1

BISHOP ANSTEY HIGH SCHOOL EAST AND

TRINITY COLLEGE EAST (BATCE)
Sixth Form
TRINCITY, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO, WEST INDIES

CENTRE NO. 160570

CXC CAPE Physics

Unit 1 Lab Manual
2023-2024 Edition
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Qc Copyright by Bishop Anstey High School East and Trinity College East
(BATCE) 2015
All Rights Reserved

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Rules and Regulations of the Laboratory

1. All experiments in this laboratory manual must be performed and written scripts
for each experiment must be submitted to your class teacher to obtain a practical
coursework mark.

2. Commencement of sessions: You are expected to be at your experiment station

punc- tually.

3. Preparation: Laboratory manuals are available at the class website. These manuals
contain a description of all the laboratory experiments that must be performed as
part of the requirements for CAPE Physics SBAs. Students are required to prepare
adequately for their assigned laboratory experiment prior the start of the session.
Preparation includes reading the experimental description adequately and perform-
ing the necessary research to enable one to perform the experiment with ease in the
laboratory.

4. Starting experiments: All laboratory equipment must be checked prior to students

commencing their experiments. DO NOT switch ON equipment until it is checked
by your teacher!!

5. Laboratory report submission: All laboratory reports must be submitted to the class
teacher ONLY on the date it is due. If your laboratory report submission date falls
on a public holiday, then the report must be submitted on the next available school
day. Laboratory reports must be submitted with the appropriate cover sheet (with
all the details completed) and a signed anti-plagiarism sheet. Students will given
until the following day, of performing the experiment, at 10:30am (break time) to
submit their lab reports. At this time the student would sign the teachers’ lab record
book as evidence the lab was submitted.

6. Absenteeism: Students absent from any experiment must provide a medical/excuse

to administration.

7. Students who are absent on the day of the lab practical activity would be scheduled
with the lab technician to perform the lab within a one week period from the date of

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the missed lab. They are to sign the lab technician’s rcord book with the date the lab
was performed. This report would be due the following day at 10:30am.
8. Students who fail to submit their lab reports at the deadline would be marked as no
work submitted. Special allowances would be given to studetns with a valid excuse,
for example a death in the family or physical injury. This excuse must be
confirmed via a note and phone call from the parents or medical where applicable,
on the day the report is due.
9. Laboratory requirements: For each laboratory session students are required to bring
their laboratory manual, writing paper, graph pages, a scientific calculator and
other stationery items inclusive of pen/pencils, erasers, rulers and geometrical
instruments (if needed for the laboratory experiment).
10. Laboratory attire: Students are required to wear a laboratory coat and closed shoes
while present in the laboratory.
11. Work stations: Students must remain at their assigned work station for the duration
of the laboratory session. If a student needs to leave the work station, permission
must be sought and granted from the class teacher.
12. Difficulties with an experiment: Students experiencing difficulties with
experiments should seek assistance from their class teacher.
13. At the end of each laboratory session: At the end of each experiment, students are
required to take all their results to their teacher for review and correction. These
results pages must be signed by the teacher and must be included in the laboratory
report. The signed results pages must not be altered after the teacher has fixed
his/her signature. Students must seek the permission of the teacher prior to the
exiting of the laboratory at the end of each session. Additionally, before students
leave their work station they must ensure that they have removed all their personal
belongings and replaced all equipment to the designated area. A check of
equipment assigned to each student will be made by the technicians at the end of
each laboratory exercise. Students should not leave the laboratory until this check is
made. Students will have to pay a compensation fee for missing or broken
equipment.
14. Copying and plagiarism in the lab scripts are strictly forbidden. Plagiarized work
will not be marked.
15. General rules: Students are not permitted to eat, drink or smoke in the laboratory.
The use of the internet is strictly permitted for laboratory research only.
16. Mobile phones: The use of mobile phones is not permitted for the duration of the
laboratory session unless approval is given.

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Policy Principles

Practical work and lab reports are an important part of the student’s understanding of the
subject area. They provide an avenue where theory taught in the classroom can be tested,
applied and/or proved. Practical work engages students, helps them to develop important
skills, to understand the process of scientific investigation and develop their
understanding of concepts.
Lab Reports form 20% of the student’s Caribbean Advanced Proficiency
Examinations (CAPE) Physics grade.
Timely submission of work ensures students can receive timely feedback from their
teachers. Also scripts written up during the practical activity ensures that the students
recall information clearly about the experimental procedure (e.g. the method, sources of
error, teacher’s guidelines).

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Format for Written Reports

0. Cover Sheet
Title of Experiment, your name, date that experiment was performed, partners’ names.
(First and last names. Get the spelling right!)

1. Title
Titles should be straightforward, informative, and less than ten words (i.e. Not "Lab #4"
but "Lab #4: Sample Analysis using the Debye-Sherrer Method").

2. Aim/Objective(s)
3. Theory/ Introduction
1-2 paragraphs. Summarize the basic physics of your experiment. Include equations and
other principle things the reader would need to know in order to understand the
experiment. Keep it short!
If there are standard or accepted values known these should be included in this section.

4. Apparatus
This can usually be a simple list, but make sure it is accurate and complete.

5. Diagram
These should be clearly labelled with a title.

6. Method/ Procedure/ Experimental Details

This section describes the process in chronological order. Using clear paragraph structure
(or step by step format), explain all steps in the order they actually happened, not as they

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were supposed to happen. If you’ve done it right, another researcher should be able to
duplicate your experiment. It is always written in past tense.

7. Precautions & Sources of Error

Indicate what steps were taken to reduce/eliminate random and systematic errors.
Note: Mistakes are not classified as errors.

8. Results
The original raw data that you take in the lab. This should be easy to follow, in tabular
form. Poor data recording skills lead to poor writeups. If your raw data is illegible, the
grade will suffer. The table should have a title and include the uncertainty of the
measurement as well as the unit in the heading (e.g. Variable ± uncertainty in the
measurement/ unit).

