CHAPTER 3 3.

Low temperature Drying – work on the

Pipe diameter basis: principle of lowering the dew point
1. Flow Volume temperature.
2. Pipe Length
3. Pressure Drop 4.2 Compressed air filter with pressure regulator
4. Working Pressure - has the job of removing all contaminants, including
5. Number of restrictions in the pipeline condensed water, from the compressed air flowing
- pipelines should not be installed in brickwork or through it.
in narrow pipe shaft.
Installation of Pipelines Woking Principle
1. Branch Line – splits off from the main line to supply - The compressed air enters the filter bowl
c.a to machines - Compressed air flow through guide slots
2. Ring circuit – a looped system where air flows from in the baffle plate
two directions. - The compressed air rotates.
3. Interconnected System – multiple air paths. - Liquid particles and large particles of dirt
are centrifuged out of the air and collect
PIPE MATERIAL in the lower part of the filter bowl.
- Copper - The sintered filter further cleans the c. a.
- Brass - The sintered filter removes additional
- High Quality Steel particles of dirt.
- Steel tubing, black - C. a. flows via pressure regulator to the
- Steel tubing, galvanized oil and from there to the connected
- Plastic equipment.
- The condensate which has collected in
LINE CONNECTORS the lower part of the filter bowl must be
a. Tube connectors drained via the drain screw when the
- Cutting ring connector – can be released maximum condensate level is reached.
and retightened several times. Function of the automatic water separator:
- Clamping ring connector – utilize a ring - The separator must be drained from time
that clamps around the pipe or tube. to time
- Connector with staved bulge – features a Principle
bulged section with staves. - The condensate removed by the filter
- Flanged Connection – where two pipes or reaches the float chamber via the
fittings are bolted together using lfnages. connection tube
b. Hose connectors - As the condensate level rises, the float is
- Socket – receptacle designed to receive lifted
and hold a plug - When the float reaches a certain height, it
- Plug – a male component that fits into a opens a nozzle by means of lever.
socket. - The compressed air flow through the port
c. Tubing Connectors and into the other chamber, pressing the
- Threaded connector with union nut diaphragm against the drain valve.
- Barbed connector - The drain valve opens and the
- Quick Connectors for plastic tubing condensate drains through the port.
- CS-connector - As the level of the condensate drops, the
float again closes the nozzle, the
CHAPTER 4 remaining air escapes in to the open via
the nozzle.
4.1 Contamination - The water separator can be manually
drained by pressing the pin.
Absolute Humidity – quantity of water which is
contained in one m3 of air. 4.2.1 Compressed air microfilter
- are used in industries which require finely-filtered
Saturation quantity – quantity of water which one m3 air.
can absorb at the temperature concerned.
Action
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 - Differs from a standard filter in that the
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑥 100% compressed air flows through the filter
𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
cartridge from the inside to the outside.
DRYING
1. Absorption Drying – the compressed air is - The c.a reaches the filter through the inlet and
passed over a heat bed of drying agent. flows through the filter cartridge.
2. Adsorption Drying – substances are - the clean c.a exits the filter through outlet and flows
deposited on the surface of solids. on to the connected equipment
- the extremely fine mesh width of the filter material 4.4 Compressed air lubricator
traps particles of dirt down to the size of 0.01 micron. - to provide the pneumatic components with
- the trapped dirt is removed from the filter bowl via sufficient lubricant.
drain screw, - reduces wear of the moving parts, keep frictional
- the flow rate should be monitored to ensure that forces to a low level, and protect the equipment from
particles of water or dirt are not entrained by the air corrosion.
flowing through the unit. - most compressed air lubricators work on VENTURI
PRINCIPLE.
4.3 Pressure regulators
Operation
4.3.1 Pressure regulator with vent hole - The c.a flows through the lubricator inlet
Regulator – keep the operation pressure virtually to the outlet.
constant regardless of fluctuations in the line - The size contraction at valve generates a
pressure and air consumption. pressure gradient.
- A vacuum is created in duct and drip
- The input pressure must be higher than chamber as a result of suction.
the output pressure. - The vacuum causes drops of oil to be
- The pressure is regulated by a drawn in viaduct and riser.
diaphragm. - These oil drops reach the compressed air
- The output pressure acts on one side of via drip chamber and duct which flows to
the diaphragm and a spring acts on the outlet.
other side. - The oil drops are atomized by the air, and
- The spring force can be adjusted by reach the connected equipment in this
means of an adjusting screw. form.
- When the output pressure increases, the - The flow cross section changes according
diaphragm moves against the spring force to the air flow, thus changing the pressure
causing the outlet cross-sectional area at gradient.
the valve seat to be reduced or closed - The rate of oil flow is also changed.
entirely. - This flow rate can be subsequently
- When the air is drawn off, the operation adjusted at an adjustment screw located
pressure drops and the spring force at the upper end of riser.
opens the valve. To prevent the - A certain amount of air exerts pressure on
