WEEK ONE

BIOLOGY OF HEREDITARY AND VARIATION (GENETICS)

CONTENT
 Definitions of genetic terms
 Hereditary variationand causes of variation
 Transmittable / transmissible characters
 How characters get transmitted
 Mendel’s work in genetics

DEFINITIONS OF GENETIC TERMS

Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation in all living things. The word
genetics was coined by Dilliam Bateson (1906).
Hereditary/Inheritance is the transmission and expression of characters or traits from
parents to offspring. It accounts for the usual resemblance between a parent and its
offspring.
Variation isthe differences which exist between parents and offspring and among the
offspring.
Genes are hereditary or basic units of inheritance located in chromosomes and responsible
for the transmission of characters from parents to offspring. The hereditary units were
named genes by Johannsen in 1909.
Chromosomes are rod or thread like bodies found in the nucleus of a cell which house the
genes.
Characters are inheritable features possessed by an organism e.g height, complexion, colour
etc.
Gamete is a mature sex cell which takes part in sexual reproduction. If is of two types male
and female gamete e.g pollen grains and ovules in plants, sperms and ova in man. Gamete is
usually haploid.
Zygote is a single cell formed as a result of the union of male and female gamete. It is
diploid.
Allelomorphs (alleles) are pairs of genes on a particular position of chromosomes. They
control contrasting characters.
Locus is the site or location of a gene in the chromosome.
Genotype is the sum total of the genes or the genetic make up of an individual inherited
from both parents. It includes both dominant and recessive traits.
Phenotype is the sum total of all observable features of an organism. It includes the
physical, physiological and behavioural traits e.g. height, skin colour etc.
Dominant trait is expressed in an offspring when two individuals with contrasting characters
are crossed. Dominant trait is controlled by dominant gene e.gTt
Recessive trait is masked, with no effect in the presence of a dominant character. This trait
is controlled by a recessive gene
Homozygous is when an individual has two similar genes for the same character i.e. the
individual has two identical alleles at a locus as a pair of chromosomes e.g. TT, tt.
Heterozygous is when an individual has different or contrasting alleles located on the locus
as a pair of chromosomes e.g. Tt.
Filial generation is made up of offspring of parents. The generations are represented as F1,
F2, F3, e.t.c one giving rise to the other.
Hybrid is an offspring from a cross between parents that are genetically different but of the
same specie.
Hybridization is the crossing of plants with contrasting characters. This can be
monohybridization (i.e. two pure traits crossed) or dihybridization (two pairs of contrasting
characters crossed).
Haploid is when an organism has one set of chromosomes in the gamete (23 in number). It
is represented by small letter n.
Diploid is when an organism has two sets of chromosomes in the body cell (46 in number).
It is represented by 2n.
Mutation is the change in the genetic makeup of an organism resulting in a new inheritable
characteristic.

EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms a) Hereditary b) Variation c) alleles d) locus
2. Differentiate between a) genotype and phenotype b) Homozygous and Heterozygous
being.

HEREDITARY VARIATION AND CAUSES

Hereditary variation is the differences among individuals which can be passed from the
parents to their offspring (progenies).
NOTE: No two offspring inherit exactly the same set of characteristics from parents except in
identical twins. Hereditary variation arises because of
a. Genetic reshuffling during meiosis due to independent assortment and segregation
before the final combination results in a totally new individual
b. Crossing over during meiosis, the chromatids get in contact with powder at the
prophase stage of cell division. The homologous chromosomes break and rejoin at a
point called chiasma. This results in crossing over of genetic materials hence, variation
in the off spring.

Transmittable characters in animals

These include: body stature, shape or size of the head, nose and ear, colour of skin, hair
colour, eye colour, intelligence, height, and characteristic voice of speech, blood group,
baldness, tongue rolling, sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, colour blindness, finger prints and
ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC)

Transmittable characters in plants

These include height, weight or shape of plants, its fruit, leaf, fruit taste, food content,
colour of leaf or flower, fruit or seed, resistance to environmental factors like disease, pest
and wind, leaf texture, life span etc.

