JSS2 THIRD TERM WORK SCHEME

WEEK 1 & 2 JOINTS AND MUSCLES

WEEK 3 BLOOD
WEEK 4 & 5 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
WEEK 6 HEALTHY LIFESTYLE
WEEK 7 MID TERM
WEEK 8 & 9 INVESTIGATING ECOSYSTEMS
WEEK 10 REVISION & EXAMINATON

JOINTS AND MUSCLES

Joints and muscles are vital components of the human
body's musculoskeletal system, facilitating movement
and providing structural support.
Joints
Joints are the connections between bones, allowing for
flexibility and movement. There are three main types of
joints:
1. Fixed Joints (Immovable): These are rigid connections
between bones, such as those in the skull. They provide
stability and protection to vital organs.
2. Slightly Movable Joints: Found in areas like the spine
and ribcage, these joints allow for limited movement and
flexibility. Cartilage acts as a cushion between bones,
reducing friction.
3. Freely Movable Joints (Synovial Joints): These joints
enable a wide range of movements and are found in the
limbs. They consist of a joint capsule, synovial fluid,
cartilage, and ligaments, ensuring smooth motion and
stability. Some types of moveable joints include:
• Ball and Socket Joint:
• Structure: This joint consists of a rounded end of
one bone fitting into a cup-like socket of another
bone.
• Function: Allows for a wide range of motion in
multiple directions, including rotation. Examples
include the shoulder and hip joints.
• Hinge Joint:
 • Structure: Formed when the convex surface of
one bone fits into the concave surface of
another bone.
• Function: Primarily allows movement in one
plane or direction, like bending and
straightening. Examples include the elbow and
knee joints.
• Pivot Joint:
• Structure: Involves a cylindrical bony process
rotating within a ring-like ligament or bone.
• Function: Enables rotational movement around
a central axis. Example includes the joint
between the atlas and axis vertebrae, allowing
the head to rotate.

Figure : Structure of a joint

X-ray photographs of joints
X-ray photos of joints are like detailed snapshots showing
bone structure and alignment. They help doctors see if
there are fractures, arthritis, or other issues. These
images reveal bone shape, size, and any misalignments.
They also show if the joint space is normal or narrowed,
which can suggest cartilage loss. Sometimes, soft tissues
around the joint or foreign objects can also be seen. By
looking at these X-rays, doctors can decide on the best
treatment for joint problems.
Muscles
Muscles are the contractile tissues responsible for
movement. They work in pairs, with one muscle
contracting (agonist) while the other relaxes (antagonist).
There are three main types of muscles:
1. Skeletal Muscles: Attached to bones by tendons, these
muscles are under voluntary control and enable body
movements such as walking and lifting.
2. Smooth Muscles: Found in internal organs like the
stomach and blood vessels, smooth muscles control
involuntary movements like digestion and blood flow
regulation.
3. Cardiac Muscle: Found only in the heart, cardiac
muscle contracts rhythmically to pump blood throughout
the body. It has characteristics of both skeletal and
smooth muscles.

Figure : Flexing and extending the arm

BLOOD
Blood is a vital fluid that circulates throughout the human
body, delivering essential substances to cells and
removing waste products. Comprising plasma, red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets, blood plays a crucial
role in maintaining homeostasis and sustaining life.
1. Plasma
• Plasma is the liquid component of blood,
constituting approximately 55% of its volume.
• It mainly consists of water (about 90%), along with
dissolved proteins, ions, hormones, and waste
products.
• Plasma serves as a medium for transporting
nutrients, gases (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide),
and metabolic waste products.
2. Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
• Also known as erythrocytes, RBCs are the most
abundant cells in the blood.
• Their primary function is to transport oxygen from
the lungs to tissues and organs throughout the body
and to carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs for
exhalation.
• RBCs contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds to
oxygen molecules, giving blood its characteristic red
color.
3. White Blood Cells (WBCs)
• WBCs, or leukocytes, are a crucial component of the
body's immune system.
• They defend the body against infections and foreign
invaders such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
• WBCs can be further classified into different types,
including neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes,
eosinophils, and basophils, each with specific roles in
immune response.
4. Platelets
• Platelets, or thrombocytes, are cell fragments that
play a crucial role in blood clotting.
• When blood vessels are injured, platelets adhere to
the site of injury, forming a plug to prevent excessive
bleeding.
• They also release various factors that promote the
formation of fibrin, a protein that strengthens the
blood clot.

