Discover Applied Sciences

Review

Pioneering zero‑waste technologies utilization and its framework

on sustainable management: international, national and state level
Rahul Kumar1 · Gauranshi Gupta2 · Aisha Hussain2 · Anju Rani1 · Ashish Thapliyal1 · Divya Gunsola1 ·
Sourav Chattaraj3 · Arindam Ganguly4 · Periyasamy Panneerselvam5 · Beatriz E. Guerra‑Sierra6 · Debasis Mitra1

Received: 21 September 2024 / Accepted: 6 March 2025

© The Author(s) 2025  OPEN

Abstract
The pressing need to address environmental challenges offers a significant opportunity to adopt zero-waste technolo-
gies, which can facilitate sustainable management across different levels of governance. This review focuses on recent
innovative zero-waste technologies and their implementation frameworks for effective application at international,
national, and state levels. The overarching concept of zero-waste involves the development of strategies aimed at eradi-
cating waste throughout the lifecycle of products, including design, production, consumption, and disposal. The aim
of this approach is not only to decrease environmental consequences but also to establish a circular economy in which
resources are perpetually reused, recycled, or composted. At the global level, organizations such as the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) and the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) have promoted initiatives for zero
waste through worldwide frameworks and guidelines that encourage member states to adopt environmentally friendly
waste management practices. These international efforts include setting ambitious targets for waste reduction, sharing
best practices, and supporting the development of innovative technologies. It is crucial for national governments to
translate the international guidelines into concrete policies and regulations. For instance, countries such as Japan and
Germany have successfully implemented zero-waste programs through comprehensive legislative frameworks, public
awareness campaigns, and the integration of advanced waste-management technologies. These national policies pro-
vide a foundation for state and local governments to develop tailored strategies to address specific regional challenges.
At the state level, innovative zero-waste technologies such as advanced recycling systems, waste-to-energy solutions,
and biodegradable materials are being tested and refined. States serve as laboratories for experimentation, showcasing
successful models that can be scaled or adapted for broader applications. Collaborative efforts among state agencies,
businesses, and communities are essential for the effective deployment of these technologies. This review emphasizes
the interconnected roles of international, national, and state frameworks in advancing zero-waste technologies. It empha-
sizes the importance of cohesive strategies and multilevel collaboration in achieving a sustainable future, where waste
is minimized, and resources are conserved for future generations.

* Debasis Mitra, [email protected] | 1Department of Microbiology, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), 566/6, Clement
Town, Dehradun 248002, Uttarakhand, India. 2Department of Biotechnology, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), 566/6, Clement
Town, Dehradun 248002, Uttarakhand, India. 3Centre for Industrial Biotechnology Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Siksha
‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Kalinga Nagar, Bhubaneswar 751003, Odisha, India. 4Department of Microbiology, Bankura
Sammilani College, Bankura 722102, West Bengal, India. 5Crop Production Division, ICAR – Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006,
Odisha, India. 6Agro‑Environmental Biotechnology and Health (MICROBIOTA), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Naturales Y Agropecuarias,
Universidad de Santander, 680002 Bucaramanga, Colombia.

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Highlights

• Advancing decentralized waste valorization systems for circular economy integration and enhanced resource recovery.
• Transforming organic waste into high value bio products through scalable, innovative bioprocessing technologies.
• Integrating zero-waste solutions into urban planning to build resilient, climate-positive circular cities.

Keywords Zero-Waste technologies · Sustainable management · International frameworks · National policies · State-
level implementation · Circular economy · State-of-the-art waste

1 Introduction

Materials that are accessible in solid form but are unusable, underused, undesired, or wasted are referred to as solid
waste [1]. Municipal solid waste may also contain semisolid food waste and municipal sludge [2]. From nation to coun-
try and from municipality to municipality, the makeup of trash differs dramatically. The main factors influencing this
variance include industrial structure, waste management laws, economic situations, and lifestyle [3]. There are many
different kinds of waste that are produced, such as sewage sludge, construction and demolition debris, hazardous and
non-hazardous industrial waste, medical waste, radioactive waste, agricultural and animal waste, and waste from the
combustion of fossil fuels. The degree of urbanization and industrialization, social norms, per capita income, and climate
all have an impact on the features of MSW shows in Fig. 1. The composition of collected MSW may vary greatly depend-
ing on the geographical area and season [2]. By 2050, 3.40 billion tons of garbage will have been produced worldwide;
waste creation in high-income countries is predicted to increase by 19%, while it will increase by more than three times
in low-income countries [4]. The study looks at the effects on the economy and the environment of Czech solid biofuel
subsidies [5], the use of garbage-derived materials to replace cement, and biogas facilities for making energy, managing
waste, and lowering emissions [6]. It also discusses the use of insects as high-protein feed substitutes for fish farming,
enhancing the environmental and financial competitiveness of the sector while promoting the circular economy (CE)
[7]. The paper also examines investment strategies in industries supervised by portfolio managers [8], focusing on trends
affecting capital allocation and portfolio diversification [9]. It also examines the long-term effects of microstructural
shocks on private investment behavior, examining structural modifications, regulatory changes, and market volatility [7].
The study provides insights into flexible approaches to risk reduction and long-term private sector expansion. Overall,
the research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the economic and environmental impacts of biofuel
subsidies and sustainable development [10].
A sizable amount of garbage worldwide is organic waste, which includes food waste and agricultural wastes. Environ-
mental problems including methane emissions and nutrient loss result from improper handling of this garbage. None-
theless, it has enormous potential for climate mitigation, circularity, and resource recovery. Anaerobic digestion (AD) has
demonstrated efficacy in the production of renewable energy and waste management. Hydrothermal processing is one
example of an integrated pre-treatment technique that can increase efficiency even more. There is unrealized potential
for food waste to be upcycled into high value biochemicals like protein isolates and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). As a
result, food waste is moved from low-value composting to sophisticated bioprocessing for the pharmaceutical and bio-
plastics sectors. Straw, husks, and fruit peels are examples of agricultural waste that can be combined with biorefineries
to create cellulose-based goods, biofuels, and biofertilizers. In order to reach zero-waste targets, urban organic waste
treatment is essential. Biodigesters and distributed composting are two new approaches to high-density metropolitan
settings. One promising method for soil repair and carbon sequestration is the creation of biochar from organic waste.
Future studies should examine how adding biochar to agricultural systems might reduce carbon emissions over time
and how it can improve fertility and water retention in arid areas.

2 Types of wastes management

2.1 Solid waste management

There are several different recovery routes for solid waste, which includes industrial residues, agricultural byproducts, and
municipal solid waste (MSW) [11]. For sustainable management, cutting-edge methods including gasification, pyrolysis,

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Fig. 1  Types and Source of waste and their impact on environmental health

anaerobic digestion (AD), and biomass-to-energy conversion are essential. For organic waste, including food scraps,
agricultural leftovers, and animal dung, anaerobic digestion is a highly efficient technique [12]. Biogas is a mixture of
methane ­(CH4), hydrogen (­ H2), and carbon dioxide (­ CO2) that is produced when microorganisms break down organic
matter without oxygen [13]. After being purified, biogas can be used as a renewable energy source for heating, power
generating, and automobile fuel. For example, digestate, a by-product of anaerobic digestion, is a nutrient-rich biofer-
tilizer that improves soil health and lessens the need for artificial fertilizers [14]. A crucial strategy for non-organic solid
waste is mechanical recycling, which includes metals and plastics [15]. Metals are melted and reused, while plastics are

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sifted, shredded, melted, and remolded into new items [16]. Mixed plastic waste can be transformed into synthetic crude
oil using processes like pyrolysis, which can then be refined further to create fuels [17]. Similar to this, waste gasification
turns solid waste into syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen that can be utilized as a chemical feedstock
or in fuel cells [18]. Another important strategy is composting, which uses aerobic decomposition to turn organic waste
into high-quality compost. Innovations that increase efficiency and shorten processing times include in-vessel compost-
ing and vermicomposting, which uses earthworms [19]. Cities like San Francisco, for example, have effectively diverted
organic waste from landfills by implementing extensive composting systems [20]. These programs also produce compost
that may be used for landscaping and agriculture.

2.1.1 Challenges of solid waste management

2.1.1.1 Separation and pollution The absence of appropriate segregation at the source is one of the biggest problems
in solid waste management. Recycling and composting methods are rendered ineffective or even unfeasible by the
presence of pollutants in mixed waste streams, such as plastics in organic waste or hazardous compounds in recyclable
fractions [21]. For instance, contaminated materials are frequently rejected by recycling facilities in developing nations,
increasing the amount of waste that ends up in landfills [22].

2.1.1.2 Advanced technologies’ economic viability Technologies like mechanical recycling, gasification, and pyrolysis
need a large initial investment as well as ongoing maintenance and operating expenses [23]. Municipalities and small-
scale trash producers in low-income areas find it difficult to implement these systems [24]. For instance, without a con-
sistent supply of feedstock and government support, pyrolysis facilities are frequently not financially viable [25].

2.1.1.3 Restricted recycled product market Cheaper virgin materials frequently compete with recycled items. Inadequate
processing results in low-quality recycled products, which further impedes market adoption [26]. For instance, recycled
polymers are not as popular for packaging because of durability and contamination issues [27].

2.1.1.4 Hazards to the environment and human health If not effectively managed, technologies like garbage incineration
and RDF synthesis emit harmful emissions like furans and dioxins [28]. These present hazards to the environment and
human health, necessitating strict monitoring and emission control procedures [29].

