18-Oct-23

The basic principle for locating highways is that roadway

elements such as curvature and grade must blend with
each other to produce a system that provides for the easy
flow of traffic at the design capacity, while meeting design
criteria and safety standards. The highway should also
cause a minimal disruption to historic and archeological
sites and to other land-use activities. Environmental
impact studies are therefore required in most cases before
a highway location is finally agreed upon.

The highway location process involves four phases:

1. Desk study / Office study of existing information.

2. Reconnaissance survey.
3. Preliminary location survey.
4. Final location survey.

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Desk Study

Reconnaissance
survey

Preliminary
survey

Final
location
survey

 Review the available information on all

relevant design, field, and planning data.
 Data may be form of maps, aerial
photographs, charts or graphs
 Source of data:-
 Engineering Data
 Environment data
 Social data
 Economic data

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Engineering Data:
 Investigated all details of the topography,
soil and problems like drainage and
maintenance
 Topographic and geological maps.
 Stream and drainage basin maps.
 Climatic records.
 Preliminary survey maps of previous
projects.
 Traffic surveys and capacity studies.

Environmental Data:
 Agricultural soil surveys indicating soil
erodiability.
 Noise and noise attenuation studies.
 Fish and wild life inventories.
 Historical studies.

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Social Data:
 obtained to analyze the future trends in
development of an area that includes:
 Demographic and land use information.
 Census data.
 Zoning plans and trends.

Economic Data:
 to study the various financial aspects like
source of income and manner in which funds
for project may be mobilized
 Overall cost of previous projects.
 Unit construction costs data.
 Agricultural, economical and industrial
data
 Property values

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Before route can be located and designed

satisfactorily:
▪ Purpose of road
▪ Population along and near the route
▪ Alternative routes available at present (all
forms of transportation)
▪ Volume and composition of traffic using routes
▪ Trends of developments after opening new
route
▪ Estimate of rate development and increase in
traffic

Feasible routes are identified by taking into

consideration of the following:-
 Traffic service for population and industrial
areas.
 Directness of route
 Terrain and soil conditions (swampy ground)
 Environmentally sensitive areas (i.e. burial
ground, places of worship, Malay reserve)
 Terrain and soil condition (swampy ground)
 Cut/fill balance
 Crossing of other transportation facilities
(Major river crossing, railroads, and highway)

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 To amplify and verify condition determined

from preliminary study by making a survey
along the path selected on the map.
 To provide sufficient information on the
topography and culture of the area for
further preliminary route location
 Available in 2 methods:
▪ Ground survey
▪ Remote sensing

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Ground Survey Method (Traditional technique):

 used on medium and small size of projects.
 generally used for final location surveys on all sizes
of projects
 total station is used for measuring angles in both
vertical and horizontal planes, distances, and
changes in elevation.
 components/equipment generally used in ground
surveys:
▪ Theodolite
▪ Electronic distance-measuring device (EDM)
▪ Measuring tapes

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Remote Sensing Technique (Aerial Photography):

 used on large projects is almost universal and become
frequent on smallest projects
 Applied to project in nature with problem in accessibility
 provide both qualitative and quantitative information (i.e.
ground control, drainage, building, existing transportation)
 Obtain proper horizontal and vertical ground control
 Produce accurate maps which can be drawn at any desired
scale
 Adaptable to computer application
 Reduce the amount of ground control work
 substantial saving in time and money

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Possible alternative alignments are plotted on

the base map and compared for suitability

 Examine features – design capacity, safety, road

user costs, construction cost, and maintenance
cost.
▪ Carry out environmental impact assessment
(i.e. due to dislocation of families, farms, and
business)
▪ Undertake traffic studies
▪ Provide scenic and aesthetic enhancement of
area

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Select a route with the following points:

 With reasonable economy that meet the minimum
requirement regarding curvature and grades.
 To produce an easy riding (traveling), free flowing traffic
artery that has a high capacity and meets all the safety
standards.
 The location survey should recognize and evaluate the
routes impact on already existing industries, business, and
residential values and on future development.