9. Sample Calculations
Include a few of your calculations in this section, e.g. one of each type. Do not show each
and every calculation.

10. General Analysis

The computed results are shown in a clear and concise manner utilizing properly labelled
tables and graphs. “Table/Graph showing results” is not an appropriate title. Each column
of the table must have a heading and units, if applicable. Tables must be bordered by
4 lines and neatly constructed. If a graph is to be drawn, it must include the following:
title, appropriate scales, accurate plotting of points, drawing best straight line (smooth
lines through experimental data points) and labeling of axes. Slope calculations should
be included after the graph. Each graph should convey a complete message and be fully
understandable without referring to any other section in the report.

11. Error Analysis

This section must include the pertinent computed uncertainties (error estimates). It is im-
portant here that the rule governing significant figures be used in computing and
displaying these values.

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12. Discussion
This is the most important part of your report, because here, you show that you
understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it. Explain. Analyse.
Interpret. Some people like to think of this as the "subjective" part of the report. By that,
they mean this is what is not readily observable. This part of the lab focuses on a
question of under- standing "What is the significance or meaning of the results?" To
answer this question, use both aspects of discussion:
Analysis: What do the results indicate clearly? What have you found? Explain what
you know with certainty based on your results and draw conclusions.
Interpretation: What is the significance of the results? What ambiguities exist? What
questions might we raise? Find logical explanations for problems in the data.
The experimental results should be compared with predicted values. If known values
exist, the results should be compared with these and a reference given (see below).
Discrepancies should be considered in the light of the experimental error obtained and
other random and systematic errors not evaluated numerically in ‘Results’. If no known
value is available, it is still important to consider all the possible errors. Then discuss the
experiment in general, its advantages and failings, procedural difficulties, ways of
improving it etc.
If any questions are asked in the lab manual, they should be answered in this section
of the report.

13. Final Results with Errors and Conclusion

This should indicate how well the experiments have fulfilled the aims stated at the
beginning. Simply state what you know now for sure, as a result of the lab, and justify
your statement.

14. References
Any source of material used in the report should be listed here.

Note:
Labs are always to follow this format except for planning and design labs. Labs are to be
communicated in a logical way using correct grammar and spelling.

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Contents

RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE LABORATORY.......................................................................3

POLICY PRINCIPLES.................................................................................................................................. 5

FORMAT FOR WRITTEN REPORTS...................................................................................................... 6

CONTENTS................................................................................................................................................... 9

LAB #1: MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS......................................................................................... 11

LAB #2 - MM & ORR: ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY, ’G’.....................................................14

LAB #3 - MM & ORR: GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH, ’G’..................................................16

LAB #4 - PD: REACTION TIME OF AN ATHLETE............................................................................18

LAB #5 - PD: TERMINAL VELOCITY OF STEEL BALLS IN OIL....................................................20

LAB #6 - PD: TERMINAL VELOCITY WITH A PARACHUTE.........................................................21

LAB #7 - MM:COPLANAR FORCES..................................................................................................... 23

LAB #8 - MM: PAPERCLIP OSCILLATION......................................................................................... 27

LAB #9 - MM & ORR: ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE............................................................................ 29

LAB #10 - AI: THE “BUG-UP” TOY..................................................................................................... 32

LAB #11- MM AI: DIFFRACTION GRATING..................................................................................... 35

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LAB #12 – ORR: CENTRIPETAL MOTION......................................................................................... 38

LAB #13 – PD: BOUNCING BALL......................................................................................................... 40

LAB #14 – ORR: SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A LIQUID...........................................................45

LAB #15 – PD: TENSILE STRENGTH.................................................................................................. 48

LAB #16 - MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY BY STOKES’ LAW.....................................................52

LAB #17 – MM: BARTON’S PENDULUM............................................................................................ 57

LAB # 18 – AI & ORR: SPIRAL SPRING............................................................................................. 59

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Chapter 1

Lab #1: Measurements and Errors

Objective:

To determine the diameter, mass and density of a marble.

Introduction:

This experiment takes into accountability the associated errors in our measurements. A carefully

controlled experiment will consider the uncertainty. Systematic and analog instruments are used to

find the mass, and density of a random marble. Explain further error, 1 paragraph is required.

Apparatus: meter rule, wooden blocks, marbles, Styrofoam cup, micrometer, electronic scale.

Theory:
3
M 4π r
State any equations used in the report. Such as ρ= , V= etc Give a brief description of
V 3

the equations stating the meaning of the terms and how it follows from the introduction.

Diagram of set-up
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Method:

a) Using the meter rule in figure 1, align 10 marbles as shown.

b) Use the wooden blocks to enclose the marbles from shifting. The blocks should be some

distance away from the zero mark to avoid the zero error.

c) Take the first marble position to be L1 and the last marble position to be L2.

d) The initial and final lengths of the ten marbles is noted. This length is the length of the

twenty marbles.

e) Using the micrometer obtain a reading for diameter for one of the marbles. Repeat this step

for two readings.

f) Using the Styrofoam cup measure the cup initial mass on the electronic scale. Ensure that

the scale is “teared” before measuring.

g) Using the cup in step 6 add the ten marbles in it and measure on the electronic scale again.

h) Using necessary logic and formulae, find the mass of one marble and the length of one

marble.

i) Perform error calculations and quote your final results with the error values.

Results:

Construct tables to record your readings taken. Number each table, giving a title to the table.

Include in the table headings the error of the instrument used.

Discussion:

Include the difference in errors of digital instruments to analogue instruments. Discuss the method

of calibration used for measuring instruments. Mention any limitations that affected the outcome of

the experiment. Suggest ways on improving the experiment. Highlight any precautions that are

necessary in performing this experiment.

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Conclusion:

Quote your calculated value with the error value found.