occurrence of flutter, air or psring the oul in the reservoir via check valve.
damping is provided above the valve
disc. 4.5 Service unit
- If the pressure on the secondary side - combination of units:
increases considerably, the diaphragm is • Compressed air filter
pressed against the spring. • Compressed air regulator
- The centerpiece of the diaphragm then • Compressed air lubricator
opens and the compressed air can flow to Key points:
atmosphere through the vent holes in the 1. The total air throughout determines the size
housing. of the unit. If the air is too high, a large
pressure drop occurs in the units. The values
4.3.2 Pressure regulator without vent hole specified by the manufacturer should
- Spring and diaphragm is prestressed at therefore be observed.
the same time by means of adjusting 2. The working pressure may not exceed the
screw. value on the service unit. The ambient
- The flow from the primary to the temperature should not exceed 50 deg C.
secondary side becomes greater or less
- Plunger is raised with the diaphragm to a 4.5.1 Maintenance of service units
greater or lesser extent from the sealing Routine service measures:
seat. a. Compressed air filter
- If no air is drawn off on the secondary - The condensate level must be checked
side, the pressure rises and presses regularly.
diaphragm against compression spring. - The accumulated condensate could
- Spring moves the plunger downwards and otherwise be drawn in to the compressed
the flow of air is closed off at the sealing air pipe.
seat. - The drain screw on the sight glass must
- The compressed air can continue to flow be opened to drain the condensate.
only when air is drawn off on the - The filter cartridge in the filter must also
secondary side. be cleaned if it is dirty.
b. Compressed air regulator
- Requires no servicing, provided it is
preceded by a compressed air filter.
 c. Compressed air lubricator 5.3. Cylinder Constructions
- Check the oil level in the sight glass, and a. Cylinder barrel – usually made of
top up the to the level indicated if seamless drawn steel tube.
necessary. b. Base and Bearing Cap – made of cast
- The plastic filter and lubricator bowl may material (aluminum or malleable cast
not be cleaned with trichloroethylene. iron). Can be fasted to the cylinder
- Only mineral oils may be used for the barrel by tie rods, threads, or flanges.
lubricator. c. Piston Rod – preferable made from
heat-treatable steel.
CHAPTER 5 d. Sealing Ring – fitted in the bearing
cap to seal the piston rod.
5.1. Straight-line operating elements e. Bearing Bush – guides the piston rod.
(pneumatic cylinders) Made of sintered bronze or plastic-
a. Single-acting cylinders – c.a is applied coated metal.
on only one side. Produce work in only f. Scraping ring – prevents dust and dirt
one direction. particles from entering the cylinder
i. Piston Cylinders – sealing is by space.
means of a flexible material that is g. Double-cup packing – seals off the
embedded in a metal or plastic cylinder space.
piston. h. Round-cord rings or O-rings – used
ii. Diaphragm Cylinder – also called for static sealing, because the round-
pancake cylinder. cord ring must be pre-tensioned.
iii. Rolling diaphragm Cylinders –
when c.a is admitted the TYPES OF SEALING
diaphragm unrolls along the inner 1. O-ring
wall of the cylinder and moves the 2. Shaped Ring
piston rod outwards. 3. Square Ring
b. Double-acting Cylinder 4. Groove ring on both sides
i. Cylinder with end position 5. Cup packing
cushioning – is used in the end 6. Buttoned-in groove ring packing
position to prevent hard impact 7. Double-cup packing
and damage. 8. Supported groove rings with slide ring
Cushioning variations: 9. L-ring
▪ End position cushioning
nonadjustable at both sides 5.4. Calculations for cylinders
▪ End position cushioning on
the piston side 5.4.1 Piston Force
▪ End position cushioning on 𝐹𝑡ℎ = 𝐴 𝑥 𝑝
the piston side
Special designs of double-acting cylinder Single-acting cylinders
a. Cylinder with double-sided piston rod – 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑥 𝑝 − (𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐹 )
with piston rod protruding on both sides. Double-acting cylinders (forward)
b. Tandem Cylinder – two double acting 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑥 𝑝 − 𝐹𝑅
cylinders which have been joined to form a Double-acting cylinders (return)
single unit. 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐴′ 𝑥 𝑝 − 𝐹𝑅
c. Multi-position cylinder – consists of 2 or 𝐹𝑛 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
several double-acting cylinders. 𝐷 2 − 𝑝𝑖
𝐴 = 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ( )
d. Impact Cylinder – produces high kinetic 4
energy. 𝑝𝑖
𝐴′ = 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (𝐷 2 − 𝑑2 )
e. Cable Cylinder 4
f. Rotary Cylinder – the piston rod has a gear- 𝑝 = 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
tooth profile. 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (3 − 20%)
g. Rotary Vane cylinder 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
5.4.2 Stroke length
5.2. Types of Mounting - should not be greater than 2000mm.
a. Foot - With a large stroke, the mechanical stress on the
b. Thread piston rod and on the pilot bearing is too great.
c. Front flange - To avoid danger of buckling, a somewhat larger
d. Rear Flange piston rod diameter should be selected for larger
e. Swivel flange front stroke lengths.
f. Swivel flange center
g. Swivel flange rear 5.4.3 Piston Speed
- Dependent on the counter dorce,
prevailing air pressure, the length of pipe,
 the cross-sectional area between the
final control element.
- The speed is influenced by the end
position cushioning,
- The average piston speed of standard
cylinders is about 0.1-1.5 m/sec.