2.1.2 Recent advances of solid waste management

2.1.2.1 Production of biochar from organic waste Biochar can be produced from organic waste, including food scraps and
agricultural leftovers, thanks to recent developments in pyrolysis technology [30]. As a soil additive, biochar improves
water retention, increases soil fertility, and enhances carbon sequestration [31]. For instance, pyrolysis machines are
being utilized in India to produce biochar for agriculture while processing crop leftovers, lowering air pollution from
stubble burning [32].

2.1.2.2 AI‑powered improved mechanical recycling In material recovery facilities, robotics and artificial intelligence (AI)
are transforming trash sorting procedures. Recyclables may be swiftly and precisely identified and separated from mixed
waste streams by AI-powered systems, increasing recycling rates and lowering contamination [33]. For instance, busi-
nesses such as AMP Robotics are using AI-powered robots in recycling facilities to sort paper, metals, and plastics with
never-before-seen accuracy [34].

2.1.2.3 Innovative plastics‑to‑fuel products Waste plastic may now be efficiently converted into fuels and useful chemi-
cals through the processes of hydrothermal liquefaction and catalytic pyrolysis [35]. These procedures use less energy
since they work at lower pressures and temperatures than traditional techniques. Example: To turn polyethylene and
polypropylene into diesel and gasoline, a factory in the UK uses catalytic pyrolysis [36].

2.1.2.4 Advanced methods for composting The speed and quality of composting processes are being improved by
technologies such as bio-electrochemical systems and in-vessel composting [37]. These systems create high-quality
compost in a fraction of the time needed by conventional methods by maintaining ideal temperature, aeration, and

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microbial activity [38]. For instance, Singapore’s urban composting facilities now quickly handle food waste using
bio-electrochemical processes [39].

2.2 Liquid waste management

If left untreated, liquid waste such as industrial effluents, municipal wastewater, and agricultural runoff poses serious
environmental hazards [40]. Recovery strategies seek to reduce pollution while obtaining useful resources [41]. In
wastewater treatment facilities (WWTPs), anaerobic digestion has become a crucial method for producing biogas from
organic contaminants [42]. By absorbing ­CH4 and ­CO2, sophisticated systems like Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
Reactors (UASBs) cleanse wastewater and produce biogas [43]. These systems have been widely used to treat dairy
and sugar mill effluents in nations like India. Another important component of managing liquid waste is nutrient
recovery [44]. Slow-release fertilizers are created by technologies like struvite precipitation, which extracts nitrogen
and phosphorus from wastewater streams [45]. For instance, the Netherlands and Japan use phosphorus recovery
from sewage sludge, which greatly lessens their reliance on non-renewable phosphate rock [46]. Membrane tech-
nologies such as reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) are used in industrial settings to recover clean water
from effluents while concentrating metals and valuable compounds for future use [47]. For example, RO systems in
the textile sector reduce freshwater use and effluent discharge by recovering colors and salts from wastewater [48].
An environmentally acceptable substitute, constructed wetlands use soil, plants, and microbes to treat wastewater
while also serving as habitat for biodiversity [49].

2.2.1 Challenges of liquid waste management

2.2.1.1 Expensive advanced treatment technologies High installation and operating expenses are associated with tech-
nologies such as nutrient recovery systems, membrane bioreactors (MBR), and reverse osmosis (RO). This restricts their
use, especially in environments with limited resources [50]. For instance, small wastewater treatment facilities in rural
regions find it difficult to maintain and pay for sophisticated treatment equipment [51].

2.2.1.2 Absence of infrastructure and skilled labor Advanced treatment facilities must be operated and maintained
by qualified staff in order to recover liquid waste effectively. Developing nations frequently struggle with a shortage
of qualified specialists and suitable infrastructure [52]. Example: Due to a lack of suitable infrastructure, untreated
industrial effluents are directly released into rivers in many parts of South Asia and Africa [53].

2.2.1.3 Energy‑depleting procedures Numerous liquid waste recovery techniques, including RO and nutrient recov-
ery, need a lot of energy. Using energy sources based on fossil fuels raises greenhouse gas emissions [54]. For
instance, energy inefficiency is a common problem with struvite recovery systems, which reduces the economic
viability of phosphorus recovery [55].

2.2.1.4 Newly developed pollutants Pharmaceuticals, microplastics, and chemicals that affect hormones are exam-
ples of new pollutants that may be difficult to remove using advanced liquid waste recovery systems. This restricts
the amount of treated water that can be reused [56]. For instance, WWTPs frequently release treated water with trace
amounts of medications, which may have an effect on aquatic environments [57].

2.2.2 Recent advances of liquid waste management

2.2.2.1 Bioreactors with anaerobic membranes (AnMBRs) Anaerobic digestion and membrane filtration are used in AnM-
BRs to greatly increase the effectiveness of wastewater treatment. By filtering away pathogens and particles, these sys-
tems create biogas from organic contaminants, allowing for the reuse of high-quality effluent [58]. For instance, the dairy
and brewing sectors are using large-scale AnMBRs to control effluent and generate renewable energy [59].

2.2.2.2 Technologies for hybrid membranes and forward osmosis (FO) Wastewater treatment is being revolutionized
by forward osmosis and hybrid systems that combine reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration. These energy-efficient sys-

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tems may concentrate useful byproducts like nutrients and salts and recover clean water [60]. For instance, FO is
being used in pilot projects in California to recover water from brine while extracting lithium for the production of
batteries [61].

2.2.2.3 Recovery systems for nutrients The recovery of nitrogen and phosphorus from wastewater is being enhanced by
sophisticated nutrient recovery technologies, such as ion-exchange and electrochemical techniques. Reliance on non-
renewable resources is decreased by using these recovered nutrients to make fertilizer [62]. For instance, electrochemi-
cal precipitation is now used in the Netherlands’ struvite recovery systems, improving efficiency and lowering energy
usage [63].

2.2.2.4 Using engineered microbial consortia to construct wetlands Engineered microbial consortia are used in newly
developed wetlands to improve the breakdown of organic pollutants and new toxins such as medications. These sys-
tems work well for decentralized wastewater treatment and are inexpensive and energy-efficient [64]. For instance, Viet-
nam’s wetland systems are treating industrial effluent with microorganisms that have been genetically modified [65].

2.3 Gaseous waste management

The main sources of gaseous waste include landfills, industrial pollutants, and agricultural practices. The goal of recov-
ery strategies is to capture, transform, and use these pollutants in order to produce energy and lower greenhouse gas
emissions [66]. It is possible to capture and use landfill gas, a major source of ­CH4 and ­CO2, to generate energy [67]. In
landfill gas-to-energy (LFGTE) projects, electricity is generated by gas engines or turbines and subsequently sent to the
grid [68]. ­CH4 can be further processed using sophisticated purification technology to produce renewable natural gas
(RNG), which is identical to conventional natural gas [69]. For instance, the decomposing trash at New York City’s Fresh
Kills Landfill produces millions of cubic meters of RNG every year [70]. Technologies for carbon capture and utilization
(CCU) are essential for reducing ­CO2 emissions from industrial sources [71]. In a variety of industries, captured ­CO2 can be
utilized to extract crude oil from aging wells through enhanced oil recovery (EOR) or to produce urea for fertilizers [72].
New methods, including algal-based biofixation, use ­CO2 to cultivate algae, which can then be turned into bioplastics,
biofuels, or animal feed [73]. Gasification of waste biomass is a viable method for producing hydrogen. This technique
produces syngas that is high in ­H2 by breaking down organic material at high temperatures in a controlled oxygen
atmosphere [74]. Green hydrogen, a vital fuel in the shift to sustainable energy, can be created by further purifying the
syngas [75]. Similarly, a state-of-the-art technique for producing syngas from mixed solid and liquid waste that can reduce
waste volume by up to 99% is plasma arc gasification [76]. Anaerobic digestion of organic waste is another important
strategy for recovering methane [77]. For instance, livestock manure can be processed by agricultural enterprises using
AD systems to produce biogas, which lowers ­CH4 emissions and supplies energy for on-site operations [78].

2.3.1 Challenges of gaseous waste management

2.3.1.1 Infrastructure for capture and storage Gaseous emissions like ­CO2 and methane must be captured and stored
using specialized infrastructure, which is expensive and difficult to set up [79]. Smaller industrial enterprises and agricul-
tural businesses find this particularly difficult. For example, small-scale emitters cannot afford the cost of carbon capture
and storage (CCS) technology [80].

2.3.1.2 Scale and efficiency of technology High energy inputs and complex equipment are needed for technologies like
syngas generation and plasma arc gasification. It’s still difficult to scale this technology to manage high waste volumes
[81]. For instance, differences in feedstock composition frequently result in inefficiencies when producing syngas from
municipal trash.

2.3.1.3 Market and regulatory obstacles Incentives and policies for implementing waste-to-energy technology, includ-
ing biogas production or landfill gas capture, are frequently insufficient. Furthermore, in many areas, the market for
renewable fuels like biogas and RNG is still in its infancy [82]. For instance, the deployment of biogas facilities in develop-
ing nations is constrained by the absence of subsidies.

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2.3.1.4 Environmental issues Although gaseous waste recovery lowers greenhouse gas emissions, additional con-
tamination may result from incorrect byproduct handling [83]. For example, the environmental benefits of landfill
gas recovery systems may be undermined if methane leaks during capture.

2.3.2 Recent advances of gaseous waste management

2.3.2.1 Advanced capture and use of carbon (CCU) Thanks to advancements in CCU technologies, ­CO2 may now be con-
verted into useful products including building materials, polymers, and synthetic fuels [84]. Sustainable industrial pro-
cesses are being made possible by innovations such as mineralization and the electrochemical reduction of ­CO2 [85].
For instance, businesses like Carbon Cure are increasing material strength and lowering carbon emissions by injecting
collected ­CO2 into the concrete production process [86].