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Chapter 2

Lab #2 - MM & ORR: Acceleration due

to gravity, ’g’

Objective:
The aim of this experiment is to obtain a value for ’g’, the acceleration due to gravity, to
the highest accuracy possible with this simple apparatus.

Procedure:
(i) Draw on the given card concentric circles of radii 8, 7, 6, 4 and 3 cm and also mark a
diameter AOB. Cut out carefully a circular disc 8 cm in radius. Determine carefully
and as accurately as you can the average radius R of the disc.

(ii) Place the U-shaped wire on the edge of the desk (at a corner) with the prongs project-
ing. Place the block of wood on top of the closed end and clamp the assembly to
the desk firmly with the G-clamp.

(iii) Push the needle normally through the disc at the point of intersection of OA and the
7 cm circle. You must be careful not to bend the card. Hang the disc on the U-
shaped wire as shown Fig. 2.1.

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Figure 2.1: Setup of Apparatus

Figure 2.2: Circle

(iv) Obtain the mean period T of small oscillations of the disc about the needle pivot.
Record t1, t2, T and T 2 for each observation. Move the needle to the intersection
of the 7 cm circle with OB and repeat the procedure to find T and T 2. Calculate
the mean square period, T72, for these two settings on the 7 cm circle. Measure as
accurately as possible the distance 2l shown in Figure 2.2.

(v) Repeat your measurements with the needle on the circles of radii 6, 4, and 3 cm.

(vi) Tabulate, l, l2, T 2 and (l2 + 0.5R2)/T 2. Plot (l2 + 0.5R2)/T 2 against l. From your
graph, read off the value of (l2 + 0.5R2)/T 2 at the point for which l = 5.00 cm.
(vii) Substitute these values into the formula: to obtain a value of gcalculated. This value
l
must be corrected for the radius r of the needle. Measure r and use the formula
gcorrected = gcalculated (1 −r/l) to obtain your final answer.
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Chapter 3

Lab #3 - MM & ORR: Gravitational

Field Strength, ’g’

Objective:
This is a simple experiment for the determination of ’g’, the gravitational field strength,
which can give a high degree of accuracy.

Procedure
(a) Grip the ’U-shaped’ wire in a clamp about 25 cm above the bench with its plane hor-
izontal. Measure and record ’a’, the length of the plastic drinking straw. Mark the
mid-point of the straw.

(b) Seal one end of the plastic straw with the smallest convenient piece of Sellotape:
pour in dry sand from the opposite end until, after tapping, no more can be added.
Seal this end also with Sellotape.

(c) Push the needle through the straw at right angles to its axis and at a distance X about
1 cm from the mid-point of the straw.

(d) Using the needle as a pivot, support the straw on the U-shaped’ wire so that the

straw
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can oscillate as a pendulum (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Setup of Apparatus

(e) Determine T , the period of oscillation of small amplitude of the straw. Do this for
four values of X between 1 cm and about 2 cm and for three further values of X up
to 5 cm. Record your values of X and T .

(Note: When withdrawing the needle to alter the value of X , the holes left in the plastic
should close up sufficiently to prevent loss of sand. If necessary, this closing can be
helped by stroking the plastic at the hole with the side of the needle. In any case,
the straw should be carefully checked for loss or settling down of the sand: any loss
or vacant space should be made good by ’topping up’.)

(f) In your results, state the type of timer you used and the smallest interval of time it is
capable of recording.
a 2+ X 2
12
2
(g) Tabulate T and X .
2 2
+X❑
a 12
(h) Given that g=4Tπ 2 plot a suitable graph and hence calculate g.
2 X
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Chapter 4

Lab #4 - PD: Reaction Time of an Athlete

Figure 4.1 shows how the speed v of an athlete varies with time t during a 100 m race.
The race starts at time t = 0.
It takes a short time for the athlete’s speed to increase above zero (the reaction time).
You are to design experiments which will enable measurements to be made in order to

(a) Determine the reaction time of an athlete.

(b) Plot a speed-time graph similar to that of Figure 4.1.

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Figure 4.1: Speed-Time Graph

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Chapter 5

Lab #5 - PD: Terminal velocity of steel

balls in oil
When a ball falls through a fluid, it soon reaches a steady speed called the terminal
velocity. It is suggested that this terminal velocity is proportional to the square of the
radius of the ball.
The diameters of the four smallest balls are given on a card.

(a) Design and carry out an investigation to test the validity of the suggestion made
above using the materials provided. You should avoid excessive contact between
the oil and you skin.

(b) Write a brief account of your experimental procedure including any use made of the
sticky tapes A and B, the set square C, the plumb-line (thread with a small mass
attached) and the magnet.

Record your observations, together with any conclusions that you have reached
concerning the validity of the suggestion.
Plot a suitable graph of your results.

(c) Suggest, with a reason, one possible improvement that you would make to the design
or execution of your experiment if you had to repeat it, either using existing
apparatus, or additional standard laboratory equipment.

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Chapter 6

Lab #6 - PD: Terminal Velocity with a

Parachute
A parachute falling in air eventually moves with a constant velocity known as the
terminal velocity. A toy rocket contains a small parachute which is ejected from the
rocket a short time after launching. The designer of the rocket wants to know how the
terminal velocity of this parachute is affected by the diameter of the canopy and the load
which it carries.
Design a laboratory experiment to investigate how the terminal velocity of the parachute
depends upon the load which it carries and the diameter of the canopy. In your account
you should pay particular attention to the following:

(a) the method by which the diameter of the canopy and the terminal velocity to be mea-
sured,

(b) the control of variables,

(c) any important precautions you would take which may improve the accuracy of your
experiment..

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16 CHAPTER 6. LAB #6 - PD: TERMINAL VELOCITY WITH A PARACHUTE

Figure 6.1: Diagram of toy parachute with load

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Chapter 7

Lab #7 - MM:Coplanar Forces

Method

• Students are to connect three spring scales together and alter the angle and forces
applied.

