PROJECT REPORT

ON

SUBGROUPS
For the Patial Fulfillment of Degree of B.sc Mathematics

M.B.GOVT.P.G COLLEGE, HALDWANI (NAINITAL)

PROJECT GUIDE: SUBMITTED BY:

Dr. Rakesh Kumar NAME – Rohit Singh

Course – B.sc
 Roll No. - 220130270287

Department of Mathematics

CERTIFICATE

It gives us great pleasure to testify the ability of Rohit Singh S/O

Mr. Keshar Singh, who is presently a student of B.Sc. fifth semester in
the Department of Mathematics, M.B. Govt.P.G.College, Haldwani
(Nainital).

Rohit Singh has successfully completed the project work on

“Subgroups” to fulfill the partial requirement of Master’s degree in
mathematics. She is a consistently hard working, honest, sincere and
conscientious person.

Name of H.O.D Name of supervisor

Dr. D.K Tiwari Dr. Rakesh Kumar

 ACKONWLEDGEMENT

I wish to thank my parents for tremendous

contribution and support both morally and financially
towards the completion of this project.

I am also grateful to my project supervisor Dr. Rakesh

Kumar who without her help and guidance this project
would not have been completed.

I also show my gratitude to my friends and all who

contributed in one way or the other in the course of the
project.
CONTENTS

1. Discovery of basis and

dimensions
2. Introduction
3. Introduction to basis and
dimensions
4. Basis
5. Properties of basis
6. Finding of basis
7. Applications of basis
8. Change of basis
9. Visual representations
10. Conclusion of basis
11. Refrences of basis
12. Dimensions
13. Historical background
14. Types of dimensions
15. Applications
16. Visualization techniques
17. Philosophical consideration
18. Conclusion of dimensions
19. Refrences of dimensions
20. Additional tips
21. Summary
22. References
DISCOVERY OF BASES AND
DIMENSIONS .
The concepts of bases and dimensions in
the context of vector spaces are
fundamental ideas in linear algebra, and
their development involved contributions
from multiple mathematicians over time.

Bases:
The concept of a basis for a vector space
was developed as part of the broader study
of vector spaces in linear algebra. While
the formalization of the notion of a basis
can be attributed to the work of Giuseppe
Peano (1890s) and Ernst Eduard Kummer
(mid-1800s), the modern definition of a
basis, as a set of vectors that are linearly
independent and span the vector space,
became clear with the work of Arthur
Cayley and James Joseph Sylvester in the
19th century.
The systematic study of vector spaces,
including the notion of a basis, was further
developed by David Hilbert in the early 20th
century. The idea of a basis has become
central to the structure of vector spaces in
modern linear algebra.

Dimension:
The idea of dimension (the number of
vectors in a basis) came naturally with the
development of the concept of a basis. The
term “dimension” as we use it today was
formalized in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries as the number of elements in a
basis for a vector space. This is closely
related to the work of Giuseppe Peano,
David Hilbert, and others who formalized
the properties of vector spaces and their
dimensions in the context of functional.

The discovery and formalization of bases

and dimensions were gradual processes
involving contributions from
mathematicians such as Peano, Cayley,
Sylvester, and Hilbert in the 19th and early
20th centuries.

These concepts are foundational to linear

algebra and are still central to modern
mathematics, especially in fields like
functional analysis, geometry, and
computer science.
INTRODUCTION :
. Importance of basis and dimension
. Objectives of the research

INTRODUCTION TO BASIS
AND DIMENSION :

BASIS :
A basis of a vector space is a set of vectors
that are linearly independent and span the
space. Every vector in the space can be
expressed as a linear combination of the
basis vectors.
A basis of a vector space is a set of vectors
that satisfies two key properties:

1. Linear Independence : The vectors in

the basis must be linearly
independent, meaning no vector in
the set can be expressed as a linear
combination of the others. Formally,
for a set of vectors .

Formula:-

i.e. c1v1 + c2v2 ……… cnvn = 0

c1 = c2 …………..= cn = 0
 2. Spanning Set: The vectors must span
the vector space, meaning any vector
in the space can be expressed as a
linear combination of the basis
vectors.

Formula:-

V = a1v1 + a2v2 ………. anvn

For some scalers a1 , a2 , …….. an

(V1,V2………Vn) Are basis of
Space V .
Properties of a Basis :

• Uniqueness of Representation:
Each vector in the vector space can be
uniquely expressed as a linear
combination of the basis vectors. This
means that the coefficients in the linear
combination are unique.

• Dimension:
The number of vectors in a basis defines
the dimension of the vector space. All
bases of a vector space have the same
number of elements.
• Linear Independence:
A basis is a set of vectors that are linearly
independent, meaning no vector in the set
can be expressed as a linear combination
of the others.

• Spanning:
A basis spans the vector space, meaning
every vector in the space can be
represented as a linear combination of the
basis vectors.

• Change of Basis:
Any basis can be transformed into another
basis through a linear transformation.
• Existence:
Every finite-dimensional vector space has
at least one basis. Infinite-dimensional
spaces may also have bases, but their
construction can be more complex.

• Subset Property:
Any linearly independent subset of a
vector space can be extended to a basis of
that space.

These properties are fundamental in

understanding the structure and behavior
of vector spaces in linear algebra.
Uniqueness of Representation: Each
vector in the vector space can be uniquely
expressed as a linear combination of the
basis vectors. This means that the
coefficients in the linear combination are
unique.

Dimension: The number of vectors in a

basis defines the dimension of the vector
space. All bases of a vector space have the
same number of elements.

Linear Independence: A basis is a set of

vectors that are linearly independent,
meaning no vector in the set can be
expressed as a linear combination of the
others.
Spanning: A basis spans the vector space,
meaning every vector in the space can be
represented as a linear combination of the
basis vectors.

