SEISMIC

REFLECTION
ANALYSIS
Outline

o Introduction
o Basic Reflection Theory
o Seismic Data Acquisition
o Seismic Data Processing
o Type of Data used in Interpretation
o Interpretation techniques: 2-D and 3-D seismic data
o Identification of geologic features
o Concept of VSP
o Use of Synthetic seismograms
o Well –to – seismic match

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 Introduction
o Measurement of seismic-wave travel time is one of the most common geophysical methods.
o The main objective of this method is to map the structures and stratigraphy of subsurface formations to infer
the existence of possible petroleum traps.
o In addition, the method can be used to identify lithology (rock type), fluid content (oil, gas, or water), and fine
structures (fractures).
o In this method, seismic energy is generated artificially at the near-surface and the generated waves travel in the
subsurface and get reflected and refracted off layer boundaries.
o Seismic exploration is divided into refraction and reflection surveys, depending on whether the predominant
portion of the seismic waves travel is horizontal or vertical.
o Refraction seismic surveys are used in engineering geophysics and petroleum exploration.
o Seismic reflection survey, on the other hand, is widely used in petroleum exploration; e.g. to detect boundaries
between different kinds of rocks, this detection assists in the mapping of geological structures.
o The reflected waves are recorded at the surface and the travel times and amplitudes are analyzed to map the
subsurface.
o Almost all petroleum exploration is done using the seismic method.
o Seismic energy is detected on land by using devices called geophones, which react to on-site ground motions.
o Compared to other exploration methods, the seismic method gives, by far, the best subsurface structural and
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lithological image.
 Introduction
o With Commercial quantities of hydrocarbon becoming harder to locate and more difficult to
produce, using yesterday’s approach could put one in a disadvantaged position.
o It is against this background that recent advances in seismic interpretation became
invaluable for every geoscientist and engineer involved in petroleum exploration and
production.
o Seismic interpretation has moved from 1-D, 2-D, 3-D, 4-D and 4C as the need for maximum
recovery of oil increased.
o 2-D and 3-D seismic interpretation make use of data seismically acquired and processed for
identification of geologic information in the subsurface.
o 4-D is a time-lapse-3-D seismic and involves the process of shooting, processing
interpreting multiple 3-D surveys over a field aimed to towards maximum recovery of oil.
o 4C means four components (SH, SV, 2P-waves) of the seismic energy are recorded by three
geophones and one hydrophone.
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Basic Seismic Principles

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Parameters associated with a wave
Some parameters associated with a wave recorded as a function of time:

Amplitude: the size of the peak

wavelength: The distance between adjacent peaks.
Velocity: the speed at which the waves move
Frequency: the number of peaks passing one point in
a second
Velocity = Wavelength x frequency
 Seismic Waves
o When a solid body is disturbed by something such as an explosion, the disturbance propagates
through the body as waves.

Two types of waves

Body waves Surface waves

2 types of body waves are P and S 2 Types of Surface waves are

waves. The energy of these waves Rayleigh and Love waves. The energy
decreases inversely proportional to of these waves decreases inversely
the square of the distance traveled proportional to the distance traveled.
 P -Waves
o Primary waves - named from earthquake seismology meaning the ‘first
arrival’. Also referred to as Compressional, Longitudinal, Push-pull,
Pressure, Dilatational, Rarefaction and Irrotational wave.
o the particle motion is parallel to the direction of propagation.

o P waves have higher velocities than S waves

o P waves are the predominant wave used in seismic prospecting. This is what
we want to generate and record
 S -Waves
o Secondary waves - named from earthquake seismology meaning secondary
arrival. Also referred to as Shear, Transverse, and Tangential wave
o the particle motion is parallel to the direction of propagation.

o S wave Velocity is approximately 0.5 x p-wave velocity.

o Not usually used in the seismic industry, mainly because they cannot propagate
in fluids. S waves appear as noise overlaying P waves. In certain circumstances
(e.g. Shallow surveying) shear waves may be deliberately generated.
o Shear waves may be SV (vertical particle motion) or SH (horizontal particle
motion).
Body Waves (Cont’d)