2.3.2.2 Green hydrogen production and methanation Synthetic methane is being made possible via methanation
methods, which mix collected ­CO2 with green hydrogen generated by electrolysis. For transportation and heating,
this methane can be utilized as a carbon–neutral fuel [87]. For instance, methanation technology is being used in
pilot facilities in Germany to produce synthetic natural gas from ­CO2 and renewable hydrogen [88].

2.3.2.3 Using plasma arc gasification to produce syngas A revolutionary method for producing syngas from mixed
solid and gaseous waste is plasma arc gasification. After that, syngas can be converted into chemicals, electricity, or
hydrogen [89]. For instance, there are plasma gasification plants in operation in Japan that process municipal solid
waste and generate syngas for electricity production [90].

2.3.2.4 Upgrading landfill gas New landfill gas upgrading technology are improving methane recovery efficiency.
With little energy, membrane-based gas separation devices may convert landfill gas into renewable natural gas
(RNG) [91]. For instance, US advanced landfill gas-to-RNG plants are recovering more than 95% of their methane [92].

2.4 Integrated waste‑to‑resource systems

By combining the recovery of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste, integrated waste management systems maximize
resource efficiency while reducing environmental impact [93]. For example, biorefineries convert various waste
streams into energy, chemicals, and biofuels. One example is the Kalundborg Symbiosis project in Denmark, which
creates a CE model by exchanging resources, waste heat, and industrial byproducts among participants [94]. Waste-
to-energy (WTE) plants, which process solid and liquid waste concurrently to produce heat and power, are another
cutting-edge technique [95]. For instance, garbage is burned at Sweden’s WTE facilities to create energy, and the
leftover ash is used for building [96]. To reduce air pollution and recover metals from the ash, these plants also use
sophisticated flue gas cleaning systems. Problems with Waste-to-Resource and Zero-Waste Methods Although waste-
to-resource and zero-waste programs have enormous potential for resource recovery and sustainability, they face a
number of difficulties in managing solid, liquid, and gaseous waste [97]. These difficulties include social, economic,
and technical impediments that restrict the efficiency and broad use of such systems [98].

2.4.1 Challenges of integrated systems

2.4.1.1 Across waste streams coordination Investment in multipurpose facilities and cross-sectoral coordination are nec-
essary for the integration of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste recovery. Stakeholder lack of cooperation and disjointed
policies can make this difficult [99]. For instance, integrated waste-to-energy facilities have trouble coordinating gar-
bage inputs from various sources.

2.4.1.2 Monitoring and data gaps Designing efficient systems requires precise information on waste creation, com-
position, and recovery possibilities. Strong monitoring systems are lacking in many areas, which results in ineffective

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operations [100]. For instance, the development of biogas plants in rural areas is hampered by a lack of information
on the generation of agricultural waste.

2.4.1.3 Acceptance in Society Project delays or cessation may result from public opposition to specific recovery tech-
nologies, such as landfill gas recovery and trash incineration, because of alleged health hazards and odor concerns [101].
For instance, local communities frequently oppose waste-to-energy plants in metropolitan areas because they are wor-
ried about air pollution.

2.4.1.4 Gaps in policy and finance Significant obstacles to waste recovery initiatives include inconsistent policies, a
dearth of incentives, and restricted access to funding. Progress is slowed by frequently underdeveloped public–private
collaborations [102]. Example: Comprehensive frameworks for advancing CE efforts are lacking in many developing
nations.

2.4.2 Recent advances of integrated systems

2.4.2.1 Models of the circular bioeconomy Waste-to-resource methodologies are integrated across solid, liquid, and gas-
eous waste streams in recent developments in circular bioeconomy models. Nowadays, mixed municipal, industrial, and
agricultural waste is processed by biorefineries to provide energy, chemicals, and biofuels [103]. For instance, a biorefin-
ery in Finland creates bioethanol, bioplastics, and district heating using wastewater, biogas, and forest leftovers.

2.4.2.2 Chemicals from waste plants To transform mixed trash into valuable chemicals like methanol, ethanol, and ole-
fins, emerging waste-to-chemicals plants use sophisticated catalytic and enzymatic processes [104]. For instance, a facil-
ity in Canada uses gasification and catalytic synthesis to turn municipal trash into ethanol.

2.4.2.3 Intelligent waste management systems Waste collection, sorting, and recovery procedures are being optimized
by smart technologies like blockchain and the Internet of Things (IoT). Real-time garbage generation is tracked by IoT-
enabled sensors, and resource recovery and recycling chains are transparent thanks to blockchain technology [105]. For
instance, IoT-enabled smart waste bins in South Korea allow for accurate waste tracking and pickup, increasing recycling
rates.

2.4.2.4 Waste‑to‑energy hybrid plants These days, hybrid systems that process both liquid and solid waste are incorpo-
rated into waste-to-energy (WTE) facilities. These facilities recover clean water from liquid waste, create biochar from
solid waste, and produce power [106]. For instance, Sweden’s hybrid WTE facilities treat industrial and municipal waste-
water concurrently to provide potable water and district heating [107].

3 Agricultural and animal waste

The leftover material from the production and processing of agricultural products, such as fruits, vegetables, dairy, grains,
meat, poultry, and crops, is referred to as agricultural waste. Crop trash (rice husk, wheat straw, and sugarcane bagasse),
animal waste (animal excreta and dead animals), processing waste (packaging materials and fertilizer containers), and
hazardous waste (pesticides and insecticides) are the four main categories into which agricultural waste is often divided
[4]. Agricultural and animal wastes constitute a significant proportion of biomass and can play a crucial role in meeting
heat or energy demands and related material supply while addressing environmental protection objectives [4]. With
the increase in global livestock production, animal waste has become a significant environmental concern. In certain
instances, the consequences are severe and catastrophic. In 2000, contamination of drinking water by livestock waste
resulted in several fatalities in the town of Walkerton [108]. When the pH of livestock waste increases, ammonium ions
are converted to ammonia gas, which readily volatilizes into the atmosphere, increasing atmospheric N content [109].
Elevated atmospheric concentrations of ammonia can lead to acidification of land and water surfaces, causing damage
to plants and reducing plant biodiversity in natural ecosystems. Livestock production contributes directly and indirectly
to air pollution and global warming. It has significantly contributed to increased levels of C ­ O2 and other greenhouse
gases over the past 250 years [110]. The utilization of agricultural waste is a critical concern, particularly considering the
reported global energy demand gap. Extensive research has been conducted on biomass utilization, with several notable

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studies in this area. For instance, researchers have explored the impact of rice husk addition on the porosity and thermal
conductivity of burned clay bricks [111]. Consequently, rice husks have been identified as effective pore-forming addi-
tives for clay bricks. Sugarcane bagasse serves as a fuel source for boilers [112]. To meet the basic needs of the growing
population, crop and livestock production must be expanded annually, which simultaneously generates substantial
quantities of agricultural waste and raises concerns regarding its environmental and health impacts. As previously noted,
the majority of agricultural waste originates from crop residues, livestock, agro-industrial, and aquaculture sources.
Therefore, managing agricultural waste is an urgent necessity that requires robust strategies [113].

4 Municipal solid waste (MSW)

MSW, often known as trash or rubbish, is the term used to describe commonplace goods that people use and then throw
away, such as food, paper, product packaging, furniture, clothes, plastic bottles, yard trimmings, and other materials [114].
The creation of MSW has continuously exceeded international efforts to dispose of MSW in a sustainable and clean way
throughout the past few decades [115]. The composition of MSW varies depending to geographical factors, eating pat-
terns, climate, and the degree of industrialization. Typically, MSW has an organic matter level between 60 and 70% [116].

4.1 Physical description of MSW

Physical characterization of MSW is conducted to quantify recoverable materials and investigate the impact of physical
composition on the strength and stability characteristics of MSW [117]. Physical characterization of MSW can be accom-
plished through the assessment of factors such as moisture content, particle size distribution, density, permeability,
calorific value, and compressibility. Component design of a solid waste management system is heavily influenced by
the waste density of MSW, which is expressed as mass per unit volume [118].

4.2 Chemical characteristics of MSW

To utilize solid waste as a fuel or for other purposes, determining its chemical properties is crucial (NEERI, 1995). These
chemical properties include calorific value, total carbon, C/N ratio, pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K)
[119]. Biochemical: Natural fibers, proteins, carbohydrates, and biodegradable components are examples of biochemi-
cal features. Toxic: According to E-Course online (2013), toxicity features include heavy metals, herbicides, insecticides,
and toxicity tests for leachates (TCLP). The use of MSW compost in horticultural crop production has been shown to be
beneficial since it improves the physical characteristics of the soil, such as bulk density and water-holding capacity [120].
When MSW compost made up less than half of the combination (30% MSWC and 65% peat), it was shown to be the best
part of mixed-peat substrates for tomato seedling development [121].

4.3 MSW controlling in India

India lacks the technological know-how and resources required to handle the disposal of massive amounts of solid
garbage [118]. However, India has implemented innovative waste disposal techniques, including Vermicomposting and
aerobic composting, as well as waste-to-energy techniques including bio-methanation, pelletization, and incineration
[118]. The total amount of waste generated has consistently increased over time and is projected to continue to grow
because of both economic and population expansion [122]. The utilization of MSW for energy production presents an
excellent opportunity to increase the proportion of using renewable energy to produce energy in the end while simul-
taneously reducing the environmental impacts associated with landfill operations [123].

