An English Presentation

Subject : Mechanics

Prepared by :

1. AMIGBATIN Alex G.
2. ANANI Espérencia
3. BOSSA Bénilde
4. DEGLA S.Korede.A.
5. DOUVI Beryl
6. DJETO Luc
7. KPINSOTON Mendel

Instructor :
Dr NOUNADONDE J.

1er avril 2025

Table des matières

1 INTRODUCTION 3

2 A brief history of mechanic 4

3 Classical Mechanics 4
3.1 Fundmental laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Applications of Classical mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4 Static mechanics 5
4.1 Fundmental laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2 Type of equilibrium in statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3 Application of statics : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.4 Mathematical tools of statics : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5 Solid mechanics 8
5.1 Fundamental Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.2 Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

6 Fluid Mechanics 9
6.1 I. A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.2 Fundamental Laws of Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.3 Main Laws of Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.4 Applications of Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

7 Relativistic mechanics 13
7.1 Fundmental laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.2 Key Concepts : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.3 Application : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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8 Quantum mechanics 17
8.1 Fundmental laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
8.2 Impact on the Modern World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

9 CONCLUSION 19

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1 INTRODUCTION
Mechanics is a fundamental branch of physics that helps us understand the physical world
around us. It deals with motion of objects and the forces that cause these motions. Whether
we are studying the movement of planets, the behavior of fluids,or the stress and strain in
materials, mechanics provides the framework for understanding these phenomena.
Throughout our presentation we will explore various type of mechanics, including classical
mechanics,fluid mechanics,quantum mechanics, solid mechanics, static mechanics and relativic
mechanics. Each of these branches plays a crucial role in explaining defferent aspects of the
physical universe, and we will dive deeper into them as we move forward.
To begin, we will focus on classical mechanics, the foundation of much of physics and the
study of the motion of everyday object.

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2 A brief history of mechanic
From the earliest observations of Aristotle to the revolutionary theories of Newton and
Einstein, mechanics has evolved into a complex and indispensable science, both in our daily
lives and in modern industry. It allows us to understand and predict the behavior of objects
in motion, whether on a macroscopic scale, such as planets, or a microscopic scale, such as
subatomic particles.
The roots of mechanics can be traced back to ancient Greece, where philosophers like Aristotle
laid the groundwork by describing the natural motion of objects. However, it was not until the
17th century that mechanics began to take its modern form. Galileo Galilei’s experiments with
inclined planes and his observations of celestial bodies challenged the prevailing Aristotelian
views and paved the way for a new understanding of motion.
The true revolution in mechanics came with Sir Isaac Newton, whose laws of motion and univer-
sal gravitation, published in his seminal work ”Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica”
in 1687, provided a comprehensive framework for understanding the physical world. Newton’s
principles dominated the field for over two centuries until the early 20th century, when Albert
Einstein introduced his theories of relativity, which transformed our understanding of space,
time, and gravity.
In this presentation, we will explore the fundamental principles of mechanics, its various
branches, and its practical applications in diverse fields such as engineering, aeronautics, and
medicine. We will also delve into the historical milestones that have shaped the development
of this essential science.

3 Classical Mechanics
Classical mechanics is a branch of physics that studies the motion of objects and the forces
acting on them. It was developed mainly by Isaac Newton in the 17th century and is based
on three fundamental laws of motion. Classical mechanics helps us understand and predict the
movement of objects in everyday life, from the motion of a car to the orbit of planets.

3.1 Fundmental laws

Newton’s first law

The law of inertia, states that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted
upon by an external force.

The second law

Known as the law of acceleration, establishes that the force acting on an object is equal to
its mass multiplied by its acceleration.
X
F~ = M × ~a

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The third law

Called the action-reaction law, states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
Several key concepts are fundamental to classical mechanics. Kinematics deals with the mo-
tion of objects without considering forces, focusing on velocity, acceleration, and displacement.
Dynamics studies forces and their effects on motion. Energy and work play a crucial role : work
is done when a force is applied to an object, and energy exists in different forms, such as kinetic
energy (related to motion) and potential energy (stored energy). Another essential principle is
momentum, which is the product of mass and velocity. In an isolated system, total momentum
is conserved, which is crucial in analyzing collisions.