 + 2 K + 4

VP = = 3

 
 = Density

K = Bulk modulus

 = Shear modulus

 = Lame constant


VS =

Surface Waves
Surface Waves: Travel at interfaces between two different media.
o It is also called ground roll
o Two types exist which include ;
• Rayleigh ( LR )
• Love (LQ)
Elastic Deformations

Elastic deformations and ground particle motions Elastic deformations and ground particle motions
associated with the passage of body waves associated with the passage of surface waves
Huygens Principle

o Every point on a wavefront can be regarded as a secondary source of the

wave.
o The envelope function defined by the secondary source wavefronts is the
wavefront at a later time (or further distance).
 Interfaces
o When acoustic energy impinges on an interface between two layers
o With different elastic properties within the earth two things can happen:
– Energy is reflected
– Energy is transmitted
o Ray theory gives the best visual representation
Reflection Strength

Acoustic impedance = density x

seismic velocity

AI = ρV

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Interfaces

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 Reflection
o An elastic wave reflects from an interface at the same angle it strikes it

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Reflection Strength
Reflection Coefficient (RC)
Calculating RCs

Where ;
P1 = density of the upper rock
P2 = density of the lower rock
V1 = velocity of the upper rock
V2 = velocity of the lower rock
Reflection Strength

Question: the rocks above a boundary have a

density of 2.5g/cc and seismic velocity of 3000m/s,
While the rocks underneath with corresponding
values of 2.8g/cc and 4000m/s. Calculate the
reflection coefficient:
 Refraction
o When the layer velocity changes across an interface, the direction of propagation of
the energy changes. This change is given by:

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 Critical Refraction
o In the case that angle C = 90 degrees, the transmitted energy is CRITICALLY
REFRACTED along the interface with the velocity V2

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 Critical Angle
o In general V2 > V1 and refracted waves bend away from vertical

o As the angle of incidence increases, it reaches a critical angle, where a refracted wave will
travel along the layer interface.
o At angles of incidence greater than the critical angle no incident energy is transmitted.
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Signals and Noise

o Any events of interest are called signals while the rest are referred to
as noise
o Signals and noise are relative terms as in a certain set of analyses.
An event may be considered a signal, while in another analysis is
considered noise
o In seismic Acquisition and processing our major interest is to
enhance the signals and suppress the noise.
o Thus increase the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N)
Noise
Noise is the undesired information contained on a seismic record that
one does not wish to use and these are to be filtered. There are two
types of seismic noises encountered in seismic survey are;
o Coherent Noise.
o Incoherent Noise or Random Noise.
Coherent Noise
It displays some regular patterns on seismograms.
o It is seismic energy that aligns from trace to trace or record to record on seismic record.
o Often, it is very similar to the signal and usually more difficult to overcome than the
incoherent/random noise.
o By examining the patterns of coherent noise, we can devise field procedures to reduce it.

It has various sources as discussed below

• Ground Rolls
• Direct arrivals
• Refracted events
• Multiples reflections
• Diffraction events
Multiples
Seismic energy which travels from
source to interface and is then reflected
back to a detector produces a primary
reflection.
If the energy is reflected more than once
in its path to the detector then a multiple
reflection is produced.
Multiples arise when there are interfaces
with large reflection coefficients, i.e.
where there are large velocity and/or
density changes. Examples- sea bed,
sea- surface on marine, weathering layer
on land
Multiples

Multiple reflections give rise to

false seismic events or horizons
that are recorded and displayed
along with the primary (true)
events.

Note that the arrival time of the

false event will be twice that of
the true event.
 Multiples
Long-path multiple Short-path multiple
‘easy’ to remove ‘hard’ to remove
Surface

Successive multiples trapped in

shallow layer blend together
producing ‘ringing’

e.g. reverberations in water layer

or in weathered layer on land
Multiples - Example
 Ghosts
The energy that travels upward from an energy release and
then is reflected back downward, such as occurs at the water
surface in marine. It can also occur on land if a buried source
is used.
Diffractions
When a seismic wave strikes an irregularity, this feature acts as a point source and radiates
waves in all directions, in accordance with Huygens’ principle. For example, an isolated
point like the end of an interface that truncates against a geological fault, will scatter energy
from all directions back towards its source.