5 Waste of industry

Materials that are no longer needed once the production process is finished are referred to as industrial waste [124].
The industrialized world’s growing reliance on chemicals has led to the generation of several leftover dangerous com-
pounds. The amount and dangerous composition of waste created as a result of the rising trend in consumption have
reached alarming proportions [125]. There are two types of industrial waste: hazardous and non-hazardous. Hazardous

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waste is a major environmental problem because it is more dangerous for the environment and human health than
non-hazardous trash [126, 127]. Waste is produced by a wide range of industrial manufacturing industries, including
printing and publishing, food production, consumer products, textile mills, mining, and factories [124]. The main sources
of organic waste that may be used for landfilling, composting, and value-adding are the food and agriculture sectors.
Hazardous gas emissions, including greenhouse gasses, have been linked to the composting and landfilling processes
[128]. In the current context, maintaining environmental sustainability in the face of growing industrialization is one
of the biggest difficulties. As a result, appropriate disposal is essential for both environmental preservation and human
health. Various methods have been devised to tackle this issue. The best strategies include recycling, turning garbage
into energy, increasing disposal methods, and streamlining routes [129].

5.1 Medical waste

The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies medical waste as any garbage that is produced by healthcare facilities,
including clinics, hospitals, dental offices, and medical labs. It also includes hazardous, infectious, and other waste mate-
rials. Pathological, sharp, chemical, pharmaceutical, cytotoxic, radioactive, and ordinary (i.e., non-hazardous) waste fall
under this category. Blood and other biological fluids are considered infectious waste, whereas human tissues, organs,
and contaminated animal carcasses are considered pathological waste. Chemical trash comprises solvents, whereas
sharp waste consists of syringes, needles, and blades. Pharmaceutical waste consists of expired drugs and vaccines, while
cytotoxic waste contains highly hazardous substances.

5.1.1 Impact of medical waste on humans and environment

Inadequate treatment can result in global infection and poisoning outbreaks, in addition to adversely affecting the health
of medical personnel, the general population, and communities where the waste is stored [130]. A sizable number of
infectious wastes are medical wastes (MW), which are potentially dangerous due to their high pathogenicity the ability
to cause disease and resistance to treatment [130]. Medical waste emissions contain harmful gases, which contribute to
atmospheric pollution when subjected to open burning or incineration. These emissions can lead to respiratory and der-
matological conditions, or even malignancies, if precautionary protocols are not followed [131]. Consequently, improper
medical waste management results in environmental contamination, malodorous emissions, and proliferation of worms,
rodents and insects may facilitate the transmission of diseases such as hepatitis, cholera and typhoid through injuries
from contaminated sharps [132]. The medical waste management process encompasses waste generation, segregation,
collection, transportation, and treatment. The absence of proper treatment can have several consequences, including
[133] Toxin-induced poisoning, bacterial and fungal infections, release of toxins into the atmosphere, soil and aquifer
contamination through leaching, Bioaccumulation, Environmental impacts, and habitat destruction. Waste disposal
methods include Incineration: a carefully managed burning procedure where garbage is fully burned, and dangerous
microbes are eliminated at high temperatures [134]. Autoclaving is a low-heat thermal procedure that involves bringing
waste and steam into regulated contact for long enough to sterilize the materials [134]. Microwaving: The heat action
of electromagnetic radiation in the 300–300,000 MHz frequency range causes microbial inactivation. Intermolecular
heating occurs during microwave heating. When steam is present, heating takes place inside the waste material. Like
autoclaving, but with the addition of indirect heating of the waste due to steam application in the outer jacket, is hydro
waving. Throughout the procedure, the waste in the chamber was constantly stirred [134]. The increasing utilization of
healthcare services, influenced by various factors, is leading to an increase in medical waste production, which conse-
quently places strain on the existing disposal systems. The most effective approach to mitigate medical waste has the
effect of lowering its production. Making ensuring that only infected medical waste is sent for treatment and that other
non-infectious garbage is handled similarly to municipal home waste is one of the main ways to do this. Furthermore,
government bodies can implement several measures to reduce infectious medical waste.

6 Radioactive waste

Hazardous waste containing radioactive elements is known as radioactive waste [135]. It includes any material that has
been radioactively polluted or is radioactive by nature and is thought to be useless [136]. The amount of radioactive waste
produced worldwide is rising every day. The production of nuclear power, various phases of the nuclear fuel cycle, and

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the use of radioactive elements in industry, medicine, agriculture, and institutional research are all blamed for the rise in
the production of radioactive waste [137]. An illustrative example is the category of radioactive waste.

6.1 High‑sophisticated waste

Both spent nuclear fuel from nuclear reactors and trash produced during the reprocessing of used nuclear fuel are clas-
sified as high-level waste. The bulk of liquid high-level waste in the United States is produced by Défense-related opera-
tions, although commercial nuclear power plant reactors account for the majority of spent nuclear fuel. The majority of
high-level trash is now kept in storage near where it is produced.

6.2 Waste from transuranic sources

Anthropogenic radioactive elements having atomic numbers more than 92 are referred to as transuranic waste (ura-
nium). Most of the transuranic waste in the US comes from sites that produce nuclear weapons. Commonplace objects
like rags, tools, and lab equipment contaminated during the early stages of nuclear weapons research and development
make up this trash. Transuranic waste is currently kept at many federal sites throughout the country. The destination
for transuranic waste produced for Defence operations is the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in New Mexico, which
started accepting garbage in 1999.

6.3 Mill tailing of thorium or Uranium

The radioactive waste products left over after uranium or thorium ores are mined and milled are called mill tailings. These
tailings are kept in specially constructed containment buildings known as impoundments at the locations of production.

6.4 Low‑grade waste

Radioactively contaminated industrial or research waste that does not fit the requirements for being classified as tran-
suranic waste, high-level waste, uranium, or thorium mill tailings is referred to as low-level waste. Common waste prod-
ucts including cardboard, paper, rags, plastic bags, safety gear, and packaging material are frequently included in this
category. These materials fall under the category of trash produced when radioactive materials encounter them. A
wide range of businesses, including governmental organizations, utility firms, industrial plants, healthcare facilities, and
research institutes, can produce low-level waste when they use radioactive materials. For low-level garbage that interacts
with the near surface, specialized disposal facilities are available.

7 Construction and demolition waste

India has witnessed a sharp rise in construction and demolition (C&D) waste in tandem with the ongoing expansion of
construction activities, including infrastructure projects, commercial structures, and housing initiatives. garbage result-
ing from construction and demolition (C&D) is one of the main sources of garbage worldwide [137]. Numerous stud-
ies have shown that large-scale construction and demolition activities brought on by increased urbanization and city
redevelopment account for 30–40% of all solid waste [138–140]. 150 million tons of construction and demolition (C&D)
trash are produced in India each year, according to the Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMPTC).
The unofficial estimate of the total amount of garbage produced is, however, three to five times higher. In research on
the CDWM industry, the Center for Science Environment (CSE) found that India’s recycling capability is only 6,500 tons
per day, or about 1.3% of the total amount of C&D waste produced [141].
The fast pace of urbanization is the cause of the significant amount of construction and demolition trash produced,
along with the related environmental issues [137]. Significant environmental risks and the ensuing effects of C&D waste,
such as increased pollution, resource depletion, and land degradation, have been shown in a number of studies [137]. Due
to inadequate waste management strategies, 85–90% of the generated construction and demolition trash is disposed
of or used as landfill material. Three categories can be used to classify C&D trash based on the phase of its creation [137]
waste from construction (CW), rehabilitation (RW), and destruction (DW) [137]. Inert materials (such as concrete and
bricks), which are typically thought to have little environmental impact, are typical components of construction and

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demolition waste (EPD, 2012). But this waste stream also contains potentially dangerous materials like asbestos and
particle debris. The ecology will suffer if these components are not disposed of appropriately. Thus, the creation of a C&D
waste management system that is both economically and environmentally viable is a worldwide issue that necessitates
in-depth research and discussion [137]. Recycling construction and demolition trash is a profitable business venture
that offers the chance to recover financial and ecological advantages from waste. Recycling construction and demolition
debris reduces C ­ O2 emissions, energy use, natural resource use, and the number of unlawful landfills. By lowering the
use of natural resources and providing the necessary materials for a variety of construction projects, construction and
demolition debris (C&D trash) has the potential to significantly boost the national economy [140].

7.1 Extraction and mining waste

The world economy depends heavily on mining, yet the process of extracting metals, metalloids, and other mineral
products produces a significant amount of liquid and solid waste. Ecosystems and human populations may be seriously
endangered by the wastes’ high quantities of potentially harmful substances [142]. Every year, mining activities generate
enormous amounts of trash. The Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development Project (MMSD) estimates that there
are about 3500 operational mining waste facilities globally, which include tailings dams and waste rock dumps. Over
100 billion tons of solid waste are produced annually in the world as a result of the primary production of minerals and
metal commodities [143]. It is possible to extract and develop complicated, fine-grained, low-grade orebodies due to
the growing demand for key metals. Tailings per ton of product will grow due to the exploitation of lower-grade and/or
complicated ores, and their fines content will also rise [144]. The process of mining usually starts with mineral explora-
tion and discovery, then moves on to industrial and infrastructure projects that concentrate on the practical extraction
and processing of these resources. It is impossible to overlook the creation of mining waste, which is the main effect of
mining activities. The majority of Indian miners dispose of their waste on land that is part of the mining lease area. India
produces 65 main minerals and 22 minor minerals totalling over 600 million tons annually [145]. The potentially increas-
ing magnitude of associated environmental liabilities is a critical issue concerning tailings and waste rock. Furthermore,
the composition of numerous mineral deposits currently undergoing processing is such that the concomitant waste rock
may contain sulphatic minerals. When exposed to alternating infiltration and oxygen cycles (i.e., air), sulphides undergo
oxidation, resulting in acid and/or metalliferous drainage (AMD). The release of AMD into the surrounding environment
frequently leads to severe ecological impacts, occasionally extending tens of kilometres downstream from a mine site.
When such occurrences occur, large-scale environmental impacts can have significant social and/or economic conse-
quences [146].