Change of Basis: Any basis can be

transformed into another basis through a
linear transformation. This is useful in
applications like computer graphics and
machine learning.

Existence: Every finite-dimensional vector

space has at least one basis. Infinite-
dimensional spaces may also have bases,
but their construction can be more
complex.
Subset Property: Any linearly independent
subset of a vector space can be extended
to a basis of that space.

These properties are fundamental in

understanding the structure and behavior
of vector spaces in linear algebra.

Finding a Basis :
Present methods for finding a basis for a
given vector space:
Using row reduction (Gaussian
elimination).
Identifying pivot columns in a matrix.
The Gram-Schmidt process for
orthonormal bases.
Applications of Basis :
Discuss practical applications of bases in
various fields:
Computer graphics (coordinate
transformations).
Data science (dimensionality reduction,
PCA).
Engineering (signal processing).

Change of basis :
Explain what changing a basis means and
why it’s useful.
Provide an example of how to change from
one basis to another.

Visual Representation :
Include diagrams illustrating vector spaces
and bases.
Graphs showing linear combinations and
spans.

Conclusion :
Summarize the importance of
understanding bases in linear algebra.
Reflect on how this knowledge can be
applied in real-world situations.

References :
List textbooks, academic papers, and
online resources for further reading.
DIMENSIONS :
The number of vectors in a basis is called
the dimension of the vector space. All
bases of a vector space have the same
number of vectors, which is a fundamental
result in linear algebra. The dimension of a
vector space is the number of vectors in a
basis for that space. It indicates the
minimum number of coordinates needed
to specify any vector in that space. In the
section on spanning sets and linear
independence, we were trying to
understand what the elements of a vector
space looked like by studying how they
could be generated. We learned that some
subsets of a vector space could generate
the entire vector space. Such subsets were
called spanning sets. Other subsets did
not generate the entire space, but their
span was still a subspace of the underlying
vector space. In some cases, the number
of vectors In such a set was redundant in
the sense that one or more of the vectors
could be removed ,without changing the
span of the set. In other cases, there was
not a unique way to generate some vectors
in the space. In this section, we want to
make this process of generating all the
elements of a vector space more reliable,
more client .

EXAMPLE :

Standard Basis in R²: The standard basis

for the 2-dimensional real space
Historical background :
Early Concepts: Discuss early ideas of
dimensions :-
a. 1D
b. 2D
c. 3D

Notable Mathematicians: Mention key

figures like Euclid, Riemann, and others
who contributed to the concept of
dimensions.

This was the types of an early age

dimensions classification .
So let’s talk about the present day types of
dimensions
Types of dimensions:

Euclidean Dimensions:

1D: Lines, intervals.

2D: Planes, polygons.
3D: Solids, volumes.

Higher Dimensions:

4D and Beyond: Introduce concepts of

hypercubes and applications in theoretical
physics.
Mathematical Representation :
Coordinate Systems: Explain Cartesian
and polar coordinates.
Vector Spaces: Discuss how dimensions
relate to vector spaces in linear algebra.
Fractal Dimensions: Introduce the concept
of fractals and their non-integer
dimensions.

Applications :
Geometry and Topology: How dimensions
influence shapes and spaces.
Physics: The role of dimensions in theories
like string theory.
Computer Science: Dimensionality
reduction techniques in data analysis (e.g.,
PCA).
Visualization Techniques :
Graphs and Charts: Methods to visualize
higher dimensions.
Dimensional Analysis: Tools used to
understand complex dimensions in
practical scenarios.

Philosophical Considerations :
Nature of Reality: Explore philosophical
implications of multiple dimensions.
Theoretical Physics: Discussion on the
nature of time and space.

Conclusion :
Summary: Recap the significance of
understanding dimensions.
Future Directions: Suggest areas for
further research, such as quantum
dimensions or advanced geometric
theories.

References :
Compile a list of books, articles, and
papers used for research.

Additional Tips:
Include diagrams and visual aids to
enhance understanding.
Consider real-world examples to illustrate
abstract concepts.
Engage with contemporary research to
provide current perspectives on
dimensions.
SUMMARY :

In summary, a basis is a foundational

concept in linear algebra that provides a
framework for expressing vectors within a
vector space. It ensures that every vector
can be represented uniquely as a
combination of basis vectors, which is
crucial for both theoretical exploration and
practical applications across various fields
of mathematics, science, and engineering.
Know and understand the definition of a
basis for a vector space.Know what the
dimension of a vector space is know what
the coordinates of a vector relative to a
given basis are. Given a set of vectors In a
vector space, be able to tell if that set is a
basis for the vector space. Know the
standard basis for common vector spaces
such as Rn, Mn, Pn for every positive
integer n. Be able to and the basis of
subspaces given the description of a
subspace. Be able to and the coordinates
of any vector relative to a given basis. Be
able to and the dimension of a vector
space. Know and understand the
difference between a finite-dimensional
and infinite dimensional vector space.
It ensures that every vector can be
represented uniquely as a combination of
basis vectors, which is crucial for both
theoretical exploration and practical
applications across various fields of
mathematics, science, and engineering.
REFERENCES

• “Elemente der Algebra” (1888) by

Giuseppe Peano .
• “A Treatise on the Theory of
Determinants” (1848) by James Joseph
Sylvester .
• “Mathematical Contributions to the
Theory of Evolution” (1867) by Arthur
Cayley .
• “Foundations of Geometry” (1899) by
David Hilbert .
• “Linear Algebra” by Kurt Magnus .
• “Abstract Algebra” by David S. Dummit
and Richard M. Foote .