At faults and some unconformities diffracted waves are generated on the seismic section.
Incoherent Noise
o It is the seismic energy that does not align up from trace to trace or record to
record on the seismic record. It displays no systematic pattern. This noise is
uncorrectable.
o We can overcome random noises by recording multiple traces from the same
location.
It has various sources such as given below.

▪ Wind Noise
▪ Water Flow Noise
▪ Small Movement within the Earth
▪ Local Noise
▪ Bad Geophone Noise
 Filtering
A process or algorithm using a set of limits used to eliminate unwanted portions of
seismic data, commonly based on frequency or amplitude, to enhance the signal-to-noise
ratio of the data.
The common use of digital filters in data processing is to filter out unwanted
frequencies.
Types of filters:
o Band-Pass filter: A filter is used to pass a defined band of frequencies. Any high or low frequencies
outside this range will be attenuated.
o Low-Cut filter (High pass): A filter that passes only the high frequencies and eliminates the low
frequencies.
o High-Cut filter (Low-Pass): A filter that passes only the low frequencies and eliminates the high
frequencies.
o Notch filter: It is used to filter out narrow bands of frequencies within a frequency range of data
o The most common use of this filter is to attenuate noises caused by power lines.
Seismic Data Acquisition
 Seismic Data Acquisition

It is the generation and recording of seismic data. The acquisition

involves different receiver configurations, including laying geophones
on the surface of the Earth or seafloor and towing hydrophones
behind a marine seismic vessel to record the seismic signal. A source,
such as a vibrator unit, dynamite shot, or an air gun, generates
acoustic or elastic vibrations that travel into the Earth, pass through
strata with different seismic responses and filtering effects, and return
to the surface to be recorded by seismograph as seismic data
Seismic Surveys
Seismic Crews
o Survey Crew
On Land o Drilling Crew
o Loading Crew
o Layout Crew
o Recording Crew
o Shooting Crew

In Marine
o LVL Crew
o Safety Crew (HSE)
 Instrument for Seismic Surveying
o Geophone/Hydrophone
o Energy Source
o Seismic Crew
o Seismic Cables
o Recorder/Seismograph
Seismograph
It is the instrument that measures motions of the ground, including those of
seismic waves generated by earthquakes, nuclear explosions, and other seismic
sources.
Seismogram
It is a graph output by a seismograph. It is a record of the ground motion at a
measuring station as a function of time. 36
 Seismic Sources
Land Sources
o Impulsive sources: these are divided into Explosive sources such as Dynamite
(common in Petroleum exploration), and Non Explosive such as Weight drop and
Hammers (common in shallow seismic investigation).
o Non impulsive sources: the main common is Vibroseis which is a designed vehicle
that lifts its weight on a large plate in contact with ground surface in sweeps.
• Up Sweep: Frequency begins low & increases with time.
• Down Sweep: Frequency begins high & decreases with time.

Marine sources
o Air gun: this is common in offshore surveys. This gun releases highly compressed air
into water. It uses compressed air at 2000‐5000PSI to produce an explosive blast of
air. Several air guns with different sizes are fired to enhance their initial pulses &
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reduce their bubble effects
Seismic Sources Vibroseis Weighdrop Vibratory Sources
Dynamite

Parameters: Hammer
o Shot Hole Depth
o Charge Size
o Shot Point Interval
o Number Of Holes
o Source Array Pattern

Air Gun

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 Seismic sensors

o Geophones: Convert ground motion into electricity at a

rate of about 1 Volt/inch/sec (Land)

o Hydrophones: convert changing pressure into Volts

(Volts/bar) – Marine

Planting of Geophone
o Gimballed geophones and hydrophones: Geophone-
hydrophone combinations for sea-bottom work

o Marsh phones: Transition zone

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Seismograph

Portable recording System

40
Seismograph

Seismic Recorder – Block Diagram

Multi-Channel Seismic Recorder

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Seismograph

Seismic Recorder of shot point after a blast 42

Shooting Geometry

Off – End Spread All receiver groups are on one side of the
source, if the source is at the end of the
receiver groups i.e. in the direction of
progressing along the line, the source is
said to be pulling the spread. But if the
source is opposite to the direction in
which the shooting progresses, the source
is said to be pushing the spread.
Shooting Geometry