8 Waste that is electrical and electronic (e‑waste)

Discarded electrical and electronic gadgets are referred to as electronic garbage, or e-waste. Older electronic devices like
computers, TVs, and cell phones are included in e-waste, which is chemically and physically different from other types
of industrial or municipal garbage that contain both valuable and harmful components [147]. Ferrous material makes
up 38% of the makeup of e-waste, followed by nonferrous material (28%), plastic (19%), glass (4%), and other materials
including ceramics, rubber, and wood (11%). Aluminium (Al), bismuth (Sb), antimony (As), barium (Ba), beryllium (Br),
calcium (Ca), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), potassium (K), silicon (Si), sodium (Na), titanium (Ti), lithium
(Li), mercury (Hg), and zirconium (Zr) are the main chemical elements found in different types of e-wastes [148]. In recent
decades, the amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE, or e-waste) produced by modern civilization
has dramatically expanded [148].
According to a recent United Nations University (UNU) research, 41.8 MT of e-waste are produced annually worldwide.
Much of this e-waste is being illegally transported from industrialized nations to emerging Asian nations like China and
India [149]. As of right now, India is the third-largest e-waste production in the world (Central Pollution Control Board).
India produces around 8,00,000 tons a year [150]. Ten states in the nation produce 70% of the nation’s e-waste (Rajya
Sabha Report). The government, the public and commercial sectors, retailers, private residences, PC manufacturing facili-
ties, secondary markets, and illegally imported trash are the main sources of e-waste in India [150]. The current e-waste
processing system in India is mostly run by a well-established informal sector, where computer garbage is disposed
of and recycled in a crude manner that presents serious risks to human health and the environment [151]. Under the
pretext of second-hand usage of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) for recycling, refurbishing, and philanthropic

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purposes, e-waste is imported from industrialized countries. Since this is a type of e-waste that is hidden, quantitative
statistics were not accessible. In 2007, e-waste was quantified using computers, mobile phones, and televisions. The
results showed that 3,82,979 tons of e-waste were produced in India and 50,000 tons were illegally imported from the
United States and the European Union [152]. The environment and human health are seriously threatened by the heavy
metals found in e-waste. India must thus create pertinent and efficient plans for the whole e-waste value chain [153].

9 Oil and gas production waste

The exploration and exploitation of natural gas, condensate, and oil from unconventional organic-rich shale plays has
increased as a result of the growing worldwide need for energy [154]. Large amounts of trash are produced during the
exploration and production of oil and gas (E and P). Oil sludge, waste drilling fluid/mud, waste treatment plant residue (oil
separator, oil catcher, dissolved air flotation), leakage from floating storage, tankers, and oil spills are examples of waste
from oil and gas exploration [155]. Because these wastes are polluted with toxic and greasy elements, proper handling is
essential. Three forms of waste are created: (1) liquid waste (produced water, oily chemicals, etc.), (2) solid waste (organic
waste, oil sludge, plastic, and wax), and (3) flue gas (­ CO2 and ­SO2) in gas plants [156]. India is the world’s third-largest
energy user, behind the United States and China. It is also the world’s energy user with the fastest rate of growth. India
is the world’s fifth largest energy consumer. Coal, crude oil, natural gas, and renewable energy sources account for the
majority of India’s energy needs. Since hydrocarbons account for more than one-third of the needed energy, oil and gas
play a big part in the energy mix. (Indian government, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas). Category ’A’ is assigned
to India’s upstream oil and gas industry under the Environmental Impact Assessment notice of 2006. If this sector is not
handled properly, it might have a negative impact on the socioeconomic climate and the surrounding environment. It has
been noted that industrial activity affects the air, water, soil, and biodiversity [157]. The extraction and refined products
processes of the oil and gas industry produce significant amounts of hazardous and toxic waste that have a severe effect
on the environment [158]. Oil sludge’s high content of petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) has led to its classification as a
hazardous waste that endangers both human health and the environment [159]. Sludge waste from the gas and oil sector
is one of the main environmental sources of 226Ra [160]. In the continental shelf ecosystems, operational discharges of
generated water and drill cuttings from offshore oil and gas rigs are persistent sources of pollution [161]. To handle and
manage waste, a comprehensive strategy that addresses the following issues should be put into practice: (i) the types
and nature of wastes; (ii) the point and quantity of waste formation; (iii) regulations and limitations for waste disposal;
and (iv) disposal and treatment technologies [158].

9.1 Fossil fuel combustion waste

India is one of the most rapidly developing countries globally and is experiencing increasing industrialization. Currently,
India primarily relies on fossil fuels to meet its high energy demand, which generates substantial amounts of waste [162].
The generation of Coal Combustion Residues (CCR) has increased as the power generating capacity expanded from
1350 MW in 1947 to approximately 100,000 MW in 2004, to address the nation’s needs. Approximately 105 million tons of
CCRs are produced annually as solid waste or by-products [163]. Large amounts of waste from the burning of fossil fuels
(FFCs), such as oil ash, fly ash, bottom ash, and sludge from flue gas desulfurization (FGD), are being disposed of on land.
The primary compounds in the FGD sludge were sulfite, sulfate, carbonates, and hydroxides of Ca. Oil ash predominantly
contains sulfate and oxides of Al, Na, Fe, and Mg. Water extracts of FFC waste contain substantial fractions of Ca, Mg, K,
and Na [164]. During energy generation through coal combustion, certain pollutants and heavy metals accumulate in the
air and water, leading to severe environmental and health impacts due to leaching, volatilization, melting, decomposi-
tion, oxidation, hydration, and other chemical reactions. Furthermore, fly ash, in both wet and dry forms, is mobilized
and induces severe effects, including bone deformities and kidney dysfunction [165].

10 Sewage sludge

To greatly improve the quality of effluent water, domestic wastewater treatment uses both physical removal and
biological transformation of particles, pathogens, organic compounds, and nutrients. The principal byproduct of
wastewater treatment, "sewage sludge", is made up of the particles removed during the initial sedimentation stage

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and settling microorganisms formed during biological transformation activities following secondary clarity [166].
India’s generation of sewage sludge has expanded because of widespread urbanization. Managing and disposing
of it in an economical and ecologically responsible way is one of the world’s most urgent problems [167]. India is
producing more sewage sludge as a result of its extensive urbanization. One of the most urgent issues facing the
world today is how to handle and dispose of it in a way that is both economical and ecologically responsible [168].
Applying this waste material to the soil is a practical way to use it in agriculture. An excellent source of plant nutrients,
such as N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn, is sewage sludge [169]. However, when industrial wastewater is mixed
with sewage, sewage sludge may include high amounts of hazardous heavy metals including Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr, and Hg.
This can lead to agricultural damage, soil and water contamination, and a buildup of heavy metals in the food chain
[170]. Sewage sludge may be used as an energy source to generate heat and electricity using both established and
new methods. Furthermore, if the method used permits the manufacture of a high-quality product, sewage sludge
may be utilized as a substrate for soil restoration and fertilization. Comparing the reuse of sewage sludge to waste
processing and landfilling, the former is thought to be more ecologically friendly and economically feasible [171].
Sewage sludge has many uses, such as producing combustible pellets, granulates, or other functional materials like
absorbents; recovering phosphorus, rare earth metals, or lipids for industrial use; farming; construction; and growing
plants not meant for human consumption or food production [172]. Therefore, it is essential to create novel technolo-
gies that maximize the recovery of valuable minerals and/or energy from sewage sludge. An integrated approach
that includes the evaluation of management strategies that can maximize recycling and recovery benefits through
low-energy impact systems and the development of operational systems customized to local conditions can help
facilitate the shift to more sustainable practices [173].
This table presents a comprehensive analysis of zero-waste technology utilization and their Framework on Sustain-
able Management at the state, federal, and global levels. It encompasses policy frameworks, technology, implementa-
tion methodologies, impacts and references. The key components include municipal regulations, national legislation,
and international treaties. Implementation strategies comprise public–private partnerships, incentives, and community
initiatives. This table also examines the quantifiable effects of these technologies, such as reduced single-use plastic
consumption and increased recycling rates (Table 1).

11 Waste’s detrimental effects on the environment, both globally and in India

The detrimental effects of pollution, resulting from substantial quantities of unsustainable anthropogenic waste entering
the environment, continue to adversely impact numerous ecosystems globally. A variety of waste materials, including
microplastics, are known to continuously pollute landfills and seas since they contain no recyclable or biodegradable
materials [186].

11.1 In India and globally water and soil pollution

Contamination of groundwater and soil represents the primary environmental hazard associated with unsanitary solid
waste landfills. When hazardous chemicals are dissolved or leached from waste items by surface water seeping through
them, they can be carried away from disposal locations by surface or subsurface runoff. Heavy metals are the most
harmful of these substances, which causes their bioaccumulation and biomagnification. In the event that the leachate
reaches groundwater, these heavy metals might be harmful to the ecosystem [187]. Toxic pollutants diminish normal
soil microbial biota [188].