How characters get transmitted

Only characters controlled by genes are transmissible. Diploid organisms produce gametes
by meiosis in their reproductive organs, therefore the male gamete (sperm cell) and the
female gamete (ovum) are haploid organisms containing one set of chromosomes in their
cell (one copy of each gene from homologous pair.
When fertilization takes place during sexual reproduction, the gametes (spermatozoon and
ovum) fuses together to form a zygote.
Each zygote is a diploid organism having two set of chromosomes. Hence two copies of each
gene (a copy donated by each gamete)
Male parent (2n) Female parent (2n)

Meiosis meiosis

Spermatozoon (n) X ovum (n)

ZYGOTE (2n)
Hence, characters determined by genes are transmitted from parents to offspring through
gamete
EVALUATION
1. Mention five transmittable characters each in plants and animals.
2. Discuss briefly how characters get transmitted in organisms

MENDEL’S WORK IN GENETICS

In the study of genetics, Gregor Mendel (1866) worked with the garden pea
(Pisumsativum) because of three unique properties present in it. These are
1. Peas are self pollinating
2. They have a very short lifespan
3. They have several unique genetic characteristics e.g round or wrinkled seeds,
tallness or shortness, seeds /pods/ flowers colouration, pod texture etc.
The Mendel’s methods of studying genetics are two:
a. Monohybrid inheritance
b. Dihybrid inheritance

Monohybrid inheritance
Mendel crossed two different plants which differ in one pair of contrasting characters e.g.
tall and short plants. The procedures he followed are as follows:
a. He planted tall plants for several generations and got all tall plant offspring. Likewise,
the short plants he planted yielded all short plant offspring.
b. He then planted tall and short plants. When the flowers were produced, he cross
pollinated the pollen grains (male gamete) of the tall plant with the stigma (female
gamete) of the short plant.
c. He then planted the seeds of the cross in the procedure (ii) above and obtained all
tall plants. This he called the first filial generation(F1,)
d. He then crossed the F1 plants, collected their seeds and sowed them. He got tall and
short plant in ratio 3: 1. This he called second filial generation (F2)

Diagrammatically:
Parents’ genotypes: TT x tt
(Tall plant) (Short plant)
Gametes: T Tt t
 F1 :
Tt Tt Tt Tt (All tall)

Self pollinating: Tt x Tt
T t T t

F2 :
TT Tt Tt tt

Genotypic ratio (GR) => 1: 2: 1

Phenotype ratio (PR) => 3: 1
This experiment resulted into Mendel’s first law of inheritance which is based on the
principle of complete dominance.

Mendel’s first law of inheritance otherwise known as the law of segregation of genes
states that paired alleles segregate from each other when the homologous chromosomes on
which they reside separate during meiosis. Each gamete receives one of the two alleles. The
actual segregation occurs in F2 generation.

EVALUATION
1. State three reasons why Gregor Mendel used Pisumsativum for his experiments on
genetics.
2. State Mendel’s first law of inheritance.

DIHYBRID INHERITANCE
Gregor Mendel crossed plants which differ in two pairs of contrasting characteristics e.g
seed shape (round or wrinkled seeds) and seed colour (yellow or green seeds). He crossed
plants having round and yellow seeds with these having wrinkled and green seeds. The F1
seeds were having round and yellow seeds. Self pollinating F1 plants produced the F2 plants
of four (4) types
i. Round and yellow seeds :9
ii. Wrinkled and yellow seeds : 3
iii. Round and green seeds :3
iv. Wrinkled and green seeds : 1
This experiment resulted into Mendel’s second law of inheritance

Mendel’s second law of inheritance otherwise known as law of independent assortment of

genes state that alleles of genes on different chromosomes assort independently during
meiosis

Diagrammatically:
Parents’ genotypes: RYRY X ryry
(Round yellow seed) (Wrinkled green seed)

Gametes: RY RYry ry
F1: RYry RYry RYry RYry (all round yellow)

Self pollinating:
RYry x RYry
RY rY Ry ry

RY Ry Ry Ry

RY (1) (2) (3) (4)

RYR RYrY RYRy RYry
Y
rY (5) (6) (7) (8)
RYrY rYrY RyrY rYry
Ry (9) (10) (11) (12)
RYRy RyrY RyRy Ryry
Ry (13) (14) (15) (16)
RYry RYry Ryry ryry

Round and yellow seeds: (1), (2), (3), (4), (5), (7), (9), (10), (13) : 9
Wrinkled and yellow seeds: (6), (8), (14) : 3
Round and green seeds: (11), (12), (15) : 3
Wrinkled and green seeds: (16) : 1

EVALUATION
1. State the phenotypic ratios of F2 generation offspring of monohybrid inheritance
and dihybrid inheritance.
2. State Mendel’s second law of inheritance.