3.2 Applications of Classical mechanics

Classical mechanics has numerous applications. In engineering, it is used for designing ma-
chines, bridges, and vehicles. In astronomy, Newton’s laws explain planetary motion. In sports
science, mechanics helps understand and optimize athletes’ movements.
Despite its broad applicability, classical mechanics has limitations. It does not accurately
describe objects moving at very high speeds (close to the speed of light) or at microscopic scales
(atoms and subatomic particles). In such cases, Einstein’s theory of relativity and quantum
mechanics provide more accurate explanations.Classical mechanics is the foundation of physics
and engineering. Although modern physics has extended our understanding of the universe,
Newtonian mechanics remains essential for solving many real-world problems.

4 Static mechanics
Static mechanic or statics is a branch of mechanics that studies the equilibrium of systems
under the influence of force. Unlike dynamics which focuses on movement, statics is concerned
with immobile or balanced objects-those whose velocity does not change.

4.1 Fundmental laws

Statics relies on tow main equilibrium condition :

Force Equilibrum :

The vector sum of all forces acting on an object must be zero.

X
F~ = ~0

Moment equilibrium :

The sum of all moments (or torques) acting on an object must also be zero.
X
~ = ~0
M

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4.2 Type of equilibrium in statics
In static mechanics, equilibrum refers to a state in which an object remains at rest or moves
uniformly because the sum of all forces and moment acting on it is zero. There are three main
of equilibrum : stable, unstable, and neutral equilibrum. Useing a bottle as an example, here’s
how they work :
Stable equilibrium :
If the object is slight displaced, it returns to its initial position.
Example : A bottle standing upright on a flat surface.
Reason : The center of gravity (CG) is at its lowest possible position, and any small
displacement rises the CG, increasing potential energy.
Unstable Equilibrum :
A slight displacement causes the object to move further away from its equilibrium position.
Example : A bottle balanced upside-down on its cap. Any slight tilt will cause it to fall.
Reason : The center of gravity (CG) is at its highest possible position, and any small
displacement lowers the CG, releasing potential energy and causing instability.
Neutral equilibrium :
The object remains in equilibrium regardeless of its position.
Example : A bottle lying on its side. If you roll it slightly, it remains in the new position
without returning or falling over.
Reason : The center of gravity (CG) remins at the same height regardless of movement,
meaning no net force or torque acts to restore or move it further.

4.3 Application of statics :

1. Automobiles : The principles of statics are used to design vehicles capable of evenly
distributing forces to ensure their safety and stability. Engineers apply these concepts to
optimize the chassis structure, improve the performance of suspensions and braking sys-
tems, and prevent deformations. Thanks to statics, every vehicle component is designed
to withstand the constraints imposed by weight, impacts, and external forces, ensuring
a comfortable and reliable driving experience.

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2. Buildings :
The principles of statics are used to design buildings capable of resisting forces such
as gravity, wind, and even earthquakes in some cases. Engineers use these principles
to ensure that foundations, walls, and beams distribute loads uniformly and that the
structure remains stable.

3. Bridges and Structures : Static mechanics is involved in analyzing the forces acting on
the bridge (the weight of the bridge, vehicles, wind, etc.) and ensuring the bridge remains
stable. For instance, in suspension bridges, statics calculates the tensions in the cables
and the forces supported by the pylons to ensure balance and strength.

4. Chairs and Tables :

When you sit on a chair, static mechanics determines how the weight is distributed
across the chair legs. It analyzes the forces to prevent tipping or collapsing. The design
of chairs relies on these calculations to ensure stability under different loads.

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4.4 Mathematical tools of statics :
To analyse a static problem, we use :
Force diagramme to visualise all the force acting on an object
Equilibrum Equations to solve unknows (reaction forces, tensions, etc)
Force and Moment Vectors in advanced mechanics to describe force and torques on a body
In sum statics is fundamental in ensuring safety, durability, and efficienty in many fields.

5 Solid mechanics
Solid mechanics studies how solid materials react to *external forces*, *pressure*, and *tem-
perature changes*. This field is important in engineering and construction.

5.1 Fundamental Laws

Newton’s Laws of Motion

First law : An object at rest stays at rest unless a force acts on it.
Second law :
F orce = mass × acceleration(F = ma).

Third law : Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Hooke’s Law

It states that the force needed to stretch or compress a material is proportional to

the amount of deformation.
Formula :
F =k×x

(where k is the stiffness and x is the displacement).

Stress-Strain Relationship

Stress is the force applied per unit area.