11.2 Public health

Solid waste disposal sites serve as potential sources of contamination for children because of the incubation and pro-
liferation of disease vectors, such as flies, mosquitoes, and rodents. These vectors transmit pathogens that adversely
affect the health of the population, resulting in gastrointestinal, dermatological, respiratory, genetic, and other infec-
tious diseases [189].

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 Table 1  Zero waste technologies in sustainable management: a framework
Zero Waste Technologies Policy Framework Implementation Strategies Outcome Reference

International
Organic waste anaerobic digestion Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 12: Programs for technology transfer and Worldwide advocacy for environmentally [174]
Responsible Consumption and Produc- financial assistance for developing friendly manufacturing and consump-
tion) of the United Nations nation tion methods
Advanced chemical and mechanical Circular Economy Action Plan (2020) of Establishing global guidelines for trash Globally, improved material recovery and [175]
recycling (such as gasification and the European Union management techniques decreased reliance on landfills
Discover Applied Sciences

pyrolysis)
Systems for incinerating waste into The Basel Convention on the Control of International accords and cooperative Decreased transportation of hazardous [176]
energy Hazardous Waste Movements Across frameworks (such as UNEP programs) waste and increased rates of recycling
International Boundaries (1992) worldwide
National
IoT-based systems are examples of National restrictions (such as India’s Plas- Collaborations between public and Deceased the usage of single use plastics [177]
(2025) 7:224

smart garbage collecting and sorting tics Waste Management Rules, 2016) on business sectors to advance the use of and encouraged the adoption of reus-
technology the usage of single-use plastics zero-waste technology able alternatives
Systems for mechanical biological Programs for Extended Producer Respon- Manufacturers and producers’ incentives Increased rates of recycling and waste [178]
therapy (MBT) sibility (EPR), like Germany’s Packaging to cut waste reduction
Ordinance
Composting technology for managing The Zero Waste Act of 2000 in the Philip- Nationwide efforts for awareness and Decreased use of landfills and improved [179]
organic waste pines and the Waste Management and education rates of recycling and composting
Public Cleansing Law of 2001 in Japan
States
Facilities for material recovery (MRFs) Policies for green procurement (such as Working together with neighbourhood Improved rates of local material recovery [180]
that process and sort recyclables the New York State Green Procurement businesses and NGOs to Support and reduced dependency on landfills
Program) community-led zero-waste projects
Dispersed composting and neighbour- Programs offering incentives to reduce Grants and financial incentives for nearby Higher municipal recycling rates and [181]
hood recycling programs trash and recycle (such as the 1971 companies and towns encouragement of green industry
Oregon Bottle Bill)
Localized facilities for recycling and Waste management laws that are particu- Adoption of zero-waste laws through- Reaching the states goals for trash reduc- [182]
waste-to-energy lar to a state (such as California’s Inte- out the state and funding for creative tion and recycling
grated Waste Management Act, 1989) projects
City
Urban recycling programs and resource Initiative for green waste management Cooperation on sustainability initia- Heightened awareness and engagement [183]
| https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-025-06693-z

and urban agriculture (such as those inn

recovery facilities situated inside com- tives with neighbourhood companies, in the community, as well as enhanced
munities Curitiba, Brazil) community organizations, and urban local resource recovery
planners

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Smart bins and automated garbage sort- Limitations on throwaway goods (such as Programs for trash reduction and educa- Reduced use of single use plastics, [184]
ing systems Seattle’s 2018 ban on plastic straws and tion in communities and schools elevated public consciousness, and
cutlery) elevated recycling rates
Organic waste composting and biogas Waste management regulations set out by Initiatives for localised composting and Decreased production of municipal [185]
generation facilities on site municipalities (such as San Francisco’s recycling, as well as pay as you throw garbage and increased involvement in
Zero Waste Program) options recycling and composting

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11.3 Climate change

Increasing concentrations of gases in Earth’s atmosphere have the potential to induce climate change. Solid waste is
directly responsible for some of the increased emissions. The creation, use, and disposal of goods, together with the
handling of the waste they generate, all contribute to the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which
affects Earth’s climate. Waste prevention and recycling are tangible methods for addressing climate change (EPA).

11.4 Land degradation

One human activity that can lead to pollution and land damage is landfilling. Numerous contaminants, including
landfill gases and leachate, may be discharged into the environment during the trash landfilling process. A growing
problem on a worldwide scale is the presence of unlawful landfills. Illegal waste dumps degrade land, taint water
and soil, change flora, and interfere with the functioning of ecosystems [190].

11.5 Biodiversity threats

Marine ecosystems worldwide are affected by anthropogenic debris, which is predominantly plastic [191]. There’s a
chance that 1.5 plant species and 0.3 vertebrate species would disappear due to Germany’s avoidable food waste,
which is defined as food that was edible before disposal [192]. The increasing number of pharmaceuticals in the envi-
ronment and the possible harm they might do to biological systems make this an international issue that poses more
difficulties for countries with rapid population expansion. There is evidence that the genetic, species, and community
variety of creatures and ecosystems is at risk due to the introduction of pharmaceutical drugs. Furthermore, plants
that are the base of the trophic chain may be impacted using treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation [193].

11.6 Disposal of waste

Waste disposal is the process of eliminating unwanted materials and substances generated by human activities. This
critical aspect of contemporary society encompasses the disposal of quotidian household waste and management
of hazardous materials produced by industrial processes [194].

11.7 Methods of waste disposal

The controlled burning of solid, liquid, or gaseous combustible wastes to produce gases and residues containing
little or no combustible material is the definition of incinerator waste incineration [195]. Incineration was conducted
in an ’incinerator,’ which is a specialized furnace designed for the combustion of hazardous materials in a combus-
tion chamber. A wide range of hazardous materials, including soil, sludge, liquids, and gases, can be treated through
incineration. While incineration effectively destroys numerous harmful chemicals, such as solvents, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), and pesticides, it does not eliminate metals such as lead and chromium (EPA, 2012).

11.8 Landfilling

Landfilling refers to the process of depositing solid waste and solid waste residuals at a designated landfill site.
Monofils are specialized landfills designed for specific waste constituents such as combustion ash, asbestos, and
other similar materials. Secure landfills are used for hazardous waste disposal. In contrast, locations where waste is
deposited on or into the ground without proper organization are termed uncontrolled land disposal sites or waste
dumps [190].

11.9 Composting

Composting is the controlled conversion of degradable organic materials and waste products into stable substances
via microbial activity. This process is fundamental to agricultural practices and facilitates the recycling of farm waste

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materials [196]. Composting is a method for transforming various degradable waste products into substances that can
be utilized safely and advantageously as biofertilizers and soil amendments [197]. The composting process protects
groundwater from contamination, in contrast to landfill waste disposal methods, which may pose a pollution risk
to groundwater resources. This protective effect is attributed to a reduction in microbial populations and chemical
contaminants during composting [196].

11.10 Recycling

Recycling encompasses the collection, processing, and reutilization of waste materials for the production of new goods.
This process typically involves materials, such as paper, plastic, glass, and metals. Recycling contributes to a reduction
in the demand for raw material extraction and greenhouse gas emissions. However, the implementation of effective
collection and sorting systems for recycling may incur substantial costs [194].

11.11 Anaerobic digestion

In anaerobic digestion, organic matter such as animal dung, wastewater biosolids, and food waste is broken down by
microbes without the presence of oxygen. Digestate and biogas are two useful products that come from this process
[198].

12 Emerging overview of zero‑waste technologies / smart waste technologies

By creating manufacturing processes and technologies that eliminate waste throughout whole waste value chains
through reuse and recycling, zero waste manufacturing (ZWM) helps nations make the transition to a CE [97]. Dr. Paul
Palmer used the phrase "zero waste" in 1973 to describe the process of recovering resources from chemicals. With the
goal of encouraging the transformation of resource supply chains away from antiquated practices and guaranteeing that
all goods or by-product materials are recycled or reused, this strategy [199]. The notion of zero waste (ZW) advocates for
sustainable practices among manufacturers and consumers to cut costs and enhance environmental quality. Zero Waste
Manufacturing (ZWM) is seen as a manufacturing road map that will enable the crucial problem of "Waste" to be resolved
[200]. According to this ideology, no material should be sent to an incinerator, dump, or landfill. Resource conservation is
the main priority in the framework of ZW [201]. It entails the conscientious use, conservation, and reuse of resources in
order to protect public health and maintain environmental integrity [202]. The term “zero waste manufacturing” (ZWM)
refers to a set of methods that support a production system that uses few resources, produces little waste, and promotes
the reuse of waste. Strategies that enable trash avoidance, reduction, recycling, redesigning, and reusing contribute to
zero waste management (ZWM) procedures even when waste cannot be totally avoided in industrial processes [201].
The following are possible suggested as important components of the ZW concept: (i) waste management from an
integrated perspective; (ii) policies and guidelines that address activities related to smart planning of products and
services; (iii) citizen education and communication; (iv) development of green supply chains; (v) emphasis on material
efficiency in raw material selection; (vi) planning and introducing products with longer lifespans into the market; and (vii)
investment in technologies for the proper management of sanitary landfills [203]. Technology has significant potential
to contribute to waste management and recycling. When utilized effectively, they can facilitate the reuse of obsolete
electronics, enhance the recycling of plastics, and reduce vehicular traffic on roads. Smart waste technologies include
recycling robots, pneumatic waste pipes, and other innovations [204]. Zero Waste Management (ZWM) is attainable;
however, it requires enactment and diligent implementation of necessary legislation, policies, and programs [201]. To
accomplish ZWM, governments at all levels must be prepared to fund awareness campaigns, training, education, and
research on cutting-edge strategies [205].

