of viewing and interpreting, because
possible to the ideal situation. For this purpose the of the ease of use and the ability to superimpose other
data processing procedure involves a series of steps types of parametric data. There are several ways for
such as creation of a database for efficient data 2-D display of data, viz, contour maps, colour filled
management, flight path recovery and plotting, leveling contours, coloured maps and finally images. The now
and fine leveling using base station magnetometer data available digital data compilation using state of the art
and control lines. The final step in the data processing software and hardware takes visualisation of survey
is removal of earth’s normal magnetic field from the results from its original status contour maps after
observed values (IGRF correction) and preparation of several days of hard manual work to attractive images
two-dimensional corrected data grid for presenting the on the same day of data acquisition (Fig 2).
data in profile and contour maps etc. While profile This capability can even serve the role of same-day
maps are useful for some interpretation methods, a quality control of survey operations; if the data will
two-dimensional map, usually contoured and coloured, stand up to the rigours of computer enhancement and
is required to fully interpret the data in the majority image processing, then the quality is okay (Reeves,
of magnetic surveys. However, it is important to keep Reford & Milligan 1997).
in mind that the two dimensional type of Realising the advantages of image presentation
presentation is a result of considerable degradation most of the archived old data are now getting retrieved
and interpolation of the data. This is in spite of the for giving a re-look at them in its latest form. Due to
most advanced and powerful techniques because of the the large volumes, aeromagnetic data were not
unavoidable problem of most disproportionate density generally archived as listings. Instead, they were often
of data along and across the flight lines (for example, preserved as anomaly contour maps that represent a
one at 10m along to one at 500m across) filtered (decimated) version of the original data.
Before the availability of high speed, portable Digitising of map data will not recover the lost high
personal computers, all data compilation was done long frequency component but if digitising is carried out
after survey flying was complete involving weeks of along original flight lines it is possible to enhance the
waiting to see the first map products. With the advent quality of the final data set by applying micro-leveling
of the integrated airborne geophysical systems and PC techniques to minimize flight line related noise. This
based “in field” geophysical data compilation system, gives less accurate values than digitizing along the
now data can be compiled in the field on a daily basis. actual recorded profiles, but it still allows line-leveling

Figure 2. Example of aeromagnetic data presentation, colour map(Left) and enhanced image (Right)

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B.S.R.Murthy

techniques to be applied. In some cases the contour Cowan & Cowan 1991; Qui 1994; Zevan & Pous
maps were as a result of careful hand contouring by a 1991; Li & Oldenburg 1996; Reid et al., 1990).
geophysicist. This becomes valuable as it involves an
implicit geological interpretation. II-1. (e) Aeromagnetic gradiometry
In spite of the attractive image maps with various
enhancements like directional filters etc., it must be Aeromagnetic gradiometry is advancement over the
kept in mind that the profile form of the original data regular aeromagnetic surveys that measure the total
has a value of its own. In its image form, one is only field. Measurement of lateral and vertical gradients of
working with a interpreted subset of the real data set magnetic field intensity can add a new dimension to
which is contained in the one dimensional profile high-resolution aeromagnetic surveys in shallow
information. The profile data is harder to work with basement areas. The magnetic gradiometers have
but as usual there is no substitute for hard work if become fully effective owing to the hardware
one is interested in getting the most out of a data set. developments, particularly the highly sensitive optical
pumping magnetometers (specifically the cesium vapour
II-1. (d) Aeromagnetic Interpretation type) and efficient compensation devices for aircraft
maneuver noise. The various aspects of aeromagnetic
Interpretation of aeromagnetic (or any geophysical) gradiometer surveys are well studied and reviewed by
data basically involves two exercises. Firstly, the several experts in this field (for example, Cowan &
behaviour of the geophysical data and the physical Mc Bigent 1995; Hardwick 1996; Slack, Lynch & Lanyen
nature of the anomaly picture are to be ascertained. 1967).
Secondly, the geological significance of the geophysical Practical advantages of measured gradients include
indications has to be interpreted. The first type is elimination of diurnal problems and improved spatial
generally straight forward that involves identifying resolution of small shallow sources. Transient signals
various recognisable patterns directly from the map have the same effect on the magnetic sensors so the
or using mathematical techniques to enhance various effects are cancelled out in the gradients. The diurnal
characteristics of the observed data and relate them free total magnetic intensity can then be reconstructed
to possible physical causes relevant to the distribution by integrating the gradient data. The magnetic
of the particular property of the source of the gradiometer data effectively enhance the smaller scale,
phenomena. For example, enhancing a magnetic trend shallow anomalies while suppressing the longer
on a map, and explaining it in terms of a source of wavelength anomalies from deep-seated sources. In
2-D geometry such as a fault or dyke. The second, addition measurement of transverse horizontal gradient
type of interpretation requires much more in-depth provides extra information between flight lines, leading
and careful study so that the geophysical interpretation to a reduction in flight line dependence of the
is properly correlated with the geological data to derive magnetic anomalies and decreasing aliasing effects.
maximum benefit from the geophysical survey. While Since magnetic gradiometers represent additional
translating the aeromagnetic anomaly map into a investment in equipment and considerable
meaningful geological interpretation one should bear incremental effort in assuring aircraft magnetic
in mind some important facts regarding magnetism cleanliness careful consideration should be given to
of rocks. The conditions that increase rock selecting effective configuration. Considering all the
magnetization, either increasing magnetic susceptibility facts, the transverse horizontal gradient system
or creating new magnetite , are (Grant 1985) mechanical (mounted on wing tips) appears to be superior to the
deformation, repeated metamorphism and high other configurations (Hardwick 1996). Vertical gradient
temperature hydrous alteration (serpentinisation). On measurement system does not seem to be very useful
the other hand, conditions that decrease rock magnetism as the data will be inferior to that derived from a grided
by destroying magnetite are low temperature alteration total field data and may have artifacts also. Higher
(carbonatisation, chloritisation, sericitisation), extreme resolution of anomalies is obtained by lateral gradient
oxidation (including chemical weathering and leaching) measurements and makes possible identification of a
and granitisation / metasomatism 2-D structure from a single flight line data.
In a nutshell, the aeromagnetic maps are first Measured magnetic gradients do provide useful
interpreted to identify the source distribution and information and are a valuable addition to any
subsequently explaining them in terms of geology and aeromagnetic survey. The gradient systems and
structure. Several authors have discussed various data processing techniques currently available have already
enhancement and analytical techniques for qualitative made a significant impact that will likely redefine the
and quantitative interpretation (Roest, Verhoef & aeromagnetic standards and expectations of the
Pilkington 1992; MacLeod, Jones & Fan Dai 1993; future.
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 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

II-2. AIRBORNE ELECTROMAGNETICS (AEM) 1961). Alternately, both system elements were rigidly
attached to the aircraft at a fixed separation from each
The successful test flight in 1948 in Canada of a other so that both the in phase and out of phase
wooden aircraft with an EM transmitter on the components of the secondary field were measured. In
fuselage and a towed bird receiver can nominally be these frequency domain systems, the weak secondary
considered as the origin of airborne electromagnetic field from the conducting target was measured in the
method (Fountain 1998). The topic of Airborne EM presence of the strong direct or primary field from the
is very well documented and there are quite a few transmitter. Various schemes for bucking the primary
excellent review papers on AEM published over the field at the receiver were implemented in order to
years that have thoroughly explored the development comply with the limited dynamic range of the
of airborne EM methods from their earliest days (e.g., electronics and to detect the secondary field. For any
Collett 1986; Palacky 1991; Barringer 1987; Becker, of these schemes there is an obvious advantage in
Barringer & Annan 1987; Paterson 1971, 1973; separating the transmitter (T) as far as possible from
Pemberton 1962; Ward 1966, 1970). Like their ground the receiver (R) so that the primary field is weakened
based counter part, the airborne EM systems also – increasing the T-R spacing L from 1 m to 10 m
measure the secondary electromagnetic field from causes the primary field at the receiver to decrease by
currents induced in conducting bodies by either active a factor of 1000. The secondary field changes vary little
primary sources wherein the primary field is generated with increased coil separation (L) if the sub-system
by the system itself or passive sources which use depth of the target, (d), is greater than this dimension.
existing man made or natural sources (i.e. world wide This rationale led to the development of a number of
thunderstorms). Figure 3 shows the scheme of fixed - wing aircraft systems where the transmitters
airborne electromagnetic survey, employing an active and receivers were affixed to the wing tips in a coplanar
source techniques can be further classified as mode or, in the coaxial mode to fore and aft booms,
frequency domain or time-domain. which served to extend the fuselage length. Carried
to extremes, this idea resulted in the two-plane
II-2. (a) Frequency Domain System: system where each element was carried in a separate
aircraft (Tornquist 1958).
Airborne electromagnetic systems in the frequency The development of helicopter-borne (or heliborne)
domain were first developed in Canada and EM systems proceeded apace with the fixed wing
Scandinavia to find electrically conductive sulfide ore equipment. Present day apparatus (such as the
deposits. The early systems operated at one or more DIGHEM operated by Geoterrex Ltd) is based on one
fixed frequencies with the transmitter and receiver or more transmitter - receiver pairs that are attached
coils attached in various ways to a fixed wing aircraft. to a rigid boom, which is rigged for smooth towing.
When the receiver was located in a towed “bird” only Initially, these machines were built to survey in
the out of phase or quadrature component of the regions inaccessible to fixed-wing systems. Today,
secondary magnetic field could be measured (Paterson however, towed-boom helicopter systems have a strong