Centre Spread (Symmetrical)

Centre Spread (Asymmetrical)

Connecting the Detectors

It has been standard practice to use several detectors, laid down in

pattern(array) for each trace. We employ multiple detectors to suppress
the coherent noise and the ambient noise.
Detectors are connected in series, in parallel, or, in a combination of
parallel series.
A suitable connection (hookup) of the detectors is one which provides
maximum voltage across the input of the seismic amplifier with
minimum noise and signal distortion. This condition occurs when the
array impedance matches the seismic amplifier's impedance.
Common Depth Point
o The collection of seismic traces that correspond to a particular midpoint is called a
Common Midpoint (CMP) gather.
o In older literature, this collection of traces is referred to as a Common Depth Point
(CDP) gather.
o the CDP method is used to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio.
o This setup is variously called
Common Reflection Point (CRP),
Common Depth Point (CDP), or
Common Mid Point (CMP)
o The terms CDP and CMP both are widely used.
o The degree of multiplicity of data from a particular location is known as CDP fold.
o Presently recording use at least four/six-fold coverage (i.e. a subsurface reflection point is
sampled four/six time)
Using suitable shot-geophone/detector configuration, it is possible to record a number of
shots such that the reflection point ‘R’ is common to all applied spreads.
Common Depth Point

A). A set of rays from different shots to

detectors reflected off a common depth
point (CDP) on a horizontal reflector.

B). The common depth point is not

achieved in the case of a dipping
reflector.

Common mid-point (CMP) reflection profiling

Common Depth Point
o In the case of horizontal layers, reflection events on each CMP gather are reflected from a
common depth point (CDP).
o For dipping reflectors, the principal of CDP breaks down because the reflection points no
longer lie directly below the shot-detector/geophone midpoint (CMP) for various offsets.
o For small dips, however, the CDP stacking retains its usefulness in improving the SNR.
o In cases where dips are large (˃ 10o ), Dip Move Out (DMO) corrections may have to be
applied to a set of pre-stack CDP gathers so that each gathers contains events from the
same reflection point.
 Land and Marine Seismic Acquisition from 2D to 3D
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)

Hydrophone groups Shotpoint # 1

#6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1

Separation between midpoints is

1/2 separation between hydrophone groups

Midpoints
Hydrophone groups Shotpoint # 3

#6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1

Midpoints
49
“Elements of 3D Seismology” by Chris Liner
Different reasons for shooting a 3-D seismic
Land and Marine Seismic Acquisition from 2D to 3D
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Hydrophone groups

#6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1
Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Shotpoint # 3

Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Shotpoint # 3
Midpoints

Hydrophone groups
# # # # # #
6 5 4 3 2 1 Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Shotpoint # 3
Shotpoint # 4

Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Shotpoint # 3
Shotpoint # 4

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Midpoints
Key Parameters in 3D Seismic Acquisition Design
o Bin Size
o Fold
o Xmin
o Xmax
o Fold Taper
o Migration Apron

3-D survey layout terms

Key Parameters in 3D Seismic Acquisition Design
Bin Size
Bin size is the area over which the traces are stacked. The bin interval determines how far apart
these trace summations are displayed. Most of the time bin size and bin interval are used
interchangeably because they have the same value, but occasionally they may differ.
Fold
Stacking fold (or fold-of-coverage) is the number of field traces that contribute to one stack trace,
i.e., the number of midpoints per CMP bin. It is also the number of overlapping midpoint areas.