12.1 Zero‑waste technologies utilization at state level

In Sikkim, a diminutive Himalayan state with a population of approximately 600,000, the annual influx of tourists, num-
bering three times the resident population, exacerbates the challenge of plastic waste management. Non-recyclable
plastics (including packaging from instant noodles and snack foods), PET bottles, glass bottles (primarily from alcoholic
beverages), cardboard, and Tetra Pak containers constitute the majority of non-biodegradable waste, according to a

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rapid assessment of the waste management situation in Sikkim conducted by ECOSS for the Zero Waste Himalaya group.
Grassroot innovations and monitoring are central to efforts towards achieving Zero Waste at several tourist destinations
in Sikkim [206]. Since the need for garbage disposal sites has grown to be a major concern for most metropolitan areas,
the development of Ambikapur in Chhattisgarh, Chandrapur in Maharashtra, and Taliparamba in Kerala has adopted a
“zero-landfill model” that attempts to progressively reduce reliance on new landfills [207]. As a consequence, according
to a report published by NITI Aayog, these three cities were listed among 28 with excellent waste management meth-
ods. A zero-landfill approach "is based on resource recovery and CE principles, which are socially, environmentally, and
economically viable," the paper said. According to this definition, a “zero-landfill city” is one that makes sure the greatest
amount of garbage is treated and recycled scientifically, which lowers the amount of residual solid waste and lessens
the need to build new landfills [207].
One of the first major cities in the developing world to embrace a zero-waste goal is Ahmedabad. AMC will use the
Zero Waste Road Map as a forward-thinking roadmap to help guide its efforts toward achieving Zero Waste by 2031. In an
effort to make Ahmedabad a zero-waste city, the AMC and the United Nations Center for Regional Development, Japan
(UNCRD) have signed a Memorandum of Understanding. In order to create a “Roadmap for Zero Waste Ahmedabad”
(Zero Waste Festival, 2024), AMC is receiving technical assistance from UNCRD. One element of the complex web of zero-
waste programs that has allowed Indore to remain the cleanest city in India for six years running is segregated rubbish
collection. About 15,000 individuals work for the city managing rubbish. Indore’s garbage situation has been efficiently
addressed by a combination of technologically advanced processing plants, finance, strong home composting programs,
teaching and training systems, and other approaches. (UNEP, 2023) [208]. A philosophical and conceptual framework
known as zero waste has not yet completely penetrated Indian policy or the courts. By analyzing waste management
legislation and policies over the last 20 years, we highlight the importance of environmental awareness and judicial
insensitivity to the implementation of zero waste un-Indian states [209].

12.2 Zero waste utilisation at national level

Zero waste is a philosophical and conceptual framework that has not yet fully permeated the Indian judiciary or policy.
This disparity between law, policy, and practice regarding zero waste requires urgent attention from national stakehold-
ers [209]. In the late 1990s, the Supreme Court judgment in Almitra Patel v. Union of India pertaining to municipal waste
garnered significant national attention. The petitioner filed this Public Interest Litigation (PIL) against the government
of India, state governments, and municipal corporations for their failure to fulfil their duty to manage solid waste and
address potential improvements in waste management practices. The Supreme Court subsequently directed the central,
state, and municipal governments to implement the necessary actions to address solid waste management. In Septem-
ber 2000, the Ministry issued Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000 under the Environment
Protection Act of 1986. However, even after a decade in 2014, state governments were unable to demonstrate the effec-
tive functioning of urban local bodies in accordance with the 2000 rules. This inadequacy compelled the government
to enforce the new Solid Waste Management Rules of 2016, which further expanded the scope of responsibility for solid
waste management. The Supreme Court and High Courts have not yet deliberated on the content and scope of zero-
waste management. The Court equated zero waste with environmental terminology related to recycling, reducing, and
reusing. The judicial approach is limited to waste segregation and management [210].

12.3 Zero waste technology utilisation at international level

The zero waste hypothesis reframes garbage as a resource that has to be preserved, used wisely, and brought back into
the economy. The global zero-waste movement is one of the modern solutions to the growing urgency and catastrophe
surrounding waste-related concerns. The global movement for zero waste offers substitute strategies that have shown
to be effective in reducing waste problems at a reasonable cost while encouraging the kind of innovation needed to
progress toward a CE and more sustainable forms of growth. Acknowledging the good challenges and phenomena of
zero waste, a group of academic institutions and organizations are attempting to establish a hub for global academic col-
laboration on zero waste (NIZAC). NZIAC’s main goal is to support research and teaching in order to advance the transition
to zero-waste cities in the future [211]. Zero Waste ideas have been adopted by a number of nations (South Africa, New
Zealand, China, India), states or provinces (California, Nova Scotia), and businesses (DuPont, Fuji Xerox, and Toyota) [212].
A research project called ZeroWIN, or Towards zero waste in industrial networks was sponsored by the European Union.
Its goal was to test techniques and tactics to end resource waste in important European industrial sectors through case

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Fig. 2  Different categories of waste and their recycling process

studies with industry partners. The project’s duration was 2009—2014. It has been shown that if society is prepared to
change its business methods and culture, it can solve its current issues with industrial pollution and resource depletion
in a sustainable way [213]. Researchers and participants gathered at the 15th International Conference on Waste Man-
agement and Technology (June 28–30) in Beijing, China, to discuss cutting-edge waste management approaches from a
range of disciplines. The goal of the conference was to improve the relationship between industry and applied research
by focusing on contemporary waste management solutions. Prominent speakers from around the world attended this
conference and shared their research [199].

13 Advances of waste segregation and recycling process

Waste segregation is essential to the chain of waste management because it makes recovery, recycling, and reuse (RRR)
more efficient. But in most developing countries (DC), it is mostly done informally and has not gotten enough attention.
It is further impeded by low priority in planning, insufficient enforcement and regulatory frameworks, a lack of financial
incentives, and a lack of knowledge [214]. Recycling can reduce the amount of waste sustainably. Segregating waste prior
to recycling is essential to prevent contamination, which could diminish the value of recycling and increase the recycling
rate [215]. Waste segregation is crucial because combining different waste types in landfills like polythene bags, used

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furniture, and electronic debris could allow hazardous compounds to leak into the atmosphere and contaminate land
and water. Different categories can be used to classify waste for recycling purposes, as shown in Fig. 2.
Recycling should be used after waste segregation since it may minimize the loss of potentially valuable resources and
cut down on the need for new raw materials, which will lower energy consumption, air and water pollution, and energy
usage overall. This holds significant importance for contemporary society, which faces the problem of resource scarcity
[216]. Currently, waste segregators are designed to facilitate the disposal of the collected waste. Three bins one each for
dry, metal, and wet waste make up the system. Using a variety of system-connected sensors, the conveyor belt system
recognizes incoming garbage and classifies it as dry, wet, or metal before redirecting it into the appropriate container.
The deflection procedure was executed using servomotors programmed according to the operational requirements. The
waste level in each bin was monitored using ultrasonic sensors in each container. A notification was sent to the relevant
authorities regarding bin emptying. The entire setup introduces automation and ensures the successful collection of
waste from the bin at an appropriate time [216].

13.1 Conversion of waste to energy and sustainable landfill management

The increase in the global population and pursuit of improved living standards have resulted in increased demand for
energy resources and per capita consumption rates. This escalated consumption has contributed to climate change. To
mitigate climate change, renewable energy sources have recently gained preference; however, fossil fuels remain the
primary energy source. The US Department of Energy predicts that if carbon emissions, primarily due to fossil fuel com-
bustion, continue at the current rate, they will cause an increase in the global temperature from 1.7 to 4.5 °C from 1990
to 2100. Consequently, there is an urgent need to replace non-renewable energy sources with renewable alternatives
[217]. Utilizing waste materials for energy production appears to be one of the most promising options for future energy
supplies. This approach has the potential to address two critical global challenges: managing increased waste levels due
to the rising world population and urbanization, and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions driven by fossil fuels [218].
Thermal decomposition (gasification, pyrolysis, and hydrolysis) or biological processes (anaerobic digestion and fermen-
tation) can be used to produce fuel from trash [219]. Instead of recycling, a significant amount of waste is deposited in
landfills. Landfilling, a practice as old as humanity, remains the most common and prevalent waste disposal method
worldwide. However, it has been extensively criticized by stakeholders and is considered antithetical to sustainability
owing to its health hazards and environmental burden [220]. Prevention, re-use, and recycling should be prioritized over
disposal. Materials should not be landfilled if an alternative option exists that is practically, economically, and environ-
mentally viable [221]. Research on municipal solid waste landfill management is carried out under the Sustainable Solid
Waste Landfill Management in Asia project, which was started by the Asian Regional Research Program on Environmental
Technology. Extensive studies on this regional network which includes China, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand offer sug-
gestions for the development of efficient landfill systems across the Asian continent. The primary focus is on upgrading
existing dumpsites with an emphasis on reducing both liquid and gaseous emissions [222]. In industrialized nations,
modern landfill closure includes the traditional practice of capping garbage with materials like compacted clay, which is
becoming more and more inefficient. Alternative systems that are less expensive are becoming more and more popular,
including "Phytocapping." This technique lowers percolation by three main means: (a) evapotranspiration, or hydraulic
lift, of stored water; (b) moisture storage in soil layers; and (c) canopy interception of rainfall. It has been shown to be at
least as successful as clay capping in lowering percolation through materials used as landfill covers [223].