Figure 3. Schematic principle of AEM method

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B.S.R.Murthy

Figure 4. Heliborne FDEM and Boom with coil systems (Left) Heliborne TDEM (Right)

share of the AEM utilization because of good in excess of 150 m subsurface. A number of field tests
performance, logistic advantages and competitive as well as some numerical model studies of targets
operating costs. Since heliborne systems are flown in free space, attested to the superiority of this system
close to the surface and use a small coil separation, for deep exploration. Modern versions of the INPUT
they are very useful for high resolution mapping of system now known as Transient EM systems are
shallower mining targets and for many geological presently the mainly employed electromagnetic
applications where a surface conductivity map is the systems for fixed wing airborne surveys.
survey objective. These systems usually operate AEM systems were first developed to detect
simultaneously at a number of distinct frequencies discrete isolated conductors (i.e massive sulphide ore
and offer a choice of coplanar or coaxial coil bodies). However, their use has evolved to include
configurations (Fig 4). conductivity mapping, the approach appropriate to
hazard mapping. Depth penetration of electromagnetic
II-2. (b) Time Domain System: waves is inversely proportional to the square root of
the conductivity x frequency product. Thus lower
In 1960, working along different principles, A.R. frequencies have greater depth penetration than
Barringer introduced the time domain INPUT higher, and by using different frequencies, to calculate
(INduced PUlse Transient) system. In this technique, conductivity of a half space or two layer model, the
the transmitter creates a pulsed magnetic field and the conductivity calculated for lower frequencies can be
secondary fields are measured in the off time between inferred to include a contribution from deeper material
pulses. The coil configuration is asymmetric with the than the corresponding model calculated from higher
transmitter in the form of a horizontal loop arranged frequencies. Conductivity can therefore be mapped in
as a rhomboid from nose to wing tips to tail and a both horizontal and vertical directions. For time
horizontal axis receiver towed about 60 m below and domain systems, the later channels correspond to
100 m behind the aircraft in a nearly maximum lower frequencies and therefore greater depths, while
coupled configuration. In the resistive terrains for the earlier channels correspond to shallower depths.
which this system was developed, the large separation The actual degree of ground penetration for a given
and high moment resulted in an exceptional signal- system is dependent on power of the transmitter and
to-noise ratio and demonstrated target detection depths the geometry and other parameters of the system.

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 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

However, frequency domain systems are usually two types of AEM systems are generally in use (i)
limited to the top hundred meters or so, depending Multi-frequency multi-coil helicopter systems (ii) High
on the conductivity. Time domain systems tend to power, broad band fixed wing EM systems operating
have deeper penetration but at the expense of in the Time Domain.
resolution.
Helicopter borne Time domain Systems are also II-2. (d) AEM Data Presentation
now developed which have an advantage of deeper
penetration and thus more effective in areas of large The results of an AEM survey are presented in a
thickness of overburden. Figure 4 shows the scheme variety of formats. The most common practice is to
of both the systems. present the EM anomaly locations plotted on the
flight path maps, or as an overlay over a magnetic map,
II-2. (c) Airborne Electromagnetic responses together with a coding indicating anomaly strengths
and certain parameters derived by computer-modeling
The general objective of AEM (Airborne the anomaly sources as vertical sheets.. The data can
Electromagnetic) surveys is to conduct a rapid and also be presented as profile maps. The FDEM profiles
relatively low-cost search for metallic conductors, e.g. may show the in-phase and quadrature components
massive sulphides, located in bedrock and often under of complimentary co-axial and co-planar frequency
a cover of overburden. This method can be applied in pairs plotted as coloured profiles on the flight path.
most geological environments except where the The TDEM profiles may show the secondary field
country rock is highly conductive or where overburden amplitudes at all, or more commonly at a few judicially
is both thick and conductive. It is equally well-suited selected, time channels. For the helicopter borne
and applied to general geologic mapping, as well as to towed boom high resolution FDEM systems the data
a variety of environmental problems. may also be presented as a coloured map of the
Conductivities of geological materials range over apparent resistivity with embedded contours calculated
seven orders of magnitude, with the strongest EM from the coplanar or coaxial EM data. Such a map
responses coming from massive sulphides, followed shows the apparent ground resistivity assuming the
in decreasing order of intensity by graphite, ground to be of uniform conductivity both laterally
unconsolidated sediments (clay, tills, and gravel/sand), and vertically. These maps are helpful in outlining
and igneous and metamorphic rocks. Consolidated conductive overburden and showing discrete bedrock
sedimentary rocks can range in conductivity from the conductors.
level of graphite (e.g. shales) down to less than the
most resistive igneous materials (e.g. dolomites and II-2. (e) AEM Interpretation:
limestones). Fresh water is highly resistive. However,
when contaminated by decay material, such as lake Interpretation of AEM data mainly consists of a
bottom sediments, swamps, etc., it may display systematic examination of the profile data to
conductivity roughly equivalent to clay and when it is demarcate promising anomalies / anomaly zones. The
saline to graphite and sulphides. Conductive targets can next step is the analysis of the more promising
be masked or concealed by responses from other anomalies using a vertical sheet as the conductor
geological conductors (termed as “geological noise”) model. This is normally carried out using a computer
such as lateral variations in conductive overburden, program, after the local base level for estimating
graphitic bands in metamorphosed country rock, altered anomaly amplitudes has been carefully determined.
(to clay facies) mafic-ultramaific rocks, faults and shear- Anomaly selection is done by judiciously using the
zones carrying appreciable groundwater and/or clay gouge shape of calculated models of various conductors like
and magnetite bands in serpentinised ultramafics. vertical sheets, flat lying surficial sheets, etc.
The Present day demand for AEM systems is for Nomograms also exist by which similar analysis can
those which can measure the response of a broad be made from profile data. Both procedures produce
variety of geological formations in a wide conductivity estimates of conductance, called the conductivity-
band such that they find utility in indirect exploration thickness product (which is the product of the
for economic minerals by mapping surface conductivity of the tabular source and its thickness),
conductivity of the earth and in problems related to and the depth to the source from the sensor. The
environmental degradation. Thus from the late 1980s sensor height, as recorded by the radar altimeter, is
the “anomaly hunting” type exploration philosophy then subtracted from the depth to give an apparent
has slowly faded out giving place to employing the depth below ground (Palacky 1981; Collet 1986; Palacky
AEM as conductivity mapping tool.. Currently only 1989).