F
σ= .
A
Strain is the change in length divided by the original length

∆L
=
L
.

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5.2 Key Concepts
Elasticity :

The ability of a material to return to its original shape after being stretched.
Example : Rubber band.

Plasticity :

When a material deforms permanently after a force is applied.

Example : Clay.

Deformation :

Change in shape due to force. It can be elastic (temporary) or plastic (permanent).

Fracture :

Breaking of a material when stress exceeds the strength limit.

5.3 Applications
Buildings and Bridges

Engineers use solid mechanics to design safe structures that can withstand forces like wind
and earthquakes.
Example : Skyscrapers are designed with flexible materials to resist earthquakes.

Car Manufacturing

Car bodies are designed to absorb impact forces to protect passengers.

Example : Crumple zones in cars reduce the force of accidents.

Prosthetics and Medical Devices

Artificial limbs use strong but flexible materials to mimic real movement.
Example : Titanium implants in bones.

Sports Equipment

Tennis rackets, golf clubs, and bicycles are made from materials that balance strength and
flexibility.

6 Fluid Mechanics

6.1 I. A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics

Water and air, given their inherent character of earthly life, have always attracted the
attention of men. While air has always been everywhere, water is not evenly distributed in all

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regions of the world. Thus, before it was studied, fluid mechanics was widely used for everyday
applications related to water control such as irrigation in agriculture, canals, fountains, etc.
The study of water and its mechanical behaviour did not move from concrete applications to
theory until the third century BC with Archimedes who studied the principles that are at the
origin of fluid statics, in particular with his eponymous principle, then with Leonardo da Vinci
who described both the multiple types of flows and formulated the principle of conservation
of mass or principle of continuity. It was he who laid the foundations of the discipline and
introduced many notions of hydrodynamics, including streamlines. Then, the various advances
in mathematics and computer science allowed the study of fluids to be extended to gases as
well as the advent of computational fluid mechanics.

6.2 Fundamental Laws of Fluid Mechanics

Definition and Main Characteristic Quantities of Fluids

Fluid : A fluid can be thought of as a substance made up of a large number of material

particles, which are very small and free to move relative to each other. The cohesive forces
between elementary particles are very weak, so that the fluid is a body without a form of its
own that takes the shape of the container that contains it. Fluids include liquids (water, molten
metals, etc.), gases and plasmas.
Fluid mechanics : Fluid mechanics is a field of physics devoted to the study of the
behaviour of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the associated internal forces. It includes
two subfields : fluid statics, which is the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, which is
the study of fluids in motion.
Volumic Mass : This is the ratio of the mass of the fluid to the volume it occupies. It is
denoted by ρ
m
ρ=
V
When ρ is independent of time, the fluid is incompressible ; otherwise, it is compressible.
Pressure : : In the study of fluid mechanics, forces such as volume and surface forces will
be considered. We can therefore define the force that is exerted at a point in a fluid. Let dS be
a surface element around a point M on which a force dF is exerted.

dF
p=
dS
We call pressure at the point M, the scalar quantity.
Viscosity : It characterizes the resistance of a fluid to flow when subjected to a force. There
are two types :
- Dynamic viscosityµ is given by :

∆v
F = µS
∆z
- Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density :
µ
ν=
ρ

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6.3 Main Laws of Fluid Mechanics
Hydrostatics

Hydrostatics studies stationary fluids and is based on the principle that pressure differences
depend only on vertical distance. The fundamental equation of hydrostatics is :

pB − pA = ρg(zA − zB )

Fluid Dynamics

Conservation of Mass : Also called the continuity equation, it expresses the conservation
of mass in a fluid flow. It is written :
dρ ~ ~
+ ∇(ρU ) = 0
dt
~ the flow velocity of the fluid.
With : ρthedensityandU
Conservation of Momentum :
Dv
ρ = −∇p + µ∇2 v + ρg
Dt
Bernoulli’s Theorem : For a steady, incompressible, and inviscid fluid :

v2 p
+ gz + = constant
2 ρ

6.4 Applications of Fluid Mechanics

Aeronautics

Lift : The wing of an airplane is designed so that the air flowing over the airplane travels
a greater distance and therefore has to go faster while the air under the wing travels a shorter
distance and therefore has to go slowly. According to Bernoulli’s equation seen above,

1
P + ρv 2 = constante
2
Since the air speed is higher above the wing, the pressure is lower while the pressure below
the wing is higher. This pressure difference generates an upward force called lift that allows the
aircraft to maintain altitude
Supersonic flight : Aerodynamics at supersonic speeds must account for these compressi-
bility effects and optimize the wing design to achieve low wave drag and efficient lift production.
In addition, the characteristics of supersonic profiles, such as thin and steeply banked wings,
are essential for minimizing drag and maximizing performance in supersonic flight conditions.
These fundamental principles form the basis for the design of efficient and high-performance
supersonic aircraft.