Figure : Components of blood

Blood Saves Lives
Blood is vital for saving lives in many ways:
• Donating Blood: When people give blood, it helps in
surgeries, treating illnesses like anemia, and aiding
cancer patients.
• Emergency Transfusions: In accidents or surgeries,
quick blood transfusions can stabilize patients and
prevent organ failure.
• Treating Disorders: People with blood diseases rely
on blood products to feel better and live healthier
lives.
• Matching Blood: Making sure donated blood
matches the recipient's type prevents problems
during transfusions.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Breathing, also known as Ventilation, describes the
movement of air in and out of the lungs. Respiration on
the other hand is a series of chemical reactions taking
place inside a cell to release energy.
Figure : Equation for aerobic respiration
Types of respiration
Two types of respiration which take place in a cell are:
Aerobic Respiration
• Uses glucose and oxygen to produce energy
(ATP) in cells.
• Occurs in mitochondria.
• Produces carbon dioxide and water as
byproducts.
• Highly efficient, yielding a large amount of ATP
per glucose molecule.
• Examples include activities like jogging or
cycling.
Anaerobic Respiration:
• Occurs without oxygen in low-oxygen
environments.
• Occurs in the cell cytoplasm.
• Produces energy less efficiently compared to
aerobic respiration.
• Generates byproducts like lactic acid or ethanol.
• Examples include sprinting or fermentation
processes in microorganisms like yeast.
Parts of the respiratory system
The air passages and tubes
The air passages and tubes of the respiratory system
form a network of interconnected structures responsible
for transporting air to and from the lungs. They include:
1. Nasal Cavity: The nasal cavity is the starting point of
the respiratory system. It warms, humidifies, and filters
the air as it enters the body. The nasal passages are lined
with mucous membranes and tiny hairs called cilia, which
trap dust, pollen, and other particles, preventing them
from entering the lungs.
2. Larynx: The larynx is located below the pharynx and
houses the vocal cords. It plays a crucial role in speech
production and serves as a protective mechanism during
swallowing by closing off the airway to prevent food and
liquid from entering the lungs.
3. Trachea: Commonly referred to as the windpipe, the
trachea is a rigid tube composed of cartilage rings. It
extends from the larynx into the chest cavity, where it
divides into two main bronchi, one leading to each lung.
The trachea serves as a pipe for air to travel to and from
the lungs.
5. Bronchi and Bronchioles: The bronchi are the primary
airways within the lungs, branching off from the trachea
and entering each lung. Inside the lungs, the bronchi
further divide into smaller tubes called bronchioles,
which eventually lead to the alveoli (air sacs). The
bronchioles are surrounded by smooth muscle, allowing
for constriction and dilation to regulate airflow.
6. Alveoli: Alveoli are the microscopic air sacs where gas
exchange occurs. They are surrounded by a dense
network of capillaries, facilitating the diffusion of oxygen
into the bloodstream and the removal of carbon dioxide
from the blood.
Chest wall and diaphragm
Chest Wall
• Protects and surrounds the lungs.
• Made up of ribs, sternum, and muscles.
• Expands during inhalation, helping draw air into
the lungs.
• Recoils during exhalation, aiding in pushing air
out.
Diaphragm
• Muscle beneath lungs, separating chest and
abdomen.
• Contracts during inhalation, flattening
downward.
• This creates space in the chest, pulling air into
the lungs.
• Relaxes during exhalation, allowing air to be
pushed out.