DETERMINATION OF THE GENOTYPE OF A DOMINANT PHENOTYPE

A dominant phenotype has the genotypic patterns RR, Rr. The genotype is determined using
test cross or back cross
Test cross is the crossing of an organisms with an homologous recessive organism
Back cross is the crossing of an organism with an homologous recessive organism from the
original parental generation

PRINCIPLE OF INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

This deal with the ability of two contrasting alleles to interact and produce a heterozygous
phenotype that is different from the two homologous phenotypes: Examples of organisms
exhibiting incomplete dominance include: Mirabilis jalapa, 4 o’clock plant, Audlausian fowl.
This principle opposes Mendel’s principle of complete dominance.

Diagrammatically:
Parent genotypes: RR X rr
Phenotypes: (red flower) (white flower

Gametes: RR rr
 Rr Rr Rr Rr (All pink flowers)

Self pollinating: Rr x Rr

Rr Rr

RR Rr Rr rr
Red Pink White
PR = GR = 1: 2: 1

CO – DOMINANCE
In co-dominance both alleles in the heterozygous individuals are fully expressed. The effect
of one is not modified by the presence of the other. Therefore, three distinct phenotypes
are produced e.g Inheritance of human “ABO” blood group
Genotype Phenotype (Blood group)
A A
1 1 or Group A
1 A 1O
1B1Bor Group B
B O
1 1
1 A 1B Group AB
O O
11 Group O
Allele 1A implies the addition of antigen A to the cell surfaces of red blood cells resulting in a
person with group A blood. Likewise Allele 1 B implies the addition of antigen B to the cell
surfaces of red blood cells resulting in a person with Group B.
In a heterozygous individual, (1A 1B) both antigens A and B are added to the cell surfaces of
red blood cells. So the individual has blood group AB.
NOTE: 1A and 1B are co-dominants while 1Ois recessive.
Multiple alleles
Genes that have more than two alleles in the population are said to have multiple alleles
e.g. the human ‘ABO’ blood grouping

EVALUATION
1. How can the genotype of a dominant phenotype be determined?
2. Use blood group ‘ABO’ to explain co-dominance.

Sex determination in human beings

Each body cell of human beings has 23 pairs (46) of chromosomes, 22 of which are
autosomes and a pair is sex chromosome. In male the two sex chromosomes in each body
cell are X and Y chromosomes, therefore, each male gamete carries either X or Y
chromosome. In the female, all egg cells of the body contain two X chromosomes. Therefore
all egg cells contain one X chromosomes each. At fertilization, the combinations of an egg
with a sperm carrying either X or Y chromosome occurs by chance. The formation of a male
or female offspring has equal chances as shown below parents:
XY x XX
Gametes: X Y X X

XX XX XY XY 50: 50
GR = PR = 1: 1
Genotype Phenotype
(1) 2XX Girls
(2) 2XY Boys.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Define the two terms involved in the definition of genetics
2. Differentiate between gamete and zygote
3. Define (a) genotype (b) phenotype (c) alleles
4. What is a hybrid?
5. Differentiate between haploid and diploid organisms
6. State Mendel’s first and second law of inheritance.
7. Diagramatically illustrate the principle of incomplete dominance.
8. Using ‘ABO’ blood group, describe the principle of co-dominance.
9. Carry out the genetic crossing up to F2 generation of the following :
a. Group A and group O parents.
b. Group B and group O parents.
c. Group AB and group O parents.