14 Policy harmonization and digital solutions for waste management

Without well-crafted legislative frameworks and rules for waste management services, India’s municipal authorities
have not been able to carry out their responsibilities to a satisfactory standard. Although these institutions’ daily
activities are governed by a few laws included in different municipal legislation, these restrictions are largely unnec-
essary. In India, municipal corporations bear the responsibility for solid waste management (SWM) and have a lot of
other duties pertaining to health and sanitation. However, their performance in delivering SWM services has been
lacking. The infrastructure, upkeep, and modernization of waste management’s three components collection, trans-
portation, and disposal are lacking [224]. The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MEF&CC) and
the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), two departments of the Indian government, have launched a number of
policies and initiatives aimed at enhancing the country’s solid waste management system. In 2000, the Environment

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Ministry released the Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules. These have since been revised and are now known as
the Solid Waste Management Rules 2015. In the meantime, the MoUD has created a draft MSWM manual to assist cities
and towns in developing and putting into practice an appropriate MSWM system that complies with the 2015 SWM
Rules. The MSWM Rules 2000 established the guidelines for authorities to follow when managing solid waste under
their purview, but it was noted that these regulations fell short of their goals due to ambiguity, low stakeholder aware-
ness, and lax regulator enforcement [225]. Digital technologies, including robotic automation, artificial intelligence
for material detection, and smart trash containers, have long been acknowledged by policymakers, practitioners,
and academics as important facilitators of more effective and efficient waste management [226]. Innovative solu-
tions and technology have been created by scientists, foundations, and organizations globally to address the issue
of rising garbage. With the development of the Internet and social media, scientists may now affect environmental
knowledge and consciousness on a much larger scale [227]. Waste management in the construction industry may
be improved by integrating geographic information systems (GIS), building information models (BIM), 3D printing,
and geospatial data analysis. The growing number of different waste streams and the lack of suitable trash disposal
locations can be addressed via geospatial analytics [228].

15 Future prospectus

It is commonly agreed in modern society that the inefficient use of resources (especially energy) and its major ramifi-
cations, such as social inequality and the environmental load, render the production and consumption models of the
past inadequate. Within this setting, the CE has arisen as a sustainable economic paradigm aided by creative company
models and responsible consumers [133]. Global countries are implementing policies to reduce waste and transition
to a CE. Researchers recognize Waste Treatment and Management systems as crucial for CE, and have identified tech-
niques like Refuse/Rethink, Resell/Reuse, Reduce, Repair, Remanufacture, Refurbish, Repurpose, Recover, Recycle, and
Re-mine. In order to attain a sustainable environment through waste management, academics have highlighted the
need of embracing technology advancements that may enhance and modernize the way waste management systems
are implemented [229, 230]. CE aims to transform resource utilization by replacing open production systems with
closed systems, which maintain and reuse resources, generating more value over time [231]. Organizations should
encourage industrial symbiosis, bolster supply networks, facilitate remanufacturing reallocation, and support the
circular transformation of design, production, and usage in order to improve performance in a CE setting [232]. Bio
composites are becoming more and more popular for a variety of uses since they are more ecologically friendly than
synthetic composites. Consequently, to ensure sustainable manufacturing that is also ecologically friendly to the
environment, bio composite development should be incorporated within a CE paradigm [233]. CE has so attracted the
interest of policymakers, industry professionals, and scholars as a mechanism for sustainable development. However,
there is still a lot of study to be done on CE because it is still a relatively new topic. Therefore, it is necessary to obtain
a thorough comprehension of the subject to handle more specific, connected difficulties [231].
Zero waste has gained popularity due to its ability to address resource scarcity, economic inefficiencies, and
environmental degradation. To achieve sustainability, zero-waste technologies aim to reduce waste production and
increase resource recovery. However, there are several areas that need improvement. The recovery of valuable materi-
als from waste streams is a major challenge, with issues such as contamination, low-quality recovered materials, and
inefficient sorting. Improved sorting technologies, such as automated systems using machine learning and artificial
intelligence, could significantly increase material recovery efficiency. Cutting-edge methods like hydrothermal liq-
uefaction and pyrolysis have the potential to convert garbage into biofuels or raw materials. Research into stream-
lining these processes, reducing energy use, and enhancing scalability could improve waste management systems
and increase recovery rates for items like metals, plastics, and biological waste. A CE framework should be used to
combine these technologies for sustainable waste management. Future research should focus on creating goods
with longer life cycles, better recyclability, and less environmental impact. Incentives for the adoption of CE princi-
ples can be created through cooperative efforts between industries, researchers, and governments. Energy-efficient
waste-to-energy (WTE) technologies, such as anaerobic digestion or improved incineration, are crucial for reducing
environmental impact. Future studies should focus on scaling up zero-waste solutions for underdeveloped nations,
integrating smart technologies into waste management systems, and conducting thorough Life Cycle Assessments
of zero-waste technologies.

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16 Conclusions

The investigation of zero-waste technologies and their sustainable management frameworks highlights a crucial
approach for tackling environmental issues across various governance levels. The holistic strategy promoted by zero-
waste principles, which combines waste prevention, resource efficiency, and circular economy tactics, has shown
considerable promise for reducing environmental impacts and promoting sustainability. International organizations
like the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) play a
crucial role in determining the global waste management agenda. Their work in developing frameworks, guidelines,
and ambitious waste reduction goals provides a solid basis for member states to build. These global initiatives not
only encourage the implementation of zero-waste technologies, but also enable the exchange of successful practices
and the creation of innovative solutions. Central governments play a key role in converting international directives
into concrete policies and regulations. Nations such as Japan and Germany serve as models for successful national
implementation, illustrating how comprehensive legislative structures, citizen involvement, and cutting-edge tech-
nologies can lead to significant advancements in zero-waste management.
The experiences of these countries offer valuable insights to others, emphasizing the importance of harmonizing
national policies with international standards while considering local contexts. At the state and local levels, the test-
ing and application of zero-waste technologies provides practical insights and demonstrative models. States serve
as proof grounds for innovative solutions, including advanced recycling systems, waste-to-energy technologies, and
biodegradable materials. Cooperation between state agencies, businesses, and communities is vital for refining and
expanding these technologies. Successful state-level programs not only tackle specific regional challenges but also
contribute to a broader understanding of how zero-waste principles can be effectively implemented. In summary, the
progress of zero-waste technologies depends on a unified approach that combines international, national, and state-
level endeavour’s. The interplay between these governance tiers is crucial to the development and implementation
of effective waste management strategies. The shared commitment to minimizing waste, conserving resources, and
fostering sustainable practices will be essential for achieving long-term environmental sustainability and securing
a resilient future for upcoming generations.
Sustainable waste management is being revolutionized by zero-waste technologies, which provide creative
answers to pressing economic and environmental issues. The advancement of cutting-edge zero-waste technology
and their actual use, however, continue to diverge. Their implementation is frequently hampered by issues including
high costs, scalability, and regulatory constraints. This emphasizes the necessity of integrated frameworks that match
cutting-edge technology with practical waste management solutions. Future work must concentrate on developing
modular, flexible technology that may be used by a variety of users, including small businesses and municipalities.
Particularly in areas with little infrastructure or resources, such rural areas and developing nations, decentralized
waste management methods have become a competitive alternative to traditional centralized models. These sys-
tems’ ability to adapt to local settings emphasizes how crucial it is to customize zero-waste technology to the distinct
socioeconomic and cultural contexts of various geographical areas. The success of zero-waste programs can be greatly
increased by reconsidering supply chain logistics, product design, and material usage, according to recent research,
while the integration of circular economy ideas into zero-waste strategies is still immature.
Because research indicates that focused interventions, such nudges, financial incentives, and educational cam-
paigns, can greatly impact waste-related behaviors, behavioral science is essential in promoting adoption. With
IoT-enabled sensors for real-time garbage monitoring, AI algorithms for efficient collection routes, and blockchain
systems for tracking waste flows, digital and smart technology advancements offer a paradigm shift in waste manage-
ment. These developments increase waste management systems’ accountability and transparency while also increas-
ing operational efficiency. Notwithstanding the advantages of zero-waste technologies, a number of environmental
trade-offs need to be carefully considered. These include the possibility of resource consumption in waste-to-energy
operations and greenhouse gas emissions. To create financial models and incentives that increase the accessibil-
ity and equity of zero-waste technology, policymakers and academics must collaborate. Implementing zero-waste
technology in developing nations has special opportunities and problems. Low-cost, community-driven methods
offer instant advantages while laying the groundwork for more sophisticated systems. The adoption of zero-waste
solutions is mostly driven by governance and policy, with the shift being accelerated by successful measures like
landfill bans, extended producer responsibility (EPR), and obligatory recycling targets. Promoting zero-waste practices

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also requires education and capacity building, including public awareness campaigns informing the public about
the advantages of zero-waste and focused training programs for waste management experts.

Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), India for the support. We would like to thanks Paperpal
(https://paperpal.com/), Cactus Communications Services Pte Ltd, Singapore for their invaluable online assistance in refining the language
and grammar of our manuscript.

Author contributions Conceptualization: DM; data curation: RK, GG, AH; writing—original draft preparation: RK, GG, AH, AR, AT, DG, SC, AG,
DM; review and editing: DM, PP, BEGS, RK, AR, AT.; visualization: DM, RK; supervision: DM; project administration: DM, AT, AR. All the authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding This research received no external funding.

Data availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable.

Consent for publication Not applicable.

Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which
permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to
the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You
do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party
material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If
material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds
the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​
mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by-​nc-​nd/4.​0/.

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