RESULTING ROUTE:
After comparison of the different alternative design, the
route is selected which has cheapest overall cost,
considering capital investment, maintenance, expense
and saving to the road user.

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 Serves as basis for fixing the actual highway location after the
preferred location has been established.
 Low level aerial photograph is undertaken to
 produce base maps along the preliminary alignment (scale
1:50000 to 1:12500)
 give complete information
o topography with respect to changes in elevation,
drainage characteristic, and soil condition
o land uses, designating type, intensity, and quality
o transportation facilities, with respect to proximity and
effect of proposed location
o property within area

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 Required great skill and judgment

 Trial and error process
 Compute horizontal and vertical alignment
that give smooth and consistent alignment
that satisfied the grade, curvature, cross-
section, drainage, and stream crossing.
 Identify tangent lengths, transition spirals,
and simple and compound curves

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Fixing of the details of the projected highway.

 Permanently establishing the centerline
 Collect necessary information for preparation of plans for construction.
 conform the major and minor control points and the alignment that
was previously determined.
 provides opportunity for minor correction like small shift of the line.
 make a new profile and accurate cross-section from which excavation
and embankment quantities can be measured.
 Final se on points of curvature (PC) and tangency (PT), free from
disturbance by construction activities.
 Provide direction of all property lines, distance to property corners and
location of building, fences and other improvements.

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All information pertaining to:

 Alignment
 Topography
 Bench mark levels
 Cross sections
 Section corner ties and other land ties
 drainage and utilities (culvert, pipe, and retaining
wall etc)
• Scale 1:1000
• Detail scale 1:500 to 1:50

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 Location process for urban highway is more involved

reflecting the complexities of urban conditions.
 Among factors that affect selection of highway
location are:
o Traffic/Trip orientation and purpose.
o Land use
o Off-street parking
o Other transportation system
o Topography and geology
o Sociological conditions
o Historical and environmental impacts.

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Land Use
 a major factor affecting the pattern of traffic generation is an
urban area. Need to considered the commercial, residential and
industrial areas
 travel patterns vary with time of day, day of weak., and season
of the year
 Industries and common areas relying heavily on truck
transportation need service by arterial routes.
 Health and safety require avoiding heavy traffic in residential
areas.
 Aesthetic values are also considered in an urban highway.

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 Cross river perpendicularly. This would mean construction of the

shortest bridge or viaduct. However, if the river bridge or viaduct
alignment is curved, then the bridge or viaduct should also be
curved accordingly.
 Avoid crossing railway lines at grade. At-grade railroad
intersection must be properly manned. In the interest of traffic
safety, the best solution is to cross the railway line by means of a
flyover.
 Highway should traverse the edges of properties and hence avoid
splitting the community. In the context of agricultural plots, this
practice avoids creating small land parcels that may not be
feasible and economical to cultivate.
 Locate highway far from sites sensitive to traffic noise such as
cemetery, places of worship, hospital and similar sites.
 Avoid deep cuttings and tunnels. Deeps cuttings create steep
slopes that are difficult to maintain.

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 For highways traversing mountainous areas, watch out for the

possibilities for the occurrence of landslides or slope failure.
 Avoid areas with shallow rocks. Though solid rocks provide good
road foundations but earthworks in the form of cuttings may be
difficult to execute.
 Consider the availability of construction materials for road
building in the neighbourhood of the project site to minimize
material transportation costs.
 Highways should not pass through ecologically or environmentally
sensitive areas. This includes national parks, areas rich in wildlife
or scenic natural beauty.
 Choose route on higher ground and avoid areas prone to flooding.
Roads are to serve as means of communication at all times and
roads must be able to serve this main function under all
situations especially when the surrounding areas are flooded.