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 18, page 409 – 428.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The reasons why GregorMondel used pea PisumSativuminclude these except (a) the
plant is self pollinating (b) the plant has long life span (c) the plant has many unique
properties or characteristics (d) the plant has short life span.
2. The laws of Mendel are based on the principles of (a) co-dominance (b) incomplete
dominance (c) complete dominance (d) non dominance
3. The genotype ratio and phenotypic ratio in incomplete dominances. (a)3:1 (b) 1:2:1
(c) 1:3.(d) 2:1
4. The chances of having a male or female child in human is (a) 25% (b) 50% (c) 75%
(d) 60%
5. What is genetically common to 4’0 clock plant and Andlausian fowl is (a) co-
dominance (b) incomplete dominance (c) complete dominance (d) non
dominance.

THEORY
1. State Gregor Mendel’s first & second law
2. Use human ‘ABO’ blood group to explain co-dominance.
 WEEK TWO
CHROMOSOME: THE BASIS OF HEREDITARY
CONTENT
 Location and structure of chromosome
 Role of chromosome in transmission of hereditary characters.
 Processes of transmission of hereditary characters by chromosomes.
 Probability in genetics
 Application of the principles of hereditary in agriculture and medicine

LOCATION AND STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOMES

Chromatin granules (thread – like structures) found in the nucleus of eucaryotic cells are the
precursors or raw materials of chromosomes.

Chromosomes occur in pairs known as homologous chromosomes. Each chromosome is

made up of two threads called chromatids joined at a point called centromere. Each human
somatic cell has 46 chromosomes. These are present in 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes. The number of chromosomes in each somatic cell of an organism is called
diploid number (2n).

Each chromosome is made up of protein units in a strand of deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA (in
double helix). Along its length are genes arranged which are actually DNA segments. The
DNA is a very large molecule made up of repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide
is made up of deoxyribose (a sugar molecule), phosphate and an organic nitrogenous base
which may be adenine, guanine, thymine or cytosine. Guanine always pairs with cytosine
and adenine with thymine. The two helical chains are referred to as complementary strands
of DNA since one is the exact opposite of the other.

Sex chromosomes and autosomes

There are forty-four autosomes which are similar in shape and size in both male and female.
The last pair is called sex chromosome which are of genotype XX in female and XY in male.
Exception to this is in birds, moths and butterfly where the female has genotype XY and the
male XX. Also, in certain grasshoppers, the Y chromosome is absent so that the male has the
genotype XO.
Just before cell division, the protein bundles come together and the DNA strands coil tightly
around them, causing the chains to shorten and become visible under the light microscope.
This process is called condensation

Each DNA molecule is made up of thousands of genes. The DNA molecules coil around the
23 pairs of chromosomes. In human body cells are about 50,000 genes. Each DNA molecule
can make an exact copy of itself in a process called replication. This forms the basis for the
transmission of hereditary materials from parents to the offspring.
ROLE OF CHROMOSOME IN TRANSMISSION OF HEREDITARY CHARACTERS
Genes are the expression of hereditary characters in organisms and are located on the
chromosomes of a body cells. Therefore chromosomes are responsible for the transmission
of characters from parents to offspring. Chromosomes are arranged in pairs known as
homologous chromosomes (exactly alike in shape and size and carry genes responsible for
the transmission of the same characteristics). The genes relating to the same character e. g.
tallness and shortness occupy identical loci on the homologous pair. The genes on
homologous pair of chromosomes determine whether the individual will be homozygous or
heterozygous for certain characters.

PROCESSES OF TRANSMISSION OF HEREDITARY CHARACTERS BY CHROMOSOMES

i. The chromosomes pass the genes into the gamete during meiosis.
ii. Homologous chromosome separate in 3to two daughter cells during the
first stage of meiosis.
iii. The two chromatids of each chromosome separate during the second stage of
meiosis. Each gamete therefore has one set of chromosomes hence one copy of
genes.
 iv. During fertilization, the gametes fuse together to form a zygote. The zygote receives
two genes for the same character (one from one chromosome in the egg and the
other from one chromosome in the sperm).
v. When the two genes are the same, the offspring is a homozygous but when they are
different, the offspring is a heterozygous (hybrid).

EVALUATION
1. Define chromosome and describe its structure.
2. Differentiate between chromosomes and autosomes.