• Then line up two projectors together and mark the centre ≈ 9.75 cm.

• Then connect three pieces of thread of the same length and use it as a guide over
the centre of the protractor.

• Place your finger over the knot OR ensure that knot is centred over the centre of
the protractor.

• Record the values of θ1,θ2, andθ3. Five sets of readings are sufficient.

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18 CHAPTER 7. LAB #7 - MM:COPLANAR FORCES

Diagram

Figure 7.1: Setup of Apparatus

Table of Results
F1/N F2/N F3/N θ1/◦ θ2/◦ θ3/◦
1
2
3
4
5
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Method continued:
• Draw the free body diagram for each of the 5 readings with the correct angles.
Make sure to keep one of the forces on the ’y’ plane.

• Then on the same page as the free body diagram, a scaled diagram with the magnitude
and direction of the forces F2 and F3 should be drawn.

• Complete the parallelogram. Ensure lines are parallel. Obtain Resultant R. Say, R =
23 cm = 11.5 N for F2 & F3. R is the resultant of F2 and F3.

• F1is the equilibriant. Draw in F1.

• Hence, show that R and F1 are in the same straight line. i.e. θ = 180◦.

• Note: In practice this is not obtained. If you are 5◦ off the angle = 5/180 x 100 =
3%. The apparatus has a 3% error. Check to see if your answer is within 10%.

Figure 7.2: Free Body Diagram

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20 CHAPTER 7. LAB #7 - MM:COPLANAR FORCES

Figure 7.3: Scaled Diagram.

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Chapter 8

Lab #8 - MM: Paperclip Oscillation

In this experiment you will investigate the oscillations of a chain of paper clips.

Figure 8.1: Setup of Apparatus

(ai) Firmly clamp the cork using a clamp, boss and stand.

(ii) Attach a chain of n paper clips to the hook as shown in Fig. 8.1 with an initial value of
n = 25.

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22 CHAPTER 8. LAB #8 - MM: PAPERCLIP OSCILLATION

(iii) Displace the chain from its equilibrium position by moving the bottom clips
sideways, and briefly describe how the chain behaves until it reaches a state where
it oscillates smoothly and reproducibly.

(iv) When the chain is oscillating smoothly, measure and record the time t for twenty
oscillations.

(v) Estimate the uncertainty in your value of t and suggest one way in which this uncer-
tainty could be reduced.

(b) Change the value of n (25 ≥ n ≥ 5) and repeat (a) (iv) until you have six sets of readings
of t and n. Include values of the period T for each value of n in your table of
results.

(c) For this oscillator it is suggested that the quantities T and n are related by a simple
power law of the form

T = pnq (8.1)

where p and q are constants.

Plot a suitable graph, and assuming that the proposed mathematical model is an
accept- able one, use your graph to calculate values for p and q.
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Chapter 9

Lab #9 - MM & ORR: Archimedes’

Principle

Aim

To determine the upthrust on an object totally immersed in water.

The balance you will use, illustrated in Figure 9.1, consists of a metre trule suspended
by a thread from a retort stand and clamp.

Figure 9.1: Setup of Apparatus

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24 CHAPTER 9. LAB #9 - MM & ORR: ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

Method
• First, adjust the position of the thread on the rule so that it balances horizontally on
its own with no other masses suspended. Record the position of the thread.

• Take the RUBBER stopper provided and suspend it by a thread close to one end of
the metre rule. Now balance the rule by suspending a 100g mass by a thread on the
other side of the rule. The rule should be horizontal when balanced. Record the
point of suspension of the 100g mass.

• When the rule is balanced, the principle of moments states that the sum of the mo-
ments of forces about the point of suspension in the clockwise direction is equal to
the sum of the moments in the anticlockwise direction.

• Draw a diagram indicating forces acting on the rule. Write an equation for the bal-
ance of the moments of the forces. Hence, determine the mass of the stopper.

Q1 Why balance the metre rule with nothing suspended at the start?

• Leaving the stopper suspendded from the same point, place a beaker of water
below the stopper and arrange it so that the stopper is completely immersed in
water. Now find a new position for suspension of the 100g mass so that the rule is
again balanced. Be careful to see that the stopper does not touch the edge or bottom
of the beaker. All the results should be carefully tabulated.

• From the above readings calculate the “apparent weight” of the stopper while it
was immersed in water. The loss of weight is due to the upthrust of the water or
“buoy- ancy force”. Archimedes Principle shows that: upthrust = weight in air -
apparent weight in water (assuming air gives negligble upthrust). Thus, find the
upthrust on the stopper.

Q2 Does it matter how far below the surface of the water you immerse the stopper, pro-
viding you do not touch the bottom? Why?

A. Determination of upthrust on an object floating in water.

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• Place the CORK stopper provided in a beaker of water. Note that since the cork is
floating it is only partially immersed.

Q3 What must the relation be between the upthrust on the stopper and its weight? What
is this upthrust in your case? You may use the commercial balance to determine the
mass of the cork.

B. Determination of the weight of water displaced by the rubber and cork stoppers.

• For these measurements a displacement measuring vessel (d.m.v.) is used. Place the
d.m.v. on the shelf over the sink. Fill it with water until water runs out of the spout
into the sink. Wait a minute or so until the water has stopped draining from the
spout then place an empty beaker under the spout and carefully lower the rubber
stopper into the displacement measuring vessel (d.m.v.). Find the weight of the
displaced water collected in the beaker. Again, wait until the water has completely
stopped draining from the spout. Repeat the above procedure with the cork and
find the weight of water displaced by the floating cork in the beaker.