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B.S.R.Murthy

Some interactive computer programs have also electromagnetic data. There are various other techniques
been developed and made commercially available that made available for AEM interpretation (for example,
allow the interpreter to “pick” the anomalies directly Eaton & Hohman 1989; Liu & Asten 1993).
from a display on the computer screen and It is also stressed that inversion of airborne
immediately see the results of the conductance/depth electromagnetic data is a difficult problem (Ellis 1998)
calculation. This permits the interpreter to alter both due to several reasons. Firstly, like most geophysical
the map scale and the profile data scale quickly to inverse problems, the AEM inverse problem with a
insure that all features, regardless of amplitude, are finite number of noisy data is ill posed – the geo-
fully assessed. While the process described above does electric property of the earth cannot be uniquely
produce very useful information about the relative determined. Secondly, as this is a nonlinear relation
importance of various anomalies in the EM data, it between geo-electric property of the earth and observed
has certain severe limitations due to the idealistic AEM anomaly, the inverse problem is nonlinear and
assumptions made such as steeply dipping thin sheet requires iterative solutions. Thirdly, the forward
like bodies, non-conducting host rock etc. Moreover, solution required by the iterative methods is itself a
removal of background value from the response of the difficult and time-consuming problem for 2.5D and
overburden will not be accurate and becomes 3D models. Fourthly, AEM is characterized by
subjective. enormous quantities of data and anomalies also. To
The use of fast, approximate algorithms and generate unique solutions a-priori information must
stitched 1D inversions to transform either TEM or be added to the inverse problem. Joint inversion of
FEM data into conductivity-depth images has proved the data from complementary geophysical surveys will
invaluable in the interpretation of AEM data. At least be helpful.
six approaches for time-domain data have been
published and three or more algorithms are in use for II-3. AIRBORNE GAMMA RAY SURVEYS
helicopter frequency-domain EM. Conductivity depth
images provide not only a visual separation between Gamma ray sensors detect natural radioactive
near-surface and deep conductors, but they also provide emanations, called gamma rays, from rocks and soils.
a tool for rapid estimation of layer thickness. This All detectable gamma radiation from earth materials
presentation method has transformed AEM methods comes from the natural decay products of only three
from a “bump-hunting” tool used at the prospect scale, elements, i.e. uranium, thorium, and potassium. In
to a mapping tool (Fraser 1976). parallel with the magnetic method, that is capable of
Several workers in this field have dealt detecting and mapping only magnetite (and
interpretation of airborne electromagnetic data. Monks occasionally pyrrhotite) in soils and rocks, so the
and Asten (1993) developed a software package that radiometric method is capable of detecting only the
allows interactive display and manipulation of survey presence of U, Th, and K at and near the surface of
data, forward and inverse modeling and the ground. Typical Radio-element concentrations in
characterisation of anomalies. Bergeron, Loup & some common earth materials is shown in the
Michel (1989) applied complex image theory to airborne following Table (adopted from Hansen 1980).

Rock Class U (ppm) Th (ppm) K(%)

Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range
Acid Intrusives 4.5 0.1 - 30.0 25.7 0.1 - 253.1 3.4 0.1 - 7.6
Intermediate Intrusives 3.2 0.1 - 23.4 12.2 0.4 - 106.0 2.1 0.1 - 6.2
Basic Intrusives 0.8 0.01 - 5.7 2.3 0.03 - 15.0 0.8 0.01 - 2.6
Ultrbasic 0.3 0.0 - 1.6 1.4 0.0 - 7.5 0.3 0.0 - 0.8
Alkali Feldspathoidal Intermediate 55.8 0.3 - 720.0 132.6 0.4 - 880.0 4.2 1.0 - 9.9
Alkali Feldspathoidal Basic Intrusives 2.3 0.4 - 5.4 8.4 2.8 - 19.6 1.8 0.3 - 4.8
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 3.6 0.03 - 26.7 14.9 0.03 - 132.0 0.6 0.02 - 8.4
Carbonates 2.0 0.03 - 18.0 1.3 0.03 - 0.8 0.3 0.01 - 3.5
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 4.8 0.1 - 80.0 12.4 0.2 - 362.0 1.5 0.01 - 9.7
Metamorphosed Igneous Rocks 4.0 0.1 - 148.5 14.8 0.1 - 104.2 2.5 0.1 - 6.1
Metamorphosed Sedimentary Rocks 3.0 0.1 - 53.4 12.0 0.1 - 91.4 2.1 0.01 - 5.3

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 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

The ‘Geiger counter’ was the original radiation surveys and 200m to 500m for detailed surveys.
detector, recording the total count rate from all energy Further, radiometric sensors require regular calibration
levels of radiation. Ionization chambers and Geiger of sensitivities.
counters were used first in field in the 1930’s and their The acquired data is first subjected to three
subsequently developed models were the principal corrections (i) subtraction of cosmic, aircraft and
instruments used for uranium prospecting for many radon backgrounds (ii) stripping corrections to remove
years. In the early 1960’s, a portable gamma-ray effects of Compton scattering and (iii) attenuation
spectrometer was designed and constructed at the corrections to remove variations from nominal survey
Geological Survey of Canada and McGill University. flying height before the conversion of counts to
With proper calibration, this spectrometer was capable equivalent ground concentrations using sensitivities,
of providing chemical concentrations of potassium, (Grasty, Glynn & Grant 1985).
uranium & thorium. The Geiger counter has evolved Gamma-ray spectrometry data are represented by
into a sophisticated 256-channel spectrometer that can the four variables, the total count, potassium, K (%),
be tuned to measure radiation from specific elements equivalent uranium, eU (ppm) and equivalent
By the late 1960s a team of scientists of the thorium, eTh (ppm). Although potassium
Geological Survey of Canada designed and developed concentration is measured directly, ground
a multi-channel radiometric instrument with its concentrations of uranium and thorium are obtained
performance revolutionizing the practice of airborne indirectly from measurements of daughter products,
gamma-ray spectrometry, making it possible to do hence the term ‘equivalent’ is used for U and Th
‘geochemistry from the air’. This development of the values. The ratio values eU/eTh, eU/K (ppm/%), eTh/
gamma-ray spectrometer and its introduction into K (ppm/%) are also derived from the data which are
aircraft systems (requiring a significant increase in crystal useful in the final interpretation.
volume) marked a new era in airborne geophysics. The
International Atomic Energy Agency subsequently II-3. (b) Gamma Ray Data Presentation
recommended the calibration standards and data
reduction procedures that were established from this The airborne radiometric data used to be presented
project for worldwide use (Bristow 1979; Grasty 1970, as contour maps separately for the three elements,
1985; Darnley 1991; Darnley & Ford 1987). potassium, uranium and thorium as well as the total
The state of the art airborne gamma ray count. But now taking advantage of the computer
spectrometer surveys have become highly versatile and technology it has become more common to present
valuable for many applications. Some of these are (i) the data in the form of ternary maps.
As a reconnaissance geologic mapping tool in most A ternary map is made by assigning one of the
areas, as changes in the concentration of the three primary colours to each of the element abundances.
radioelements U, Th., and K accompany most major For example, Thorium is assigned green, Uranium is
changes in lithology. (ii) Identification of primary blue and Potassium is red. The total count rate is
geological processes such as the action of mineralizing used to assign an intensity scale to each of the
solutions or metamorphic processes and secondary elements and the resulting colours are then combined
geological processes like supergene alteration and to produce a coloured map. Thus, bright blue areas
leaching that may be indicated by variations in radio- on the map show areas where the uranium count is
element concentrations (iii) For directly detecting the very high relative to both of the other element count
presence of uranium. rates; bright red indicates areas of high potassium
count rate, etc. Colours other than the three primary
II-3. (a) Gamma Ray Data Acquisition colours indicate areas with various well defined
proportions of Th, U, and K. Generally, the different
While many of the survey design considerations for colours on the map correspond closely with different
radiometric surveys are similar to those applicable to rock types when compared with geological samples
magnetic surveys, there are some significant collected on the ground. In fact, the ternary map has
differences. The most obvious difference is in proven to be so useful that, along with contour maps
acceptable flight elevation, i.e. while a flight elevation of the total count and of each of the element
of 300 meters may be acceptable when flying a abundances, it has become a standard method of
magnetic survey, it would be far too high for presenting airborne radiometric data. Fig 5 shows a
radiometric surveys. Airborne radiometric surveys are typical example of a ternary image. Geologically the
typically flown at a planned terrain clearance of 120 area is part of a typical Archaean craton over a region
m, with flight line spacing of 1000m for regional where the basement is comprised of granites, gneiss