Fold Taper
Fold taper is the area around the full-fold area where the fold build-up occurs. The width of this
strip is not necessarily the same in the in-line and cross-line directions and needs to be estimated
separately.
Xmin
The bin at the center of the box formed by two adjacent receiver lines and two source adjacent
lines has the largest minimum offset of any bin within the box.
Xmax
The required maximum offset depends on the depth to the deeper targets that must be imaged.
One also needs to take into account normal moveout (NMO) assumptions and dip.

Migration Apron
◼ Seismic Processing
Basic steps in Seismic Processing
Basic steps in Seismic Processing

Field data TOPO

Geometry definition
Pre-processing
editing amplitude corrections
Static corrections
F-K filtering Improving signal-to-noise ratio
Sorting to
CMP domain
Deconvolution Improving vertical resolution
DMO Improving horizontal resolution
Velocity analysis, dynamic (NMO)
Improving signal-to-noise ratio
corrections, stacking
Migration Improving horizontal resolution
Filter
Post-processing
Display
 Stack Domain
Offset Offset CMP

Apply NMO Stack

Time Time Time

CMP
Migration

Unmigrated line

Migrated line
Migration

Post Stack Migration

Pre Stack Migration

Interpretation Techniques

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 Well logs
Types of Data used in Interpretation
o Base Map
o Seismic Section
o Well logs
o Checkshot data
o Vertical Seismic Profiling
o Synthetic Seismogram

Seismic Section

Base map
2-D
3-D 3D seismic Volume
 Checkshot Vertical Seismic Profiling
TWT vs Depth

Time (msec)
1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300
1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

2000
Depth (m)

2100

2200

2300

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000
 Interpretation Techniques: 2-D & 3-D Seismic Data
o 2-D and 3-D techniques have the same approach only that 3-D data seismic provides a
more detailed understanding of the subsurface by providing a clearer and more
accurate picture of the geology.
o 3-D data are of significantly higher quality than the 2-D data
o The extremely dense grid of lines makes it possible to develop a more accurate and
complete structural and stratigraphic interpretation.
o The fundamental objective of the 3-D is therefore increased resolution.
o The 3-D seismic interpretation does not rely solely on seismic data, instead, good
interpreters (or good interpretation team) try to integrate as many other types of data
as possible into their interpretations.
o This might include well log data, production data, pressure data, and other types of
geologic, geophysical, and engineering data.
o The idea is to make the interpretation as robust as possible.
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 Interpretation Methodology
o The methodology for 2-D and 3-D seismic interpretation are virtually the same only that 3-D
has an advantage over 2-D in the following areas.

A. Many geological features in the sub-surface that are of interest in hydrocarbon exploration
are 3-D in nature e.g.

• Salt Diapirs
• Major Unconformities
• Deltaic Sands

B. 2-D seismic section in reality is a cross-section of a 3-D wave field.

C. Mis-ties are identified and corrected for.

D. Much dense spatial sampling of the subsurface, much detailed image of the surface hence
more reliable interpretation.

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Viewing the data cube
Definition of the Basics

o Volume Concept: The 3D seismic data set is organized into

lines composed of traces which are merged into a dense cube
of data.

o The data cube can be sectioned or sliced in several ways.

Vertical sections
o The nomenclature for sectioning the cube or volume is as Crosslines time/depth
follows:

o Vertical Sections: In-line (or line), cross-line, arbitrary line.

Time slice

o Horizontal Sections: Time slice and depth slice

horizon slice

o Tracking Sections: Horizon slice (or seiscrop, amplitude

map) and fault slice
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Spatial resolution

Spatial resolution of 3D vs 2D seismic data sets. The area to the left shows faults and
channels mapped using conventional 3D seismic data with a line spacing of 12.5 – 50
meters whereas the map on the right shows the same structures as mapped using
From Cartwright & Huuse, 2005
conventional 2D seismic data with a line spacing of 2 kilometers.
Spatial resolution –Structural Analysis

Cormorant Field, Block 4

From Cartwright & Huuse, 2005

Definition of the Basics
Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHI)
Flat Spot - A horizontal Gas-oil, Gas-water, or Oil-water contact
may produce a distinct reflection especially where the reservoirs
are thick.