5.4.4 Air consumption

𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑥 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒

𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
101.3 + 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
= 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎
101.3
Single-acting cylinders
𝑑 2 𝑥 𝑝𝑖
𝑉̇ = 𝑠 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 4
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (l/min)
Double-acting cylinders
𝑉̇
𝐷 2 𝑥 𝑝𝑖
= [𝑠 𝑥
4
(𝐷 2 − 𝑑2 )𝑥 𝑝𝑖
+𝑠𝑥 ] 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
4
𝑉̇ = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛

5.5. Rotary operating pneumatic elements

- Transform pneumatic energy to
mechanical rotary movement.

Pneumatic Motors
a. Piston Motors – the crankshaft of the motor
is driven by the c.a via reciprocating pistons
and connecting rods.
i. Radial Piston Motors
ii. Axial Piston Motors
b. Sliding Vane Motors – the principle of
operation is the reverse of the sliding-vane
compressor.
- An eccentric rotor is contained in
bearings in a cylindrical chamber.
c. Gear Motors – torque is generated by the
pressure of the air against the teeth profiles of
two meshed gear wheels.
d. Turbine Motors (Flow Motors) – can be used
only where low power is required.

Characteristics of pneumatic motors

1. Infinitely variable speed and torque regulation
2. Wide range of speeds
3. Small size (weight)
4. Overload safe
5. Insensitive to dust, water, heat, cold
6. Explosion proof
7. Large speed selection
8. Maintenance minor
9. Direction of rotation easily reversed.