11
B.S.R.Murthy

Figure 5. An example of ternary image of gammaray apectrometer data ove an Archaean craton province

complexes and greenstone belts consisting of mafic of gamma-ray spectrometry data requires the
and ultramafic rocks, banded iron formations and examination of all of the measured variables and
sediments. associated derived products. Ratio maps can enhance
In simplistic terms, the gamma-ray spectrometric or reinforce subtle variations in the measured
response shown in the ternary image shown in the variables. U increases in a general way – ultrabasic to
above figure can be classified as follows: Red (K): basic to acidic. K – Th relation is significant as
regions associated with exposed granitic bedrock. indicator of geological processes and points to
Green (Th): various ferruginous materials at the chalcophyle as well as lithophyle mineralisation. U
surface. Blue (U): calcrete, calcareous sediments and and Th being lithophyle elements they can serve as
soils. Black to brown:(Low in K, Th and U): dry in- pathfinders for Li and rare earth element groups.
situ soil and exposed bedrock. These areas correspond Poriphery copper often associated with K-enrichment
to greenstones and some sand plains. White to in host rocks. Increase in K concentration and raise
yellowish (High K, Th, U}: geomorphic active areas in Th/K ratio points to zinc mineralisation and
with exposed weathered granite and sediments derived auriferous sulphides. Fall in U/Th points to areas of
from granite. carbonotite and kimberlite occurrence possibility
In suitable areas, i.e., areas with reasonably low
II-3. (c) Gamma Ray Interpretation soil moisture content, maps of the ratios are useful
as aids in mapping the surface geology of the area.
Potassium (K), uranium (U) and thorium (Th) are the Galbraith & Saunders (1983), demonstrated that
three most abundant, naturally occurring radioactive radiometric classification of formation data and
elements. Potassium is a major constituent of most outcrop data into lithological categories can be
rocks and is a common alteration element in certain accomplished. In such type of exercises the ternary
types of mineral deposits. Uranium and thorium are maps are particularly valuable.
present in trace amounts, as mobile and relatively Airborne gamma-ray maps reflect the geochemical
immobile elements, respectively. As the concentration variations of K, U and Th in the upper 30cm of the
of these different radioactive elements varies between earth's surface. This thin layer is subject to
different rock types, the information provided by a weathering which leads to the loss of the radio-
gamma-ray spectrometer may be used to map the elements. Mineralising process may also alter
rocks. Where the ‘normal’ radioactive element radioelement content. K may increase in altered rocks.
signature of a host rock is altered by a mineralizing Th may show increase or decrease during
system, corresponding radioactive element anomalies hydrothermal alteration. Detailed interpretation of
provide direct exploration guidance aerial gamma-ray survey requires the delineation of
Often, depending on the complexity of the geology, major geological units and examination of subtle
subtle variations in K, U and/or Th may not be readily variations with the aid of other data (Charbonneau &
apparent. For these reasons, the proper interpretation Ford 1979).

10
 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

It is extremely important to remember that Subsequently other and more advantageous

terrestrial gamma rays emanate from the ground methods have been developed (Malcolm et al 2000).
surface, not from depth. A few inches of overburden, A gravity sensor installed on a moving platform
including soil, are sufficient to absorb 100% of the measures the sum of gravity and inertial acceleration
emissions from the rocks beneath. Therefore, unlike of the system in the aircraft. Interferences caused by
the aeromagnetic method, the radiometric method is inertial acceleration on a normal survey flight can
capable of yielding information only on what lies at show 100 – 1000 times the amplitude of the wanted
the ground surface. The merit of radiometrics is as a signal of a measured, geologically caused gravity
geological mapping device that has the ability to variation, depending on the filtering of the data. The
provide chemical information on rock outcrop by inertial acceleration, however, can be deduced from the
remote sensing. Even though residual soils, which movement of the aircraft. The flight path has to be
have not been moved, retain only some of the determined by a non-inertial system, like satellite-
radioactive elements that were present in their parent supported GPS. Thus, the reduction of the vertical
rocks, their relative abundances tend to remain acceleration and the influence of the horizontal
indicative of the parent, and thus the underlying accelerations are important components of data
parent rock can sometimes be mapped through a thin processing and for this purpose ultra-modern GPS
layer of residual soil. receivers and advanced DGPS post processing software
are employed. Airborne gravimeter has become a viable
II-4. AIRBORNE GRAVITY SURVEYS tool in the last 10-12 years because of the development
of methods of precise aircraft positioning, and efforts
Measurements of gravity at discrete points on ground continue to reduce the error in this technique. Figure
surface and continuously recording it over the sea by 6 shows a schematic of airborne gravity survey.
ship borne gravimeter has been in practice for a long The airborne gravimeter consists of two main
time. Airborne gravimetry is an important new components: a gyro-stabilized platform with the gravity
technique within this field. Considerable effort has sensor and the rack with control electronics and power
gone into the development of an instrument system supply. Furthermore, the rack contains a high
suitable for airborne surveys, which have definite performance computer for control and data recording,
advantages as already mentioned. In order to carry out a computer-controlled precision multiple altimeters
gravity measurements also from the air, by helicopter and the GPS receivers. As an example, Sander
or airplane, initially the proved marine gravimeter has Geophysics (SGL) has developed an airborne gravimeter
to be further modified so that it can also be used as system that uses three orthogonal accelerometers
a part of an airborne gravimetric measuring mounted on a three-axis, gyroscopically stabilized
system(Schwarz & Wei 1994; Vallient 1992; Olesen, platform. The system, called AIRGrav (Airborne
Forsberg & Gidskehang 1997). Inertially Referenced Gravimeter), was designed

Figure 6. Schematic of Airborne gravity Survey

11

15
B.S.R.Murthy

specifically for airborne use (Sander et al., 2005). This Corporation, USA. Subsequently in 1953-54, the
has resulted in an instrument with significant Assam Oil Company conducted aeromagnetic surveys
advantages over the modified sea gravimeters in the upper Assam valley and its western extension
commonly used for airborne surveying; the main benefit (Tejpur and Mangaldai areas) and Mikir Hills area. The
of the new instrument is that it is more stable in total coverage involved was about 37,000 sq.km with
attitude and less subject to noise from horizontal a fluxgate magnetometer flown at heights of 2000’ and
accelerations. During survey operations, accelerations 4000’ above MSL respectively. The surveys produced
in an aircraft can reach a value, equivalent to 100,000 contour maps with intervals of 50 nT to 200 nT. Later,
mGal. Data processing must extract gravity data from in 1956, the government of India got about 30,000
this very dynamic environment. This is achieved by lkm covered by aeromagnetic surveys over Ganga Valley
modeling the movements of the aircraft in flight by and part of Rajasthan desert, flown by Spartan Air
extremely accurate GPS measurements. Dual Services Ltd., Canada (Crompton 1959; Sankarnarayan
frequency GPS receivers are employed on the aircraft 1975).
and in ground reference stations used for differential Contractual surveys mentioned above apart,
GPS processing. Figure 7 represents a comparison of building up of indigenous capability for airborne
ground and the airborne gravity data from test airborne geophysical surveys was initiated in India in the mid
gravity survey (Sander et al 2005). The image on the fifties itself. The Atomic Minerals Division (now
left is based on older ground gravity data. These data Atomic Minerals Directorate - AMD) of the
have been upward continued 500 m and filtered with Department of Atomic Energy occupies the pioneering
a 5300 m low-pass filter to match the airborne position of making the earliest attempts in making
parameters as closely as possible. The image on the earliest attempts for developing indigenous airborne
right presents the airborne gravity data. surveys capability in the country. With a fabricated
version of airborne scintillometer, a recording radio
III. EMERGENCE OF AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICS altimeter and a 35 mm tracking camera mounted on
IN INDIA a ‘Dominic’ aircraft, AMD covered about 1,26,000 lkm
of radioactivity total count surveys in the country
India also was not far behind in adopting aero during 1957-62 (Saraswat 1967). In the following years
geophysical technology and initiated the endeavor in AMD’s continued R&D effort in the field has resulted
the early 1950s that witnessed rapid progress since in achieving tangible progress from its humble
then. Chronologically, the first airborne geophysical beginning and their indigenous data acquisition
survey in India was the aeromagnetic survey conducted system has become internationally comparable (Kak,
as early as 1951-52 by the SADVOC Company. These Bhairam & Dwivedi 1997). The airborne survey
surveys involved production flying of about 24000 lkm activity of AMD since early 1960s resulted in the
with an airborne fluxegate magnetometer in parts of coverage of nearly 500,000 lkm of multi-spectral
West Bengal, Tripura and Orissa by M/S Fairchild Aero radiometric data (Fig 8).