Bright Spot - high amplitude reflection produced in the

clastic section by lowering the acoustic impedance of a
reservoir. It’s the most common of the DHI.

Dim Spot - where the acoustic impedance of water water-filled

reservoir is appreciably larger than that of the adjacent rock as in a
limestone reservoir capped by shale. The lowering of the acoustic
impedance by hydrocarbon produces a dim spot.

Polarity Reversal - where the acoustic impedance of a water-

filled reservoir is only slightly larger than the adjacent rock, the
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lowering by HC may reverse the polarity.
 Typical workflow for 2-D Seismic Data Interpretation
o 2-D seismic data collation
o Data collation from available wells
o Identify Reservoir/horizons to map
o Posting of surfaces (MFS, SB) – if any
o Map all recognizable faults from dip and strike lines
o Using well check shot survey velocity, convert the depth of the Reservoir to map (well
log) to seismic time
o Plot seismic time from check shot data on seismic section (dip or strike). This seismic line
(dip or strike) is the reference line
o Carry out seismic loop ties with the reference line till seismic ties are achieved.
o On the base map, plot seismic times of the horizon
o Contour these seismic times on the base map to get a time map
o Obtain a depth map from the time map using check shot survey velocity through manual
computations or the use of the software.
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Interpretation Techniques: 2D Seismic Data

Choice of which part of a

reflection to pick.
Interpretation Techniques: 2D Seismic Data

Faults posting on seismic base map

Faults joined up to give a

north east trend

Faults joined up to give a north

west trend
Data Preview: 3D Seismic Data

From Dorn 1998

 Fault Identification and Mapping
Faults can be identified in the seismic section using the following:
o Abrupt termination of loop
o Offset of horizons
o Point of inflection
o Change in dip
o Distortion of dips
o Flattening or steeping
o Change in the pattern of events across the faults
o Change in the amplitude of the reflection package.

Fault Fault
B

section A section B
Horizon interpretation- the seed grid

1.8 s

2.0 s
The result of auto-tracking
the seed grid

1.8 s

2.0 s
Interpretation Techniques: 2-D Seismic Data

Diagram showing structural contour map from 2-D data 78

Interpretation Techniques: 3-D Seismic Data
3-D seismic interpretation workflow
o Data validation (Seismic, Well log, Biostratigraphic.)
o Loading of data (Well log, picks and seismic.)
o Correlation of wells
o Display Base map, Seismic lines and traces.
o Well to seismic matching (VSP, Synthetic seismogram)
o Identification / Interpretation of Fault
o Interpretation of Horizon.
o Calculation of Heaves and creation of fault polygon.
o Mapping.
I. Seed Gridding.
II. Time Map.
III. Time to Depth Conversion.
IV. Depth Map 79
Interpretation Techniques: 3-D Seismic Data

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Diagram showing structural contour map from 3-D
Interpretation Techniques: 3-D Seismic Data
3-D Seismic interpretation workflow using SeisVision (Geographix)
o Give your project a name.
o Describe your project
o Select a unit e.g. metric or English feet, etc.
o Define a coordinate system for database storage.
o Import wells and view general well data, spreadsheet with velocity survey and log curves.
o Create a Seis Vision interpretation.
▪ Add a 3-D Seismic volume.
▪ well location,
▪ Formation tops
▪ Velocity survey from well base.
o Open seismic sections and Time slice
o Post–stack processing using PStax.
o Well–to–seismic match or tie using synthetic seismogram, but if VSP is run no need for that.
o Pick Horizon
o Convert a Time Horizon to a Depth
o Create Quick Map
o Pick Faults
o Calculate fault heave and polygons
o Using fault heave calculator which does it automatically.
o Display Horizon, faults, Timeslice, and seismic section in 3D through tool >>3D view.
o Contouring/Creating seismic Interpretation map. using Geo Atlas to contour seismic data to create a seismic Interpretation
81
map.
Time Structure
Map