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Hydroelectric dams

One of the most extensive applications of fluid mechanics is in the field of power generation.
Thus, hydroelectric power plants use the principles of statics and fluid dynamics to produce
electricity : The potential energy of water at a certain height is transformed into kinetic energy
when it descends, which turns the turbine, thus generating mechanical energy that will then
be transformed into electrical energy.

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Automotive Industry

Aerodynamics, apart from its application to aeronautics, is also involved in the design of
cars, especially sports cars, because given that they are supposed to evolve at very high speeds,
their shapes must be optimized in order to reduce the resistance of the machine to air as much
as possible during its evolution, thus allowing it to reach unimaginable speeds... Example : The
Bugatti Chiron

With a top speed exceeding 420 km per hour, aerodynamics are key to ensuring stability,
cooling and reduced drag. To do this
• The Chiron has a streamlined body inspired by fighter jets to reduce air resistance
• Its low, rounded hood minimizes frontal pressure
• The extended rear allows for better airflow evacuation

Civil Engineering Applications

In the field of construction, aerodynamic studies make it possible to measure the influence of
wind on a building and vice versa before it is built. The shape of certain buildings, in particular
the skyscraper, is optimized with regard to the aerodynamic constraints of the region concerned
in order to minimize the forces exerted by the wind on the building.
Fluid mechanics plays a crucial role in various engineering disciplines, from aerodynamics
to hydroelectric energy production.

7 Relativistic mechanics
Relativistic mechanics, a theory developed by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century,
fundamentally transformed our understanding of space, time, and energy. Unlike classical me-
chanics, which deals with velocities much smaller than the speed of light, relativistic mechanics
addresses the behavior of objects moving at speeds close to that of light. This framework is
essential for explaining phenomena in high-energy astrophysics and particle physics, bridging
the gap between the macroscopic world and the subatomic realm.

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7.1 Fundmental laws
Relativistic mechanics is based on several fundamental principles that have revolutionized
our understanding of the universe.

The principle of relativity :

Which states that the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial frames of reference. This
principle can be traced back to Galileo Galilei, who proposed that the laws of motion are
the same in any inertial frame. Albert Einstein extended this principle to include the laws of
electromagnetism, fundamentally changing our understanding of space and time.

The invariance of the speed of light :

Which postulates that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the
motion of the source or the observer. This idea emerged from the Michelson-Morley experiment
in 1887, which aimed to detect the relative motion of matter through the stationary luminiferous
aether (”aether drift”). To the surprise of many, the experiment yielded a null result, suggesting
that the speed of light is constant in all directions, regardless of the motion of the observer or
the source. This counterintuitive outcome paved the way for Einstein’s revolutionary postulate
in his 1905 paper on special relativity.

The equivalence of mass and energy

encapsulated in the famous equation

E = m × c2

highlights the interchangeable nature of mass and energy. This principle was astonishing at
the time, challenging the classical notion that mass and energy were distinct quantities. A
poignant historical anecdote illustrates the significance of this equation : during the Manhattan
Project in the 1940s, scientists used this principle to unlock the immense energy stored in atomic
nuclei, leading to the development of nuclear weapons. Einstein, a pacifist, was deeply conflicted
about the use of his groundbreaking work for such purposes. His equation also underpins much
of modern particle physics, explaining how particles gain mass through interactions.
These principles collectively underpin the vast and intricate framework of relativistic me-
chanics, shaping how we understand motion and energy at relativistic speeds. Each principle
has a rich historical background and anecdotal significance, illustrating the profound shifts in
scientific thought that Einstein’s theories prompted

7.2 Key Concepts :

Time Dilation :

In special relativity, time intervals between events differ for observers in relative motion,
with time appearing to slow down for objects moving close to the speed of light. This concept,
known as time dilation, was famously illustrated by the ”twin paradox,” where one twin travels

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at relativistic speeds in a spaceship while the other stays on Earth. Upon returning, the traveling
twin is younger than the one who remained on Earth, demonstrating the effect of time dilation.