• Compare the weights of displaced water with the upthrust found in the
corresponding cases in A and B above.
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Chapter 10

Lab #10 - AI: The “Bug-up” Toy

The diagram shows, approximately life-sized, a jumping toy called a “Bug-up”. A spring
joins the hollow plastic top of the toy at P to the base of Q. Whe n the top is pushed down
and the spring is fully compressed, the rubber sucker sticks to the plastic base. A few
seconds after being let go, the entire Bug-up jumps into the air when the rubber sucker
separates from the base. With a hollow plastic top the centre of gravity of the Bug-up
rises about 60 cm.

Figure 10.1: The Bug-Up Toy

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(a) A student proposes to investigate the height h to which the Bug-up jumps when a
mass m of Plasticine is stuck inside the hollow plastic top. By considering the
physical principles associated with the mechanics of the toy, derive a relationship
which pre- dicts how h will vary for different values of m. Take the mass of the
Bug-up itself to be mo and assume that the spring is fully compressed before each
jump.

(b) The table shows the results of a series of experiments measuring m and h. Unfortu-
nately the student forgot to record the mass mo of the Bug-up itself.

m/g h/m
0 0.57
2.5 0.44
5.6 0.33
8.2 0.28
12.0 0.23
15.8 0.19

TABLE 1

(i) Explain how you would use these results to test the prediction you made in (a).

(ii) Draw up a suitable table of values and plot a graph which would enable you to deduce
mo, the mass of the Bug-up.

(iii) Determine mo.

(c) The student decided to investigate the energy stored in the spring before each jump
by finding its spring constant k, which, he assumed to be the same for compression
and extension. When supporting a mass M, the period of oscillation T of a mass-
spring system is given by

T = 2π M/k (10.1)
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28 CHAPTER 10. LAB #10 - AI: THE “BUG-UP” TOY

(i) Assuming that the spring has been detached from the Bug-up, describe briefly how
you would obtain a set of values of T .

State any precautions which would take to reduce uncertainties in your measurements.

(ii) The graph shows T 2 plotted against M for the student’s results.

Figure 10.2: Graph of Student’s Results

Use the graph to find k, the spring constant.

(iii) The student’s measurements of M were only found to the nearest 1g. Explain
whether the possible errors in the values of M are more significant for large or for
small oscillating masses.
 PMT

Chapter 11

Lab #11- MM AI: Diffraction Grating

Below are GUIDELINES to write up your lab. Note you are not to copy exactly this structure for tables

and drawings

Aim:
To calculate the wavelength of red light emitted by a red laser pointer

Introduction: Briefly speak about diffraction gratings and how they work.

Apparatus and Materials: Diffraction grating, laser pointer, retort stand, meter rule and clamps
 PMT

Method:
a) On a flat surface place laser in front of the first 100lines/mm diffraction grating and project

onto a wall /screen 1m and then 2m away.

b) Ensure the room is dark to observe the grating pattern on the wall.

c) Record the distance between the grating and the wall/screen.

d) Measure and record the distances between the various orders of the diffraction pattern and

the central fringe. On both the left side to the center fringe and the right side. Ensure these

measurements are taken from the center of the fringe pattern.

e) Repeat the procedure using 300lines/mm, 600lines/mm diffraction gratings.

f) Using the information recorded in your table determine the frequency and wavelength of the

laser provided.

Table of results :
Here is an example of how you can construct your table

Distance 1m from wall/screen

Lines d 1st Order 2nd Order 3rd Order

(mm- (m)
1
)

Y1 Y2 Yavg θ λnm Y1 Y2 Yavg θ λnm Y1 Y2 Yavg θ λnm

100

300

600
 PMT

Repeat for 2m from wall/screen

Calculations:
Give one sample calculation.

Using the general diffraction grating equation

d sin θ=nλ

The use of this equation requires you to indicate the order for n. ‘d’ should be in meters and yavg in

meters.

Slit separation d

1
d=
N

Angle θ

−1 y
θ=tan
x

Find the λ for red light in nanometers(nm) from the average λ’s calculated.

Discussion:
Highlight trends in your calculated values. Focus on discussing the aim of the experiment. DO

NOT REWRITE THE METHOD HERE. Discuss the significance of red light and visible light

in the EMR spectrum; also mention the importance of lasers. Relate your value to the theoretical

value in the EMR spectrum in terms of percentage, the experimental set-up and its effect on your

results.

List sources of errors, precautions and limitations.

Conclusion:
Quote your calculated value for red light.
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Chapter 12

Lab #12 – ORR: Centripetal Motion

Aim:
To investigate uniform circular motion and use it to find the mass of a suspended rubber cork.

Apparatus:

PVC Pipe Stopper

String Marker

Various Masses Ruler

Stopwatch Rubber cork

Experimental Details:
 In your introduction, please explain the conditions of uniform circular motion. In this case,

include theoretical equations in your discussion. In the theory explain the relationship

between the various symbols in the equations.

 Draw a well labelled diagram of the top and side view of the experimental set up. Include a

title and annotation.

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Method
(Guide only-rewrite indicating the exact method you used)

o The stopper should be tied to the masses, with a minimum of 50 cm of string in between.

The student should pull the stopper away from the pipe to a desired ‘r’ value. The student

should rotate the stopper above their head, so that the radius ‘r’ of the motion is known and

the velocity is constant.

o The radius can be measured from the midpoint of the stopper and the point where the string

leaves the pipe. Do a couple practice swings and record your observations. What happens

when you move your hand so that the stopper moves faster, or slower? What relationship is

their between the time taken for a number of revolutions and the speed of the stopper?

o When the radius is constant the centripetal force is provided by the tension in the string and

is equal to weight of the attached masses.

o For a fixed radius value, change the number of attached masses, at least 7 values, and record

the time taken to undergo a fixed value of oscillations, say 25.

o Remove the mass holder and masses, and attach a rubber cork of unknown mass. Vary the

radius and record the time taken for the same amount of oscillations as before.

o You will have values to plot two different graphs, ‘v2 vs Fc’ and ‘v2 vs r’ indicate what the

gradient of each graph would represent. Find the mass of the rubber cork using your graph.

o Using a scale weigh the rubber cork.