Figure : Summary of breathing movements

Asthma as a respiratory disease
Asthma is a common lung problem where the airways
become swollen and narrow, making it hard to breathe.
People with asthma may wheeze, cough, feel tightness in
their chest, or struggle to catch their breath. Things like
allergies, cold air, or exercise can trigger asthma attacks.
While there's no cure, medicines and avoiding triggers
can help manage it.
A common treatment for asthma is using
inhalers. These devices deliver medicine
directly into the lungs to relax the muscles
around the airways and reduce inflammation,
making breathing easier.

Exchanging gases
Oxygen and carbon dioxide move between blood and air
in the lungs through a process called gas exchange.
Here's a brief explanation:
1. Oxygen Movement
• Oxygen-rich air is inhaled into the lungs and
travels to tiny air sacs called alveoli.
• In the alveoli, oxygen diffuses across thin walls
into nearby blood capillaries, where it binds to
hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells.
• The oxygenated blood is then carried away from
the lungs to the rest of the body, where it's used
for cellular respiration to produce energy.
2. Carbon Dioxide Movement
• Carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular
respiration, is carried by the blood back to the
lungs.
• In the blood capillaries surrounding the alveoli,
carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the
alveoli.
• From the alveoli, carbon dioxide is exhaled out
of the lungs during exhalation, completing the
cycle.
This gas exchange process occurs due to the
concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the
surrounding capillaries. Oxygen moves from areas of high
concentration in the alveoli to areas of low concentration
in the blood, while carbon dioxide moves from areas of
high concentration in the blood to areas of low
concentration in the alveoli.

Figure : Gaseous exchange in the air sacs

A HEALTHY LIFESTYLE
A healthy lifestyle encompasses various
practices and habits that promote physical,
mental, and emotional well-being. Common
components of a healthy lifestyle include:
A healthy lifestyle encompasses various practices and
habits that promote physical, mental, and emotional
well-being. Here are key components of a healthy
lifestyle:
1. Regular Physical Activity: Engaging in regular exercise,
such as walking, running, swimming, or strength training,
promotes cardiovascular health, strengthens muscles and
bones, and boosts mood and energy levels.
2. Balanced Diet: Consuming a balanced diet rich in
fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and
healthy fats provides essential nutrients, supports
immune function, maintains a healthy weight, and
reduces the risk of chronic diseases.
3. Adequate Hydration: Drinking plenty of water
throughout the day is crucial for maintaining hydration,
regulating body temperature, supporting digestion, and
flushing out toxins.
4. Sufficient Sleep: Getting adequate sleep is essential for
overall health and well-being. Aim for 7-9 hours of quality
sleep each night to support cognitive function, mood
regulation, immune function, and physical recovery.
5. Stress Management: Practicing stress-reduction
techniques such as mindfulness meditation, deep
breathing exercises, yoga, or spending time in nature can
help manage stress levels, improve mental clarity, and
promote relaxation.
6. Social Connection: Cultivating meaningful relationships
and maintaining social connections with friends, family,
and community members can enhance emotional well-
being, provide support during challenging times, and
foster a sense of belonging.
7. Limiting Alcohol and Avoiding Tobacco: Limiting
alcohol consumption and avoiding tobacco products can
reduce the risk of various health conditions, including
cardiovascular disease, respiratory problems, and certain
types of cancer.
8. Regular Health Check-ups: Scheduling regular check-
ups with healthcare providers, undergoing screenings,
and monitoring health indicators can help detect and
prevent health problems early, leading to better
outcomes.
9. Mindful Eating: Practicing mindful eating by paying
attention to hunger and fullness cues, savoring each bite,
and choosing nourishing foods can promote healthy
eating habits and prevent overeating.
10. Positive Outlook: Cultivating a positive mindset,
practicing gratitude, and engaging in activities that bring
joy and fulfillment can improve mental health, resilience,
and overall quality of life.
By incorporating these practices into daily life, individuals
can optimize their health, vitality, and longevity, leading
to a happier and more fulfilling lifestyle.