Figure 7. Comparision of Ground Gravity (Left) and Bouguer gravity(Right) After Sander et al 2005

12
 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

Figure 8. Airborne radiometric and magnetic coverage by AMD since 1960 (From AMD web page)

The next indigenous attempt for developing for airborne data acquisition, processing and
airborne geophysical survey facility was by the National interpretation (Suryanarayan, Bhattacharyya &
geophysical research Institute (NGRI) in 1966. Kamaraju 1996). From early 1980s to mid 1990s, the
Suitably modifying an ELSEC proton precession NRSA conducted airborne magnetic surveys for the
magnetometer (imported from UK) for airborne work national programme of Regional Aeromagnetic coverage
and borrowing a recording altimeter, a scintillometer of the country, which was sponsored by the Geological
and a 35mm recording camera from AMD, Survey of India (GSI).
experimental airborne surveys were conducted by In the mean while, in 1967, government of India
NGRI during 1967 over the iron ore belt of coastal undertook a project that heralded an eventful chapter
Karnataka. These surveys involved in the coverage of of airborne geophysical surveys over the shield areas
3250 sq km area with 2200 lkm of flying. Following of the country. This effort also resulted in the creation
their initial success, NGRI under took several of a new department, Airborne Mineral Surveys and
aeromagnetic surveys sponsored by the State Exploration (AMSE) by the government, which
governments of Karnataka, MP and UP. The subsequently got merged with the GSI in the early
institute’s airborne geophysical capability underwent 1970s. In the 1967 endeavor of government of India,
continuous development and a rubidium vapour there were two programmes of multi-sensor airborne
magnetometer and an transient EM system (modified surveys for basemetal exploration. The first was
INPUT system), both indigenously built by NGRI, “Operation Hard Rock” (OHR) carried out with the
along with a McPhar made 4 channel gamma ray assistance of the United States Agency for
spectrometer was in use by 1974 (Sankarnarayan 1975). International Development (USAID). The second was
Next in chronological order in the domain of implemented through Bureau De Recherches
indigenous effort comes the National Remote Sensing Geologique et Minieres and Compagnie Generale De
Agency (NRSA), which started airborne geophysical Geophysique (BRGM-CGG) of France. Later from the
surveys in 1975 in a modest way. NRSA, when it late 1970s GSI undertook several airborne survey
initiated the programme, used single engine Beaver projects in the country with data acquisition carried
aircraft and proton precession magnetometer. In due out on sponsorship basis by NGRI and NRSA . A
course it absorbed the technological developments in summary of these surveys are reproduced in the
this field for establishing a modern adequate facility following table (from GSI’s website)

13

7
B.S.R.Murthy

Project/Year Nature of Survey/Area Instruments/Line spacing/height

LKm/Sq.Km
Operation Multisensor surveys in parts of A.P., Bihar, Proton Precession Magnetometer,
Hard Rocks/1967-68 Rajasthan and West Bengal INPUT, FDEM, Gamma ray Total
1,44,462/90,395 count500m / 130m
BRGM/CGG/1971-72 Multisensor surveys in parts of Gujarat, Proton Precession Magnetometer,
1,43,507/76,460 Karnataka, M.P., Maharashtra and Rajasthan INPUT, Gamma ray Total count
500m/130m
Narmada-Son Aeromagnetic survey by NGRI for GSI Rubidium vapour magnetometer
Lineament (NSL) in parts of Bihar, Gujarat, M.P., 1km/120m
Project/1978-79 Maharashtra and U.P.
37,338/90,924
Op. Anantapur/1979-81 Aeromagnetic survey by NGRI for GSI in Rubidium vapour magnetometer
33,040/29,300 parts of A.P. and Karnataka 1 km/120m
Op. Cuddapah/1981-82 Aeromagnetic survey by NGRI for GSI in Rubidium vapour magnetometer
24,630/22,760 parts of A.P. 1km/120m
National Aeromagnetic High altitude aeromagnetic survey by NRSA Proton Precession and Cesium
Survey Mission/1980-95 for GSI in the area south of 240 N vapour magnetometers4 km/5000’,
3,73,189/13,68,894 (excluding Deccan Trap area) 7000’ & 9500’ above MSL

The GSI has thus made substantial progress in other accessories for processing data and generating
the deployment and utilisation of airborne geophysical different data products like contour maps, profiles,
surveys for aiding geological mapping and mineral etc.
exploration. The total regional aeromagnetic coverage The GSI’s airborne system, excluding the
by GSI through NGRI, NRSA as well as their own electromagnetic unit TRIDEM, has been subsequently
system is about 16,50,000 sq.km up graded during 1998-99. The upgradation consists
of installation of Mac-3 airborne cesium magnetometer
IV. GROWTH OF INDIAN AEROGEOPHYSICAL and a PGAM-1000 gamma ray spectrometer. These
CAPABILITIES have been integrated to function under a PDAS-1000
data acquisition system which also houses a plug-in
IV.1. GSI procures a state-of-the-art system processing modules for the magnetometer, multi-
channel spectrometer and DGPS. This upgraded data
During the mid 1980s, after a few years of acquiring acquisition system is supported by upgraded
airborne geophysical data through contractual surveys, Geophysical Mapping Center which is currently
GSI decided to have its own full capability including equipped with state-of-the-art PC based hardware and
trained manpower by procuring a multisensor airborne software packages for data processing and producing
geophysical survey equipment along with a dedicated contour maps, imagery etc as well as for interpretation
aircraft. The GSI’s airborne system was purchased as (Krishna Rao & Ramachandra 2001). The Twin Otter
a comprehensive package from M/S Scintrex Ltd. of Airborne Multi-sensor geophysical survey system of
Canada, on a turnkey project basis. The multisensor GSI has so far conducted surveys in about 25
system consists of a cesium vapour magnetometer identified blocks in India for exploring for basemetals
unit, a three frequency vertical co-planar (new deposits and extensions of existing ones) in
electromagnetic unit – TRIDEM, and a 50 liter Mamandur in Tamilnadu, Aldahalli in Karnataka,
crystal, 256 channel gamma ray spectrometer, a Agucha, Hindoli and Bhilwara areas in Rajasthan, for
Doppler navigation system, a digital data recorder on gold in Gadag, Kolar-Kadiri-Ramgiri schist belts in
magnetic tapes and a video flight path recovery system Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, chromite in Sukinda-
along with other accessories. The equipment was Baripada areas of Orissa, PGE deposits in Deobhog
fitted on a De Heviland Twin Otter aircraft (Fig 9). and Kotri in Madhya Pradesh and diamond. These
Supporting this a Geophysical Mapping Centre apart, the Twin Otter system was employed for
(GMC) has been established, equipped with a VAX regional aeromagnetic surveys in a few identified areas
11/750 computer system and software packages and for aiding hydrocarbon exploration.
14

8
 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

TRIDEM
Rx

MAG

TRIDEM
Tx
RADIOMETRIC AND
OTHER SYSTEM UNITS
INSIDE

Figure 9. GSI’s Twin Otter geophysical Survey System(from GSI’s website)

Multisensor (BR GM)

Aeromagnetic (NGRI)
Multisensor by GSI
National coverage (NRSA)
Aeromagnetic by GSI
Multisensor (OHR)

Figure 10. Aerogeophysical soverage by Geological Survey of India (after Krishna Rao and Ramachandra, 2001)

Fig 10 presents the total aerogeophysical coverage IV.2. NRSA upgrades its equipment
by GSI that includes earlier sponsored surveys as well
as the surveys conducted by its own system. The GSI During the early 1990 the NRSA upgraded its
is further strengthening its airborne geophysical survey aeromagnetic capability by procuring the latest
capability and is currently in the process of procuring equipment. Their new aeromagnetic instrument is
a helicopter-borne multi sensor geophysical survey installed in a Super King Air 8-200 aircraft with the
system with four sensors capable of making time sensor attached to the aircraft tail boom. The airborne
domain electromagnetic, gravimetric, magnetic and system comprises a high sensitivity Cesium
gamma ray spectrometric measurements. (from GSI's Magnetometer from M/s Scintrex, Canada, with
website) associated electronics and 3-axes compensation