SEX-LINKED TRAITS
Sex–linked traits are characteristics whose genes are carried on the X chromosome of the
sex chromosomes instead of autosomes. Such genes are inherited along with such X
chromosomes. They are all controlled by a recessive gene. Examples of Sex-linked traits are:
colour blindness, haemophilia, baldness, sickle cell anaemia and albinism.
1. Colour blindness: A colour blind person cannot distinguish near colours. It is an
abnormality of the gene that controls the production of cone cells (light receptors) in
the retina of the eye.
2. Haemophilia: This is a disorder in which bleeding takes an abnormally long time to
stop or fails to stop because blood clotting will not occur. In haemophiliac (the
victim) small injuries can result to bleeding to death e.g. Queen Victoria’s lineage
(gene for haemophilia arose as a mutation in Queen Victoria or one of her parents)
in British Royal Family.
3. Baldness: The recessive gene controlling this trait causes the hair on the upper part
of the head to pull out prematurely. It is more common in male human beings.
4. Albinism: This is the condition in which the skin of an animal is non – pigmented
because of lack of the pigment called melanin.
5. Sickle cell anaemia: The recessive gene controlling this abnormality causes some of
the red blood cells to be sickle shaped. The haemoglobin of the affected red blood
cells is abnormally shaped thereby making it inefficient in transporting oxygen. In a
condition of low oxygen concentration, the haemoglobin breaks down causing the
cells to be sickle shaped. This then leads to the blockage of the cavities of the small
blood vessels in the body thus hindering free flow of blood. The body part affected
receives lower blood, oxygen and nutrients. Therefore, the victim goes into crisis at
such periods characterized by pains in the bones and joints.

PROBABILITY IN GENETICS
Probability is usually expressed in units ranging from 0 – 1. Mendel’s works were based on
probability.

Mathematically,
Probability = No of times an event occurs
Total no of trials
The two guiding principles of probability in genetics are:
3. The result of one trial of a chanced event does not affect the result of latter trials of
the same event.
4. The chance that two independent events will occur together simultaneously is the
product of their chances of occurring separately.

APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITARY

In agriculture, genetics is relevant and has led to the following:
1. Cross fertilization &self-fertilization procedures
2. Development of early maturing varieties of organisms.
3. Development of disease–resistant varieties of organisms.
4. Production of crops and animals that can adapt to climatic conditions.
5. Improvement of quality and quantity of product

In medicine, genetics helps in the following:

1. Determination of paternity of a child.
2. Blood transfusion
3. Diagnosis of diseases
4. Sex determination
5. Marriage counseling to avoid cases of genetic disorder.
6. Knowing and choosing the sex of a baby.
7. Development of test tubes babies.

NOTE: All the applications listed above sum up the relevance of biology to life in what is
now termed biotechnology. In biotechnology the DNA is now being manipulated to the
benefits of humanity i.e. genetic engineering

EVALUATION
1. Give five examples of sex-linked traits in human beings.
2. State five applications of genetics in medicine.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is a chromosome
2. Differentiate between chromosomes and autosomes
3. Describe the structure of a chromosome.
4. Define condensation and replication in chromosomes.
5. What is the role of chromosome in transmission of hereditary characters?
6. State five application of genetics in medicine and agriculture
7. What is the probability of sickle cell anaemic children resulting from two parents
with genotypes i) AA and AS OR HbAHbA and HbAHbS
ii) AS and AS OR HbAHbS and HbAHbS

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology chapter 18, page 410 – 412
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The basic hereditary unit is the ---------------- (a) cell (b) nerve (c) gene (d) nucleus
2. In man there are ------------ autosomes and -------------- sex chromosomes (a) 46:2 (b)
44:2 (c) 44:1 (d) 45:1
3. The manipulation of DNA molecules for the benefit of humanity is known as a)
Genetic b) Biotechnology c) Hereditary d) Bioremediation
4. A condition in which bleeding take an abnormally long time to stop or fail to stop in a
person is known as a) anaemia b) sickle cell c) haemophilia d) albinism
5. What is the probability that a male and a female that are carriers of albino gene will
have albino offspring a) ¼ b) ½ c) ¾ d) 1

THEORY
1. What are sex-linked traits? Give five examples
2. Explain how blood group can be used to determine the paternity of a child.