Discussion

 Do the measured and calculated values of the mass of the rubber cork match within the

expected experimental error?

 Is it possible for the stopper to undergo exact horizontal circular motion? If the stopper was

swung vertically how would this impact the experiment?

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 What did you observe about the plotted graphs, did they agree with the relationships

highlighted in theory?

 Please include sources of error and precautions taken.

Chapter 13

Lab #13 – PD: Bouncing Ball

Title: Bouncing Ball

Introduction:

This lab is an investigation of the effect of drop height on the bounce of a ball. In this experiment, a

ball is dropped from various different heights onto 4 different materials. The rebound height is

determined, and the initial height is varied. The coefficient of restitution k is calculated using the

initial and rebound heights of the ball. k is the ratio of speeds of a falling object, from when it hits a

given surface to when it leaves the surface and measures the elasticity of the collision.

Research Questions:

a) How does the bounce of a ball depend upon the height from which it is dropped?

b) How is the bounce height affected by different surfaces for several drop heights?

Hypothesis:

The bounce height of a ball is dependent on the elastic nature of the surface upon which it is

dropped.

Theory:
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The coefficient of restitution is found by the formula

speed of the ball after bounce

coefficient of restitution=
speed of the ball before the bounce

Using the SUVAT formulae for vertical displacement,

2 2
v =u +2 gh

And considering the initial speed of the ball is zero

v=√ 2 gh

We can find a formula for the coefficient of restitution, k

k=
√ hr
hi
¿ hr =k 2 hi

Where hr is the rebound height of the ball and hi is the initial height of the ball. Hence a graph of

rebound height hr vs initial height hi will have a gradient of k 2.

Variables:

Controlled Variable: the type of ball used, the mass of the ball, the inflation pressure, and the

method of release.

Manipulated Variable: the surface the ball is bounced on and the initial height.

Responding Variable: rebound height of the ball.

List of possible apparatus to used:

1. Identical balls

2. Retort stand

3. Meter scale

4. A person to count the number of bounces of the ball, one to record the height of the first

bounce.

5. A smooth bouncing surface e.g., concrete, (ply) wood, porcelain tile or Styrofoam.

6. Digital pressure gauge/inflator to inflate all the balls to the same pressure.
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Diagram:

Method:

Drop the ball from different heights. Record the highest rebound height of each drop and plot a

graph of Rebound Height vs Initial Height.

Expected Results:

Surface Initial Height (hi)/cm

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30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Styrofoam

Rebound
Wood
Height
Porcelain
(hr)/cm
Tile

Concrete

Treatment of Results:

Plot a graph of rebound height vs initial height. Here is an example of how your graph should look

Discuss whether your hypothesis is valid and explain state why.

Calculations:

1. Show a sample calculation for the rebound height.

2. Show the equations used to calculate the constant, k for each surface.
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Assumptions/ Precautions/ Sources of error/ Limitations:

Conclusive statement: confirm hypothesis or not

Chapter 14

Lab #14 – ORR: Specific Heat Capacity of a

Liquid

Aim:
To find the specific heat capacity of motor oil, by the cooling method.

Apparatus & Material: Water, motor oil, aluminum calorimeter and stirrer, hot plate,

thermometer, stopwatch, electric balance.

Introduction:
 Definition of Specific Heat capacity
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 Explain the usefulness of knowing these quantities.

Theory:
Show the equationS for the lab, and define each term

Sketch the expected graphs for the rate of cooling of water and motor oil

Total heat lost = Heat lost by Liquid + Heat lost by Calorimeter ( M C S C (∆ θ ))

Heat lost by water = M w S w (∆ θ )

total heat loss M w S w ( ∆ θ ) + M C S C ( ∆ θ )

Average heat loss per minute (Rate of cooling) = =
total time t w ,2−t w ,1

Heat lost by motor oil = M o S o ( ∆ θ)

total heat loss M o So ( ∆ θ )+ M C SC ( ∆ θ )

Average heat loss per minute (Rate of cooling) = =
total time t o ,2−t o , 1

Method:
a) Weigh the calorimeter and stirrer

b) Add 100 ml of water and weigh again (or water up to a pre-marking to fill ¾ of the

calorimeter)

c) Heat the calorimeter and its contents to a temperature of 80 oC

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d) Using the stopwatch provided record the temperature of the water every 0.5 or 1.0 minute as

it cools to a minimum temperature of 40 oC.

e) Repeat this procedure using the same amount of motor oil.

f) Plot the cooling curves for water and motor oil.

g) Using equations in theory find So , using the assumption that the average rate of cooling

would be the same for the same amount of fluid under similar conditions.

Results:
Mass of calorimeter and stirrer (Mc) =

Mass of calorimeter and water =

Mass of calorimeter and motor oil =

Mass of Motor Oil (MO) =

Mass of water (Mw) =

Room temperature =

Initial temp. of calorimeter contents (ϴi)=

Final temp. of calorimeter contents (ϴf) =

Specific Heat Capacity of Water = 4.20 Jg-1K-1

Specific Heat Capacity of Calorimeter = 0.91 Jg-1K-1

Time ± __ s Temperature Water ± __ oC Temperature Motor Oil ± __ oC

0 80 80
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Calculations:
a) Use two points on your graph for water, to find the temperature and time at those points.

b) Use this information to find the rate of cooling.

c) Use the rate of cooling, and your other motor oil data to find the specific heat of diesel.

Discussion:

a) Comment on the shape of the curves

b) Comment on the values calculated for SD, and compare to the theoretical value

c) State at least 3 precautions taken

d) Errors at least 3, Limitations at least 2

Conclusion:

State the value of specific heat capacity of motor oil, and make a one sentence

comment on the use of the cooling method to find specific heat capacity based on

the difference between your value and the theoretical value (1200 Jkg-1K-1).