15
B.S.R.Murthy

system. The magnetometer has a sensitivity of 0.001 spectrometer and calculation of system sensitivities
nT and a recording accuracy of 00.1 nT. Their latest and stripping ratios. This is the only facility in the
equipment includes an upgraded data recording entire Southeast Asia. Two test-strips of natural
system, which records data from the Global terrain, located at Devarkonda, Nalgonda dist, Andhra
Positioning System (GPS), radio altimeter, Pradesh and at Malharbodi, Bhandara dist.,
magnetometer, fiducial number, data and time of flight Maharashtra, were identified. These are being used for
etc. The data is recorded on hard disk of notebook the determination of height attenuation coefficients
PC. The system also performs real time compensation for each of the radioelements and total gamma
for the magnetic effects of the flying platform. A radioactivity. (from AMD's website)
compatible ground magnetometer simultaneously
records the magnetic intensity and time for diurnal V. INDIAN AEROGEOPHYSICAL CASE STUDIES
corrections. (from NRSA web site www.nrsa.gov.in).
Airborne geophysical surveys produce such an
IV.3. NGRI equips with a helicopter-borne system enormous amount of data that it may almost give a
false feeling of an information overload. It is a fact,
During the late 1990s, the NGRI has enhanced their that the rich geoscientific content of aero geophysical
airborne geophysical survey capability by procuring a data cannot be over exploited. The effectiveness of the
multi sensor system that is suitable for high- aero geophysical maps, be it Magnetic, Radiometric.
resolution surveys from a helicopter. This helicopter Electromagnetic or Gravity etc, or their combinations
borne geophysical system equipped with state-of-the- is undoubted as a geological mapping tool is
art magnetic, electromagnetic and radiometric sensors undoubted as has been seen from many published case
is one of the most productive airborne systems. The histories. While it is difficult to choose from the
system sensors include a Geometrics cesium vapour innumerable aero geophysical case histories that are
magnetometer G 823A, a five-frequency McPhar available, a humble attempt has been made in this
electromagnetic system and a 1024 channel gamma review to present some interesting examples
ray spectrometer. The G 823A magnetometer provides pertaining to India.
sensitivities of 0.002 nT at 1 Hz up to 0.22 nT at
100 Hz which are selectable via software command. V.1. Southern Indian granulite terrain
The electromagnetic system operates with 5
frequencies with multi-coil configurations that As mentioned earlier GSI undertook a project of
measure the in phase and out of phase components regional aeromagnetic coverage of Indian Peninsula
of the secondary fields. Data is telemetered on a light (excluding Deccan Trap covered regions) during the
weight serial cable to a data acquisition and console early 1980s. Data has been acquired by flights carried
on board the helicopter, where it is displayed on a LCD out by NRSA on contract basis, flying at 1515 m (5000
colour screen and recorded on a removable hard disk. ft) barometric height generally but at higher levels of
Pilot guidance and DGPS navigation systems are 2121m (7000 ft) and 2850m (9500 ft) over two
integrated into the package together with an optional segments having higher ground elevation. The flight
gamma ray spectrometer. Other controls include laser lines were 4 km apart in N –S direction except for
altimeter, barometric altimeter and digital colour video some portions where they were N25E-S25W. Reddi et
imaging system. (As per personal discussions with al., (1988) employing a novel approach of evaluating
airborne surveys group, NGRI) the computed depths to the subsurface magnetic
basement interpreted the data south of 120 N over the
IV.4. AMD Modernises its system high-grade metamorphic terrain of southern Indian
Peninsula. The authors report that the subsurface
The continuous hardware upgradation and refinement map of magnetic basement (Fig 11) brings out many
of the data acquisition, processing and interpretation interesting features which affirm the block structure
capabilities resulted in the development of high of the shield separated by faults along which the blocks
sensitivity Notebook PC-based gamma ray moved up or down in symphony with deeper and sub-
spectrometer with larger NaI (Tl) detector crystals. crustal layers. There appears to be a close correlation
From 1997 onwards this unit, interfaced with Cesium between present day topography and the magnetic
vapour magnetometer and Global Positioning System, basement relief map thereby providing a classic
was flown by hiring Beechcraft B-200 aircraft of instance of tectonics initiating topography.
National Remote Sensing Agency. The low pass filtered magnetic map (Fig 12) reveals
AMD also constructed calibration pads as per IAEA further interesting information regarding the deeper
standards at Nagpur airport for calibration of crust. The prominent features in the map include a
16

12
 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

series of “highs” aligned sub-parallel to the Kerala

coast, forming a prominent ridge extending from
Ernakulam to Trivendrum, from where it turns
eastwards and the northwards and runs parallel to the
east coast up to near Ramanthapuram. Reddi et al.,
(1988) view this ridge as one of a series of volcanic
features possibly formed as a result of northward drift
of Indian landmass.

V.2. Aeromagnetic Image – part of Indian Peninsula

The aeromagnetic data (both high level and low level)

acquired by GSI since 1967 covering most parts of sub-
Himalayan Indian Peninsula has been compiled
through a collaboration project of GSI and NGRI to
bring out IGRF corrected aeromagnetic anomaly
contour maps and images (Mathew et al., 2001). As
mentioned in earlier sections, the data is from the
surveys carried out during 1967 to the mid 1990s
through its OHR and BRGM/CGG Projects and
contractual arrangements with NGRI and NRSA, the
latter being under the National Programme of
Aeromagnetic Survey. The magnetic image maps
Figure 11. Subsurface relief of a magnetic basement show several distinct features and patterns and a broad
and major crustal breaks in Tamilnadu-Kerala (after correlation is instantly seen between these magnetic
Reddi et al 1988) anomalies and major tectonic features of the
Peninsular Indian Shield (Fig13). Based on the
anomaly patterns the map is classified into three
distinct Blocks; Block-I covering area between 80 and
120 N, Block-II between 120 and220 N and Block-III
between 220 and 250 N. Blocks I and III are relatively
homogeneous compared to Block-II and are
characterised by high density ENE-WSW to E-W
trending linear (2-D) anomalies and a few locaised 3-
D features. Block-III in contrast is heterogeneous and
is characterized by sparsely distributed broad
anomalies with a few isolated 2-D features and one
or two well defined 3-D anomalies (Mathew et al.,
2001).
Geologically, Block-I comprises the Southern
Granulites Terrain (SGT). The aeromagnetic
anomalies correspond to the major tectonic features
such as Moyar-Bhavani and related shear zones,
Palghat-Kaveri shear zone, the Achchankovil shear zone
etc. Strong linear NE-SW trending anomaly patterns
represent the Proterozoic Alkali Complex and mafic
and ultramafic belts in the Salem – Dharmapuri area.
Block-II corresponds to Dharwar Craton in the
south and Bastar craton in the north. The contact
between the two cratons is clearly brought out by
Figure 12. Filtereg (loe pass)aeromagnetic anomaly a distinct NNW-SSE to NW-SE trending anomaly
map of Tamilnadu-Kerala (after Reddi et al 1988) along the Godavari Graben. This Block displays