82
Depth-converted
Structure Map

83
Identification of Geologic
Features

84
 Identification of Geologic Features
Our first objective in exploration is to identify the geological situations where accumulations
of petroleum are possible.
From our geological studies, we know that these situations are characterized by five features
as follows:
o Source Rock: Thick Shale or Limestone with organic material.
o Reservoir Rock: Porous Sandstone or Carbonate.
o Migration Path: Permeable rock or zone of Fracture e.g. Silty Rock.
o Traps: include Structural or Stratigraphic traps
o Seal: Cap Rock

85
 Identification of Geologic Features

o 3D seismic data provide images of geological features that are

approximately circular in plan view but whose shape and origin may
not be possible with 2D seismic data.
o 3D seismic has made it possible for the identification of structural
and stratigraphic features
o The structural features include, faults and horizons
o The stratigraphic features include unconformity, reefs, salt domes,
channels, etc.

86
Identification of Geologic Features
Identification of the Unconformities:
Unconformities are identified based on the reflection termination patterns which include:

o Onlap
o Downlap
o Toplap
o Erosional truncation

87
Common Trap Types
Simple 4-Way 3-Way Against Fault

Spill point

Stratigraphic targets
within closure Stratigraphic Trap
Well – To – Seismic Match

89
Well – To – Seismic Match
o Seismic provides regional control on the geometries of sequences
and wells are used to determine the lithology of these geometries.
o Seismic information is in two-way time (TWT) While well
information is in-depth.
o Since seismic data respond to the acoustic properties of rocks, the
geology needs to be expressed in some comparable form, hence well
– to – seismic tie.
o The sonic (velocity) and density logs from wells are the subsurface
information for well–to–seismic tie.
o The sonic log and the density log are multiplied together point by
point to give an acoustic impedance log. 90
Well – To – Seismic Match
o This is converted from depth to time using some velocity functions.
o The acoustic impedance values are subtracted from one another progressively
down the log now in time to obtain the acoustic impedance contrasts which are
direct expressions of seismic reflectivity.
o This reflectivity is a series of spikes with very high frequency content, this is
because the information came directly from well logs measured down a
borehole.
o Seismic data has a lower frequency content because the seismic waves have a
longer transit time from the surface down and back again (TWT).
o The seismic energy pulse here is broad because of the lower frequency content.
o A wavelet which is the estimate of the shape of this pulse is made.
91
Well – To – Seismic Match
o Each spike on the reflectivity log is given this broad shape.
o The wavelets are now superimposed to give the synthetic seismic trace or seismogram
which is compared to the real seismic trace at the well location and a match is made.
A Synthetic Seismogram Display

A synthetic seismogram display. From left to right the tracks show: a) the time-depth relationship, b) a gamma ray log with
picks, c) the sonic log, d) the synthetic seismogram repeated 3 times, e) the synthetic (black) overlain on traces extracted from
a seismic data set. The density log used in this example is not shown. The synthetic matches the seismic at some levels but not
at others. 92
Well – To – Seismic Match

93
Well – To – Seismic Match

The Modeling Process 94

Seismic Attributes
Facies Interpretation

Based on geometry and dimensions, for example:

o Environment of Deposition (EOD)

o Reefs
o Salt diapirs
o Channels
o Turbidites
Facies Interpretation (Cont’d)

97
Diagram showing salt dome and bifurcating channel
Facies Interpretation (Cont’d) Imaginary Datum

Sands
Salt

W E

Diagram showing Salt Dome 98

Facies Interpretation (Cont’d)

A gas-charged fluvial sandstone in its true structural position

Buried meandering river channel Areal photography of a meandering river

Handcuffing the Interpreter

o Lack of time-depth information

o Lack of sonic logs (synthetics)
o Poor quality data
o Lack of survey information
o Lack of geologic input
o Lack of engineering input
o Software limitations

100
Fluids in the rocks

Sometimes we can amplitude map

even image the
fluids in the pore
spaces in the
sedimentary rock
with 3D seismic
data as in this
example from an
oil-field in the Gulf
of Mexico.
The amplitude of Water
the seismic injectors
reflection changes
depending on Producing
whether the pore wells
spaces are filled
with oil, gas or
water. oil gas water