Chapter 15

Lab #15 – PD: Tensile Strength

Question: A popular fairy tale tells how Rapunzel locked in a tower is saved. Along comes a

handsome prince who is destined to rescue her by climbing up her hair. How is this possible?
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Hypothesis:

Construct a statement that tests the viability of an average weighted man climbing upon a bundle

of hair strands.

Introduction:

Please make note of the tensile strength of human hair is approximately 200 MPa and compare to

other materials. You can also mention the Searle’s apparatus for tensile strength to be used solely

or as a reference test.

Apparatus: List necessary apparatus needed

Theory:

List any appropriate formula that should be used.

Diagram:

Draw a well-labelled diagram using laboratory equipment of a simplified experimental set-up.

Eg.
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Experimental Procedure/ Method:

List steps needed to carry out the process. Include, the varying weights to be used, the type of hair,

the varying number of strands of hairs, a graph to be plotted of breaking strength versus number of

hairs, you must include an extrapolation of N. Finding the average weight of a male, measuring the

size of a human head (eg, taking small strips of paper and laying them over the area of the head to

get the size, then measuring the strips), finding the value of hair strands per cm2on a head, and

finding the number of strands of hair on the entire head.

Variables: List the Manipulated, Controlled and Responding.

Table of results:

Number of Hairs Average Breaking

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(n) weight (N)

Table 2

Number of hairs per cm3

Area of head A Area of head B Area of head C Area of head D

Expected graph:

Breaking
strength / N

Number of
hairs / n
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Sources of error:

1.

2.

3.

Precautions:

1.

2.

3.

Limitations:

1.

2.

3.

Conclusive statement: Confirm if hypothesis is valid.

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Chapter 16

Lab #16 - MEASUREMENT OF

VISCOSITY BY STOKES’ LAW
Apparatus
Measuring cylinder A, glycerine, stop watch, small steel ball bearings C of varying diameters,

o o
micrometer screw-gauge, meter rule, thermometer 0 – 100 C, chemical balance, beaker.

Introduction

When flow is laminar, the viscous retarding force F on a spherical object of radius a and density ρ,

moving through a fluid of viscosity η and density σ, depends on

The viscosity η of the fluid

The velocity v and radius s of the sphere

This is expressed in the equation

F=6 πη va (1)

and is known as Stokes’ law.

Consider the sphere falling vertically under gravity in a viscous fluid. The body has three forces

acting on it (Figure 2):

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1. its weight W, mg,

2. the upthrust U, which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced, and

3. the viscous force F.

F
U

a Fig 2.2

The resultant downward force is given by

F R =W −U −F (2)

The force causes the sphere to accelerate downward until its velocity and, thus, the viscous force

become such that

F R =W −U −F=0 (3)

From this point, the sphere continues to fall with a constant velocity known as the terminal

velocity, vt. Since mass= volume x density,

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4 3
W= πa ρg (4)
3

and

4 3
U =weight of fluid displaced = π a σ g (5)
3

From Stokes’ law

F=6 πη v t a (6)

Substituting F, W and U into equation (3) gives

2
2 a
v t= g ( ρ−σ )
9 η

This equation can therefore be used to determine the viscosity of the fluid η.

Method

Fill the measuring cylinder A with glycerine, and drop in the largest ball-bearing (Figure 3). Fix a

mark X (sticky tape is suitable) well below the top of the liquid, so that the bearing reaches a steady

velocity by the time it reaches X. Fix a second mark Y near the bottom of the cylinder, and measure

the distance l cm between X and Y.

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Time the fall of ball-bearings of varying diameter between the marks X and Y, having measured

the diameter of each in two perpendicular directions with the micrometer screw-gauge. Note the

zero error of the micrometer.

Measure the density of the glycerine, using a suitable method, and its temperature.

Fig. 2.3

Measurements

Zero error of micrometer gauge = …….. mm

-3
Distance XY, l = …….. mm = ……… x 10 m

2 2
Micrometer Average Time of fall Terminal a (radius )

readings diameter for XY velocity v

-1 2
/mm /mm t /s /ms /m
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Density of glycerin σ= ……….kgm-3

Density of steel ρ= ………..kgm-3 (from physical tables)

Temperature of glycerine = …………oC

Calculation

2 2
Calculate the average diameter of each ball-bearing, the square of the radius, a , in metre and

-1
the average terminal velocity vt for each ball-bearing in metre second . Enter the results in the

table of measurements.

2
Plot a graph of a against vt, and draw the best line passing through the origin. Calculate the

gradient, c/d.

Calculation of Viscosity

4 3
The terminal velocity vt is such that the apparent weight π a ( ρ−σ ) g is equal to the viscous drag
3
6 πη va . Thus the viscosity, η is given by;

()
2
2 a 2 c
η= g ( ρ−σ ) = g ( ρ−σ ) × =¿
9 vt 9 d
-2 -3 2 -1
In SI units, g = 9.8 ms , and ρ and σ are in kgm , c is in m , and d is in ms .

Discussion Questions
1. How does the viscosity of blood compare with that of water and glycerine?
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2. Viscosity affects the flow of blood in the vessels. Discuss briefly.

3. Would you expect blood flow to be laminar or turbulent? Discuss.

Conclusion
o -2
The viscosity of glycerine at …..… C was ………N s m .

Chapter 17

Lab #17 – MM: Barton’s Pendulum

Introduction:
What it shows:

All objects have a natural frequency of vibration or resonant frequency. If you force a system—in

this case a set of pendulums—to oscillate, you get a maximum transfer of energy, i.e. maximum

amplitude imparted, when the driving frequency equals the resonant frequency of the driven

system. The phase relationship between the driver and driven oscillator is also related by their

relative frequencies of oscillation.