Length Contraction :

Length Contraction : Objects moving at relativistic speeds appear contracted along the
direction of motion when observed from a stationary frame of reference. This phenomenon,
called length contraction, was experimentally validated by observations of particles traveling
at near-light speeds. For instance, cosmic ray muons, which have short lifetimes, can reach the
Earth’s surface because their lifetimes are extended and their travel distances contracted due
to their high velocities.

Lorentz transformation :

Lorentz transformation is fundamental in the theory of special relativity, introduced by

Albert Einstein. It mathematically describes how the measurements of space and time by two
observers moving relative to each other are related. This transformation ensures that the laws
of physics remain the same for all observers, regardless of their constant relative velocity.
The Lorentz transformation equations are :

x0 = γ(x − vt)
vx
t0 = γ(t − 2 )
c
Here :
- x and t are the position and time in one reference frame, while x0 and t0 are those in the
moving reference frame.
- v is the relative velocity between the two frames.
- c is the speed of light in a vacuum.
- γ called the Lorentz factor, is given by :

1
γ=p
1 − v 2 /c2
The transformations account for phenomena such as time dilation and length contraction,
which are key outcomes of special relativity.
Would you like to dive deeper into its derivation or its applications in physics ? Or perhaps
explore related topics like Minkowski spacetime ?

Spacetime :

In general relativity, gravity is not a force but a curvature of spacetime caused by mass and
energy. Objects move along geodesics, the shortest paths in curved spacetime. This concept was
spectacularly confirmed during a solar eclipse in 1919, when Sir Arthur Eddington observed the
bending of starlight around the Sun, providing empirical support for Einstein’s theory. This
bending of light, known as gravitational lensing, has since become a critical tool in modern
astrophysics for studying dark matter and distant galaxies III.

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7.3 Application :
Particle Accelerators :

In particle physics, relativistic mechanics is crucial for the design and operation of particle
accelerators, such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. The LHC began construction
in 1998 and was completed in 2008. These accelerators propel particles to speeds approaching
the speed of light, allowing scientists to study fundamental particles and forces. The principles
of relativity help engineers design components that can withstand the extreme conditions within
the accelerator, such as the intense magnetic fields and high energy collisions.

GPS Technology :

The Global Positioning System (GPS) relies on relativistic mechanics to maintain its accu-
racy. The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978, and the system became fully operational
in 1995. Satellites in orbit experience different gravitational fields and velocities compared to
those on Earth, causing their clocks to run at different rates. Engineers must account for both
special and general relativistic effects to ensure that the timing information from the satellites
is precise, allowing for accurate location determination. Without these corrections, GPS would
be inaccurate by several kilometers.

High-Speed Electronics :

Relativistic mechanics also plays a role in the design of high-speed electronic components,
such as transistors and integrated circuits. These components have been continuously develo-
ped since the advent of semiconductor technology in the mid-20th century. As the speeds of
electronic signals approach significant fractions of the speed of light, engineers must consider
relativistic effects to ensure the accurate functioning of these devices. This consideration allows
for the development of faster and more efficient electronic components, which are essential for
modern computing and communication technologies.

Nuclear Engineering :

Relativistic mechanics plays a crucial role in nuclear engineering, particularly in the design
and operation of nuclear reactors. The principles of relativity help engineers understand the be-
havior of particles within the reactor, such as neutrons and protons, which can reach relativistic
speeds. This understanding is essential for controlling nuclear reactions and ensuring the safety
and efficiency of the reactors. The first commercial nuclear power plant began operation in
1956. Relativistic Jet Propulsion : In aerospace engineering, relativistic mechanics is important
for the study and potential development of relativistic jet propulsion systems. These systems
aim to propel spacecraft to speeds close to that of light, allowing for rapid interstellar travel.
Theoretical models of relativistic jet propulsion are still in the research phase, with ongoing
studies to explore the feasibility of such systems.