17

13
B.S.R.Murthy

Figure 13. Aeromagnetic Image map of Indian peninsula south of 24N ,except deccan Traps (Adapted from GSI’s
Spl Publi. No.75-back Cover)

some interesting anomalous features related to V.3. Interpretation of Aeromagnetic image over
geologic features such as the contact between the Central India (1)
Eastern Ghat Mobile belt (EGMB) with the Bastar
and Dharwar cratons, tectonic features associated Making use of the GSI’s aeromagnetic compilation
with the Chitrdurga schist belt etc. The broad, but mentioned above, Ramchandra et al., (2001) interpreted
weak, WNW-ENE to E-W trending anomaly zones the magnetic patterns of the region, between 170 and
may correspond to the concealed structural features 230 N and 790 and 860 E, comprising Central India, in
in the basement as the known belts in the region relation with the known major geological features of the
are in the general N-S or near N-S trend. region (Fig 14). The central Indian terrain mainly exposes
Interestingly two major linear magnetic anomliess Precambrian rocks that are covered by Phanerozoic
are seen in this Block, one trending ENE-WSW from sedimentary sequences and Deccan Traps, with
Western Ghats to Koppal and the other trending Bundelkhand craton in the northern side and Bastar
NW-SE from Bijapur to west of Chennai. As these Craton in the southern side. The aeromagnetic data
two trends do not have any surface geological has shown close correlation between large scale
manifestation they are being followed up by GSI craton margins, mobile belts edges and other major
employing ground surveys. geological features. The authors have made an in-
Block III covers part of Bundelkhand Craton and depth study of these by making use of various
is characterized by dense ENE-WSW to E-W derived maps like analytical signal, reduced to pole,
trending anomaly patterns disposed parallel to the high and low pass filtered maps etc. (Ramachandra
trends of mobile belts of the Central Indian tectonic et al., 2001).
zone constituting the craton. Strong NW-SE trending
anomaly zones characterise the Mahanadi graben, a V.4.Interpretation of Aeromagnetic image over Central
prominent tectonic feature. Other linear magnetic India (2)
anomaly manifestations include the Sukinda thrust and
various features related to Singhbhum shear zone and Rajaram & Anand (2003) also analysed the
the Singhbhum granitic complex. aeromagnetic data over Central India, that was

18
 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

Figure 14. Left: Generalised tectonic map of Central India. Right top: Aeromagnetic total field map. Right bottom:
Low pass filtered magnetic map (After Ramachandra et al 2001)

compiled by them from GSI maps, to throw light on (BGM). The BGM, which forms a part of the
the various tectonic blocks of the region, ranging in Precambrian Central Indian Shield, is highly
age from the Archean to the present. As per the metamorphosed and structurally disturbed. And owing
authors the existing geotectonic models are based on to this the aeromagnetic picture is quite complex.
inadequate data and studies of relatively small regions. The authors have employed a comprehensive suite of
From the aeromagnetic data, the authors derived the data enhancement techniques to interpret the
analytic signal and Euler deconvolution, to elucidate aeromagnetic map which will be helpful in delineation
the subsurface structure of the region and redefine the of magnetic units within the supracrustals, tensional
tectonic elements. From the analysis of the fracture-shear systems and associated acid/basic
aeromagnetic data the authors identified the Main intrusives. From the enhanced magnetic maps it is
Peninsular shear as a single shear defining the observed that a high degree of correlation exists
northern limit of the Bastar craton and EGMB, between the magnetic patterns and the surface
though its surface manifestation is a conglomerate geology indicating that the magnetic anomalies in
of several separate faults or shears. Fig 15 shows the area are derived primarily from relatively shallow
the generalized geological map, aeromagnetic image, features (Fig 16) Two main regional structural
analytical signal map and the schematic tectonic patterns are evident in the magnetic contour and
blocks and magnetic sources as interpreted by the image maps, one trending NE-SW which are
authors. interpreted as due to the tensional fractures emplaced
with demagnetized material (quartz reef, fine grained
V.5. Bundelkhand Granite Massif-Jhansi Area granite etc.) and the other NW-SE striking strong
magnetic linear trends which are explained as due to
Ghosh & Ramesh Acharya (2006) presented the basic dykes. An elliptical magnetic aureole has been
interpretation of the aeromagnetic data generated by delineated in the area of Basi-Talbehat-Purakalan,
low altitude airborne surveys conducted by GSI over which may be further explored for tin mineralisation
an area near Jhansi in the Budelkhand Granite Massif (Ghosh & Ramesh Acharya 2006).

19

9
B.S.R.Murthy

Figure 15. Aeromagnetic analytical signal map (left) and interpreted tectonic map. (After Rajaram and Anand 2003)

Figure 16. Aeromagnetic map (Left) and interpreted structural trends (Right). After Ghosh & Ramesh Acharya 2006

V.6. Bundelkhand Granite Massif - Lalitpur-Sagar Area V.7. Cuddapah basin

Rajendra Sarma et al., (2006) interpreted the On the basis of three aeromagnetic profiles across the
aeromagnetic data of another part of Bundelkhand Cuddapah basin integrated with ground gravity,
Granite Massif (Fig 17) in parts of Lalitpur district Atchuta Rao, Sankarnarayan & Harinarayan (1970)
(U.P) and Sagar Districts, Madhya Pradesh. The inferred three well-defined zones. The first is large
qualitative study of aeromagnetic data helped in broad anomaly referable to a large ultramafic body, the
delineating various zones correlating with geological second is magnetically flat zone over the thick,
units, Bijawars, Vindhyans and Deccan Traps, that horizontal, undisturbed part of the Cuddpah and
over lie the Bundel Khand Gneissic basement. The Kurnool formations and the third zone is towards the
in depth analysis of the aeromagnetic data helped in east of the eastern boundary of the basin possibly
delineating the structural set up and delineation of originating from the Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt. Later
magnetic body-axes and discontinuities in the area. Babu Rao et al., (1987) studied the aeromagnetic map
Depths to different magnetic interfaces and depth over parts of Cuddapah basin on the basis of the
extent and other parameters of various magnetic wavelengths and amplitudes of the magnetic
bodies have been estimated. anomalies and their relationship with surface geology

20
 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

Figure 17. Aeromagnetic study of lalitpur sagar area. Top: Simplified geology. Bottom: Aeromagnetic Image After
Rajendra Sarma et al 2006)

INDEX
BASIC ROCKS

PENINSULAR GNEISSIC
COMPLEX

H.R SCHIST BELTS

CUDDAPAH SUPER GROUP

KURNOOL SUPER GROUP

BASIC SILLS

K-V SCHIST BELTS

QUARTZITE

Figure 18. Aeromagnetic study of western part of Cuddpah basin and adjoining areas (after Prasanti Lakshmi and
Rambabu, 2002)

21
B.S.R.Murthy

to bring out various structural features. The authors sediment in this area is observed to be about 10 km
carried out quantitative analysis also over a few selected near Muddanuru.
anomalies by 2-D modeling.
Prasanti Lakshmi & Rambabu (2002) interpreted V.8. Chitradurga Schist Belt
the aeromagnetic data over Cuddapah Basin using
pseudo-gravity approach. The entire basin was covered Ramarao et al., (2002) demonstrated the utility of
by aeromagnetic surveys with a 1 km line spacing at airborne radiometric data even in its primitive form.
a mean terrain clearance of 150 m.. The simplified For this purpose the authors manually digitized the
geological map, total intensity aeromagnetic and low Radiometric total count contour map of GSI (surveys
pass filtered anomaly image are shown in Fig 18. conducted through BRGM/CGG during the 1970s) in
The basement configuration of the southwestern a judicious way.
part of the Cuddapah Basin was derived from the The authors utilized the radiometric data as an
aeromagnetic data by transforming it into pseudo- adjunct for interpretation of the gravity and magnetic
gravity anomalies. The inferred picture shows a anomaly maps obtained by their regional surveys over
general depression of the basement elongated in a NW- the Chitradurga Schist Belt for structural studies. The
SE direction and reaching a maximum depth of about Gamma-ray total count value at each of the location of
10 km near Muddanuru.. The central depression in the gravity and magnetic observation station was read
basement is elongated in NW-SE direction with steep by interpolation from the radiometric contour map to
dips in the southern and southwestern sides, approximately reproduce map with denser contours.
suggesting that the sediment filling the depression was This map is visually interpreted in terms of surface
derived from the southern and southwestern side of geology by assuming three ranges of total count values,
the basin. The basement high further north to the less than 500 for mafic rocks, 500 to 600 for gneissic
Banganpalle Fault may be a transition zone between rocks and greater than 600 for granite. According to the
Papaghni Basin and the northern Kurnool sub-basin. authors, a clear picture of the disposition of major rock
It seems from this basement map that the western types was brought out by this approach. Fig 19 shows
sub-basin is bounded by faults in the north and the the close agreement between the reproduced total count
southwest directions. The maximum thickness of the map and the Bouguer gravity map.