Apparatus

heavy pendulum bob, eg brass or Plasticine)

several light pendulum bobs, eg Plasticine, wood, metal, aluminum balls etc in small paper cones
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string

nylon thread (or fishing line)

clamp stands

Method:
Make one driver pendulum with a heavy bob and several light pendulums of various lengths with

one length exactly matching the driver. Suspend all the pendulums from a string as in Figure, and

support the ends of the string firmly. Notice that the force oscillations causes a lag by 90°, 180° and

out of phase oscillations. Comment on this with your teacher.

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Chapter 18
Lab # 18 – AI & ORR: Spiral Spring

EXPERIMENTS IN ELASTICITY
Aim:
To find the spring constant ‘k’ using Hooke’s law and the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ using
S.H.M. of a spring.
Introduction
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Elasticity plays an important role in everyday life. We sometimes use a rubber band to secure a
parcel. We call the force exerted by the rubber band an elastic force because we can easily see the
distortion produced and can feel the reaction to the force used to cause this distortion. Further on
removal of this force the band will – provided it is not stretched beyond its elastic limit – regain its
original length. Greater stretching may even result in the breaking of the band. The use of a piece of
string is accompanied by the same effect although the stretching is too small to be readily noticed.
Changes in the shape of solids are of great importance in the design of structures. It is not necessary
to know how much the members of a structure will bend, twist or stretch without breaking.
Basically, materials may be deformed in three ways, via.
i. Stretching or changing of length
ii. Twisting or shearing
iii. Compressing or changing of volume

The forces producing each of these effects are applied to the body in a different manner.
Hooke’s law, when applied to a spiral spring, states that the extension (Dx) experienced by the
spring is proportional to the force (F) causing the extension i.e.
F ∝ Δ x∨F=kΔ x
This is true provided that the extension is not too large i.e., the ‘limit of proportionality’ is not
exceeded. A graph of load or mass against extension is therefore a straight line and the mass (m)
corresponding to unit extension can be obtained from the slope of this graph

Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.) When objects move about a central location or origin such that
the inflection points are equidistant from the origin, it is undergoing S.H.M. the assumption is that
energy is not lost within this motion, and it can go on forever without resistive forces. For e.g., if a
mass M is attached to the lower end of a vertical spiral spring whose mass is negligible, the upper
end of which is fixed, and displaced in a vertical direction from its equilibrium position the mass
and spring will execute simple harmonic motion.
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The period of the motion is given by

[ ]
1
M 2
T =2 π
k

Theory:

Part A:
Hooke’s Law states
F=kΔ x ……….1
A graph of Force (F) vs extension ( Δ x ) is linear and has a gradient of k .
Part B:
Suppose that a suspended spring which obeys Hooke’s law has a body of mass M attached to its
lower end and is displaced through a distance Δ x . The body undergoes simple harmonic motion,
and the period T of oscillation can be represented by

[ ]
1
M 2
¿
2 4 π2
T =2 π T = M …………2
k k
2
4π
A graph of period squared (T 2) vs added mass ( M ¿ is linear and has a gradient of and
k
therefore the spring constant k can be found.
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Additionally, Hooke’s law states that the extension is proportional to the tension which has
produced it. Suppose that a suspended spring which obeys Hooke’s law has a body of mass M
attached to its lower end and the body is at rest in its equilibrium position. There can be no resultant
force acting on the body and therefore the tension F 0 can be given by
F 0=MgIt follows from Hooke’s law that
k Δx
Mg=kΔ x ¿=
g
Substituting into equation 2 gives

( )
2 2
2 4π k Δx 2 4π
T = {bigm T ¿ = Δx
k g g
2
4π
A graph of period squared (T 2) vs extension ( Δ x ) is linear and has a gradient of and therefore
g
acceleration due to gravity, g can be found.
Apparatus:
Spiral spring, light pointer, retort stand with boss heads and clamps, meter rule, scale pan, weights
and stop clock
Method:
Part A: Clamp one end of the spiral spring in one of the clamps of the retort stand. Attach the
pointer at the other (lower) end. Mount the meter rule (using another clamp) alongside the spring so
that the extension of the spring can be read with the aid of the pointer. Determine the extension
produced by various loads (at least ten). The scale readings should be taken for each load – one
when loading and the other when unloading the spring.
Part B: A load mass M is added to the spring which is set in oscillation by giving it a small vertical
displacement from its equilibrium position. Determine the time for 25 or 30 oscillations. Repeat for
at least 6 different values of displacement ‘x’ (NB displacement is due to loaded mass as in first
part, NOT the same as the displacement to set it into oscillation).
Results:
Part A:
Table 1 Loading and Unloading Spring
Mass Load Loading Extension Unloading Extension Average
(M)/kg (F)/N Reading/m 1/m Reading/m 2/m Extension (
Δ x )/m
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Part B:
Table 2 Spring Undergoing S.H.M
Mass Average Time taken for 25-30 oscillations/s
(M)/kg Extension/
m
t1 t2 t3 tavg T/s T2/s2

Analysis:
Part A:
1. Plot a graph of Load (F) vs average extension ( Δ x ) to determine the spring constant k.
2. Plot a graph of period squared (T 2) vs added mass ( M ¿ to determine the spring constant k a
second time.
3. Plot a graph of period squared (T 2) vs average extension ( Δ x ) to find the acceleration due to
gravity g.

Discussion:
1. In what way is a Hooke’s law apparatus similar to a pendulum?
2. Would this experiment yield the same results on the moon and locations on earth seeing as
“g” varies based on location and explain a possible reason as to why?
3. How do your spring constant, k values compare? Which method was best for finding k?
4. The calculated value for the mass of the spring, compare it to your measured mass and
explain the differences.
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Chapter 19

Lab #19 – ORR: Interrupted Pendulum

Aim:
Introduction: A pendulum of length l swings in a vertical plane. The string hits a peg placed at a
distance h vertically below the point of suspension as shown. This makes the pendulum shorter for
part of its motion.

(a) Theory: A student suggests that an approximate relationship between T and h is given by

2 2
T =π /g (2l −h)