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 Choose a route where the cutting and filling is not only

minimized but balanced so that materials cut, if geotechnically
sound, will be used as embankment material in fills. This
minimise will visual intrusion. Disposal of unwanted cut materials
can harm the environment.
 Aware of the location site of junctions from the perspective of
traffic safety. The location of some junctions can be undesirable
from traffic safety viewpoint. An example is a 'hidden' junction
located at a sharp corner just after the peak of a summit curve.
This must be avoided during the geometric design stage.
 Consider the presence of underground utilities (water pipes,
electricity cables, telecommunication lines) to cater for future
development. Utilities are essential and normally run parallel
with the road alignment. Changes in road alignment or creation
of an access road that traverse the utilities area would require
their relocation. Relocation of utilities can be a very costly
exercise.

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 Posted speed = speed limit

 Operating speed = free flow (spot speed)
 Running speed = length of highway section ÷ running
time
 Design speed = selected speed used to determine
geometric design features

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 Design speed is defined by the AASHTO Green Book as:

...the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over
a specified section of highway when conditions are so
favorable that the design features of the highway
govern.
 Design Speed should: 1) “…be consistent with the speed
the driver is likely to expect.” and 2) “. . .fit the travel
desires and habits of nearly all drivers.”
 Not posted speed and not operating speed (but ALWAYS
higher than both)

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 Functional classification of the highway

 Character of the terrain
 Density and character of adjacent land uses
 Traffic volumes expected to use the highway
 Economic and environmental considerations

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 The natural ground, cross slopes (i.e

perpendicular to natural ground contours) in
a flat terrain are generally below 3%

<3%

<3%

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 The natural ground cross slopes in a rolling

terrain are generally between 3 – 25%

3% – 25%

3% – 25%

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 The
natural ground cross slopes in a
mountainous terrain are generally above 25%

>25%

>25%

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 Highway alignment is a three-

dimensional problem
represented in the X, Y, and Z
coordinates
 Finding the dimensions of the
geometric design elements of
highway alignments is called
geometric design
 Major components of highway
design are
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment
 Superelevation design
 Cross-section design
 Widening design
 Intersection design

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 Length of vertical curve, L = K*A

 K is the curve length for a slope change of 1%. It expresses
the abruptness of the grade change.
 When “A” is +ve the vertical curve is a crest curve
 When “A” is –ve, the vertical curve is a sag curve

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 The horizontal alignment of a

highway is the plan view of
the route. It consists of
straight sections (tangents) of
the roadway connected by
curves.

 Necessary for gradual change

in direction when a direct Curves Tangent line
point of intersection is not
feasible

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Objective:  Represents the

Geometry of directional projection of the
transition to ensure: highway, railway, etc. on
Safety a horizontal plane
 Tangents:
Comfort
straight-line segments
 Circular curves
Primary challenge  Transition curves
Transition between two  Superelevation
directions
Horizontal curves

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 Consists of
horizontal
tangents, circular
curves, and
possibly transition
curves
 Horizontal
tangents are
describe in term
of their length
(stationing) and
direction (bearing
/ azimuths)

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 Superelevation is tilting the

roadway to help centrifugal force
developed as the vehicle goes
around a curve.
 Along with friction. it is what keeps
a vehicle from going off the road.
 Must be done gradually over a
distance without noticeable
reduction in speed or safety

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 Superelevated section of a
highway offsets the
tendency of the vehicle to
slide outward

 Necessary to establish
proper relation with
superelevation and side
friction, design speed and
curvature

 When moves in a circular path, a vehicle is forced radially

outward by centrifugal force. To counteract this force, the
vehicle weight component creates side friction between road
surface and tires.

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 Consist of Tangent Runout And

Superelevation Runoff Section.
 Runoff (Transition Length (LT)):
• length of roadway needed to
accomplished a change in outside
lane cross slope from zero to full
• 2/3 of LSD.
 Runout:
 length of roadway needed to
accomplished a change in outside
lane cross slope from normal rate
to zero
 Runoff + Runout = Length of
Superelevation Development
(LDS) or (LE)

SS

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 LT = 2/3 of LDS or

C = 0.3 to 0.9

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Diagram for curve to the left

LT

or LSD

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