Figure 19. Comparision of Bouguer gravity (left) and redrawn (right) Total Count (by manual digitisation of old
data) contour map, Chitradurga Schist Belt, Karnataka. (After Rama Rao et al., 2002)

22

16
 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

V.9. Dharwar Craton V.10. Airborne geophysical surveys for Mineral search

Anand & Rajaram (2002) presented an analysis of The multi-sensor airborne geophysical surveys
aeromagnetic data over the Dharwar Craton (Fig 20) conducted by GSI through OHR and BRGM/CGG
to probe its structure. The source of the data are generated around 75,160 AEM anomalies
analogue degree-sheet aeromagnetic total field anomaly attributable to bed rock conductors. Ground follow-
maps pertaining to the study area, acquired from GSI, up of these by geology, geophysics and geochemistry
which were digitized along contours at close interval and drilling has since produced about 20 copper
for each degree-sheet. The digitized data has been prospects and 10 lead-zinc prospects (Reddi, Murthy
further processed applying the necessary corrections & Kesavamani 1995). Most of these discoveries
(to bring them to a common datum of 7000 feet above happen to be in Rajasthan (16 copper in Banwas,
MSL, removal of IGRF etc). The total field anomaly Malwali etc and and 7 lead-zinc in Devpura, Kayar
map generated from this data and the derived analytical etc) with overall reserves estimate of about 50 m
signal map (Fig 20) confirm the division of Dharwar ton for copper and 33 m ton for lead-Zinc. In
craton into western and eastern blocks, and are addition to these two copper prospects were
consistent with the several strike trends of the identified in Bihar (Bhagdogrs and Khadandungri),
causative sources. The Chitradurga schist belt appears one in Karnataka (Aladahalli) and two in
to divide the Dharwar craton into the western and Mahrashtra (Ranmangli and khapri). A lead and zinc
eastern blocks. From the study the authors find that prospect was located in each of the states of Andhra
the density of the anomalies in the Eastern Dharwar Pradesh (Gollapalli) and Maharashtra (Kolari), all
is greater than that in the Western Dharwar. They these indicating reserves from 1 to 3 m ton of
suggest that the reason for this magnetic reasonable grade. The figs 21 through 23 (adopted
heterogeneity between the two blocks may be due to from Reddi, Murthy & Kesavamani 1995) show the
the higher grade of metamorphic rocks in the Eastern aerogeophysical expression of some of these
Dharwar and/or the uplifting of the Eastern block with prospects.
respect to the Western block with the characteristics
of the deeper crustal layer now exposed due to erosion. V.11. Ganga Valley
The third possibility may be the presence of thick
sedimentary sequence in the Western block with Ganga valley, the largest on shore sedimentary basin
mainly volcanics in the Eastern block. of the subcontinent with an area of over 3,00,000

124
86
65
52
41
31
21
13
5
2
-8
-16
-24
-33
-43
-55
-72
-96
-165

Figure 20. Aeromagnetic study over Dharwar Craton. Top shows the generalised geology. Bottom left is the toatal
field and bottom right is analystical signal map (After Anand and Rajaram)

23
B.S.R.Murthy

Figure 21. Airborne geophysical map over part of Kottapalli-Gollapalli area .Andhrapradesh

Figure 22. Aerogeophysical analogue record over Aldahalli area showing the INPUT anomaly indicating bedrock
conductor

Figure 23. Airborne geophysical analogue record over Bbaghdogra area, Bihar, showing frequency domain record
indicating bedrock conductor

24

10
 Airborne Geophysics and the Indian Scenario

sq.km has been explored for hydrocarbons over half a are not presented in the paper owing perhaps to their
century. Ganga valley is bounded by Indus basin on confidential nature. The IGRF corrected total field
the west and Brahmaputra basin in the east. Bahuleyan map and the derived vertical component map are
et al., (1999) presented the results of aeromagnetic shown in fig 24.
survey conducted by GSI over part of the basin. The
area proper consists of three sub-basins, which are by VI. PROSPECTS OF AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICS
northerly plunging basement ridges in the west and
east. The Main Boundary Fault (MBT) forms the Airborne geophysical methods that got initiated in the
northern boundary of the basin, while the Delhi- mid 1940s established themselves by the early 1960s
Aravalli systems, Bundelkhand granitic complex and holding a strong ubiquitous role in all mapping and
Satpuras distinguish the southern margin. The exploration activities. The methods have seen
airborne surveys conducted at 700m barometric continuous growth in the following decades and, in
altitude and flight line interval of 2 km were taken fact, gone beyond comparision with those during the
up on contract basis for Oil India Limited. The pioneering times. This is due to the wide range of
authors prepared various types of derived maps (To innovations that have become possible due to the
name a few: Reduction to Pole, vertical component, modern electronics, navigational methods, computing
Downward continued etc.) and of these the total field power and the various attractive techniques developed
and the vertical component maps are reproduced in for data presentation. From the old “bump selection”
Fig 25. From these maps they observed that (Bahuleyan or “anomaly hunting” type utilization the method got
et al., 1999) the Moradabad-Haldwani fault divides the evolved into employing very comprehensive
area into two zones. The southern zone appears to interpretations that look at the overall picture.
be underlain by basement rocks of much lower Looking into the future, not withstanding the usual
magnetic susceptibility compared to the northern zone. uncertainties, it may be anticipated that many of the
This suggests that the northern basement is of high advancements in airborne geophysics will become even
mafic composition indicating its basic nature. Along more accentuated and developed in the coming years,
with these aeromagnetic surveys, low level (70m driven by their widening scope of application and need
height and 1 km spacing) multi-sensor surveys over a to detect and delineate deeper and/or more subtle targets.
few sub-blocks of interest. In airborne magnetic method the commonplace
While the above airborne surveys might have term will be “High Resolution Aeromagntics (HRA)”
brought out many subtle features that are significant evolved from advances in survey specifications,
on the point of view of hydrocarbon exploration, they instrumentation, data processing and imaging

Figure 24. Total aeromagnetic (IGRF corrected) map and derived vertical field map over part of Ganga valley (After
Bahuleyan et al., 1999)

25
B.S.R.Murthy

techniques. HRA greatly improves the quality and geological considerations establishes the technique of
geological information content of the final maps. airborne geophysical surveys as primary method in all
The heliborne EM capability now possessed by the geoscientific studies. It is expected that the future
country will enhance the scope of the method to a direction of airborne geophysics in India offers exciting
large extent. In addition to mineral exploration, prospects as well as demanding challenges.
applications of airborne electromagnetic systems will
include mapping of environmental targets (e.g., ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
contamination plumes, buried wastes), baseline
mapping and monitoring of acid wastes at mine sites, The author is thankful to the Indian geophysical
exploration for freshwater aquifers, mapping of saline Union and specially its current Secretary Dr.
contaminated soils and aquifers and off shore P.Ramachandra Reddy, Scientist (Emeritus), NGRI, for
investigations like shallow water bathymetry. entrusting the work of preparing an invited article
In airborne gamma ray spectrometry, the on this interesting subject. The author is very much
introduction of PGAM (Picodas gamma ray indebted to Shri A.G.B.Reddi, Dy.D.G.(Retd.), GSI,
spectrometer) technology has resulted in radiometric for his various suggestions and encouragement. The
data that required fewer statistical corrections. This author is benefited by his interactions on some
has brought revolutionary changes in the sensitivity aspects of the subject with his former colleagues, Dr
and accuracy of measurements. However, A.U.S.Sarma, Director (Geop), GSI, and Shri
interpretation of the data is commonly carried out M.V.Ramanamurthy, Geologist (Sr)-Retd., GSI. The
involving no more than subjective visual classification various original contributors of this vast subject of
of colour changes, either of individual elements or airborne geophysics are gratefully acknowledged.
combined RGB composites. This interpretation does
not extract maximum information from the data. REFERENCES
Future requirement would be analysis of the data in
terms of major rock types, and subdivisions of these Anand, S.P. & Rajaram Mita, 2002. Aeromagnetic data to
rocks types in to components. This allows the probe the Dharwar craton. Current Science, 83 (2),
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classification of rocks and identify areas of anomalous Atchuta Rao, D., Sankarnaryan P.V. & Harinarayan, 1970.
chemistry. A study of the aeromagnetic profiles across Cuddapah
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has seen many practical applications during the last Bhaskara Rao, D.S., Veeraswamy, K. & Sarama,
decade. While airborne gravity is now established as M.R.L., 1987. Some salient results of interpretation
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