Diseases and lifestyle

Poor lifestyle could lead directly or indirectly to several
health problems. Some include:
• Thrombosis is when blood clots form in blood
vessels, blocking blood flow. It can happen in veins
(deep vein thrombosis) or arteries, leading to serious
problems like stroke or heart attack. Risk factors
include immobility, surgery, pregnancy, and certain
medical conditions. Symptoms include swelling, pain,
and redness. Treatment involves blood-thinning
medications and sometimes surgery. Preventive
measures include staying active, avoiding prolonged
immobility, and managing underlying health
conditions.
• Obesity is a health condition characterized by excess
 body fat, often caused by a combination of factors
including unhealthy eating habits, lack of physical
activity, genetics, and medical conditions. It increases
the risk of various health problems such as diabetes,
heart disease, and certain cancers. Treatment
involves lifestyle changes like diet and exercise, with
medication or surgery in some cases. Prevention
includes maintaining a healthy weight through
balanced eating and regular physical activity.
• Emphysema is a chronic lung disease caused by
damage to the air sacs in the lungs, primarily due to
exposure to irritants like cigarette smoke. This
damage makes breathing difficult, leading to
symptoms such as shortness of breath and coughing.
Treatment aims to manage symptoms and slow
disease progression through lifestyle changes,
medications, and, in severe cases, surgery.
Prevention involves avoiding lung irritants and
maintaining a healthy lifestyle.
• Addiction is a condition marked by compulsive
substance use or engagement in harmful behaviors
despite negative consequences. It alters brain
chemistry, leading to cravings and tolerance. Risk
factors include genetics, environment, and mental
health. Treatment involves therapies, medication,
and lifestyle changes, aiming for recovery and a
fulfilling life.
• Tumor formation: Poor lifestyle choices, such as
smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, unhealthy
diet, lack of physical activity, and being overweight,
can increase the risk of tumor development. These
behaviors can lead to inflammation, oxidative stress,
hormonal imbalances, and weaken the immune
system, all of which contribute to tumor formation.
INVESTIGATING ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystems are complex networks of living organisms and
their physical environment, functioning together as a
unit. Investigating ecosystems involves understanding the
relationships between organisms and their surroundings,
as well as the processes that sustain life within these
systems.
Planning Investigations into Habitats
Planning investigations into habitats enables scientists to
study biodiversity, ecosystem dynamics, and the impact
of environmental factors.
Key Steps in Planning Investigations
1. Identify the Habitat:
• Select a specific habitat to study, such as a
forest, pond, grassland, or urban area.
• Consider the accessibility and safety of the
chosen habitat.
2. Define Objectives:
• Clearly outline the objectives of the
investigation, such as studying species diversity,
habitat changes, or the effects of pollution.
• Formulate hypotheses based on existing
knowledge and observations.
3. Select Sampling Methods:
• Choose appropriate sampling methods to collect
data effectively.
• Methods may include:
• quadrats for plant diversity,
• pitfall traps, sweep net or Tullgren
funnel for studying insects,
• transects for measuring habitat
changes.
4. Collect Data:
• Execute the planned sampling methods
systematically.
 • Record relevant data such as species abundance,
environmental factors (temperature, humidity,
pH), and any anthropogenic influences.
5. Analyze Data:
• Use statistical tools to analyze collected data.
• Compare findings with hypotheses and existing
literature to draw conclusions.
6. Interpret Results:
• Interpret findings to understand the
relationships between organisms and their
habitat.
• Identify patterns, trends, and potential
implications for biodiversity conservation or
ecosystem management.
7. Communicate Findings:
• Present results through written reports,
presentations, or visual aids.
• Share findings with peers, educators, and the
broader community to contribute to scientific
knowledge and environmental awareness.
By following systematic approaches, researchers can gain
valuable insights into the complexity of ecosystems and
contribute to the conservation and management of
natural environments. In a monitoring program, surveys
are carried out periodically and the results compared to
observe any changes over time.