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X-ray and Gamma-ray Technology :

Relativistic mechanics is also relevant in the development of X-ray and gamma-ray techno-
logies used in medical imaging and industrial applications. The high-energy photons involved in
these technologies can exhibit relativistic effects, influencing their interactions with matter. En-
gineers use the principles of relativity to design and optimize X-ray and gamma-ray devices for
better imaging resolution and safety. X-ray technology was discovered in 1895, and gamma-ray
technology has been developed and refined throughout the 20th and 21st centurie.
Relativistic mechanics, developed by Albert Einstein, transformed our understanding of the
universe. Its principles have led to groundbreaking discoveries and technological advancements
in fields like astrophysics, particle physics, and engineering. From explaining the behavior of
high-speed particles to ensuring the accuracy of GPS, relativistic mechanics continues to be a
cornerstone of modern science and technology. Its impact is profound and far-reaching, illus-
trating the power of innovative thinking and scientific exploration.

8 Quantum mechanics
Historical Background : Birth of a Scientific Revolution
At the end of the 19th century, classical physics (Newton, Maxwell) seemed complete. Ho-
wever, certain phenomena like blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect couldn’t be
explained. In 1900, Max Planck proposed a revolutionary idea : energy is emitted in discrete
”quanta” (packets), marking the birth of quantum mechanics. In 1905, Albert Einstein expan-
ded this idea by explaining the photoelectric effect using photons—particles of light.

8.1 Fundmental laws

Planck’s Law (1900) – Quantized Energy

To resolve the blackbody radiation paradox, Planck proposed energy is emitted absorbed
in discrete packets. Here, h is Planck’s constant, and v is frequency.

h
E=
ν

Photoelectric Effect (Einstein, 1905) – Particle Nature of Light

Einstein showed light consists of photons whose energy depends on frequency f, validating
quanta and earning him the 1921 Nobel Prize.

h
E=
f

De Broglie’s Relation (1924) – Wave-Particle Duality

De Broglie proposed all matter (e.g., electrons) has a “pilot wave,” confirmed by electron
diffraction experiments.
h
λ=
p

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De Broglie’s Relation (1924) – Wave-Particle Duality

Schrödinger described particles using a wave function ψ, where its square gives the proba-
bility of finding the particle.
dψ H
=
dt ψ

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (1927)

Heisenberg showed precise simultaneous measurement of position (δx)andmomentum(δp)

is impossible, founding quantum indeterminism.

~
∆x × ∆p ≥
2

Pauli Exclusion Principle (1925)

Pauli explained atomic structure and the periodic table, paving the way for quantum che-
mistry.
Two fermions (e.g., electrons) cannot occupy the same quantum state.

8.2 Impact on the Modern World

Quantum mechanics revolutionized technology :
- Electronics : Transistors, semiconductors (energy band theory).
- Medical Imaging : MRI (atomic spin), PET scans (antimatter).
- Lasers : Quantum coherence (CDs, surgery, fiber optics).
- Quantum Cryptography : Unhackable protocols (e.g., BB84 with entangled photons).
- Quantum Computers : Qubits using superposition and entanglement (Google, IBM).
Other Contributions :
- Quantum Chemistry : Modeling molecules (DNA, drugs).
- Atomic Clocks : Precision via hyperfine transitions (GPS, 5G networks).
- Philosophy : Reality, free will, multiverse (Everett’s “many-worlds” interpretation).
Born from a conceptual crisis, quantum mechanics redefined the microscopic world, blending
elegant math with baffling paradoxes. While Einstein called it “incomplete,” its laws spawned
the digital age. Today, from quantum computers to research on quantum gravity, it remains a
cornerstone of science—proving the universe is stranger than classical physics ever imagined.
“Those who are not shocked by quantum mechanics have not understood it.”
Niels Bohr.

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9 CONCLUSION
In this presentation, we have covered the main types of mechanics, form classical mechanics
to quantum mechanics, exploring how each type contributes to our understanding of the world.
We have discussed how classical mechanics describes everyday motion,fluid mechanics studies
the behavior of liquids and gaz, and quantum mechanics explains the behavior of particles on
a microscopic scale. We also explored the significance of solid mechanics in engineering and
material science, as well as the role of static mechanics in dealing with complex systems.
Mechanics as a field , is far from complete. There remain numerous open questions that
scientists continue to investigate.
How can we reconcile quantum mechanics with general relativity ? What breakthroughs are
on the horizon in material science ? And how can mechanics help address global challenges,
such as climate change ?
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1. Written in LaTeX by AMIGBATIN Alex G.(+229 0191163408)

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