41.

Roof construction

41.1 Elements of a roof

Roofs provide much more than shelter to a building. They form part of the structure,
providing stability to the walls by binding everything together. In areas prone to hurricanes,
it is particularly important to use robust methods to tie the roof to the walls and the
walls to the floor and foundations.

Rafter or roof truss

Ceiling joist
Gutter Ceiling lining

Soffit bearer
Fascia Wall framing

Nail fixings Interior lining

Soffit
Timber moulding

Exterior cladding
Figure 41.1 Structure of a roof

Abutment: where a roof meets a wall.

Eaves: the overhanging bottom part of the roof. The overhang and attached gutter
protect the wall below from rain damage.
Flashing: waterproof seals (usually metal or plastic) that prevent water ingress around
joints in a roof, for example, around a chimney where it comes through the roof covering.
Valley: where two sloped parts of a roof meet.
Verge: the angled edge of a roof, often overhanging to provide protection to the wall below.
don’t you?

Research local methods used to strengthen buildings to protect them against

the effects of hurricanes. Draw sketches of these methods.
Why

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41.2 Components of a cut roof
The traditional method of building a roof is known as a Plumb cuts
cut roof. This is where all the components are calculated
(angles and length) and then cut by hand. The roof is then
assembled on site.
Birdsmouth
Find out the purpose of each of these
Seat cuts
Why don’t you?

component parts to a roof:

common rafter, ridge board, wall plates, Overhang
hip rafters, jack rafters, crown rafters, Figure 41.2 Rafter cuts
cripple rafters, valley rafters, purlin,
ladder frames, ceiling joists, blinders
and hangars.

41.3 Rafter cuts

The plumb cut is the vertical cut; seat cuts are the horizontal cuts. The angles of
these cuts remain constant throughout the roof (except for cuts on any hip rafters).
A birdsmouth cut is a combination of these two basic cuts.

There are other cuts involved in a roof. Research the make-up of a cut roof.
Why don’t
you?

The cuts and lengths of rafters can be

calculated by several means.
Scale drawing: The roof can be drawn
out on a sheet of plywood or MDF. You
will need to mark the measurements
given and join up the points. This will
give you the angles of the plumb and
birdsmouth cuts. These angles can be
transferred to the timber using a sliding
bevel. The length will be marked on a line
that is two-thirds of the depth of
the rafter. Figure 41.3 Marking out
don’t you?

Research the geometry of a roof. How would you determine the cuts and
lengths for hips, jack rafters and purlins?
Why

97
Roofing square: There are several roofing squares available using different methods to
produce the details required to cut a roof. The square is used for determining angles in
conjunction with a “fence” – a batten that is fixed to the square at predetermined points
on the square.
don’t you?

Find a photo of a roofing square and research its use.

Why

Ready-reckoner: This is a book that gives all required details in table form or an app
on a phone that gives you the details you need when information is entered. This
information is directly transferred onto the rafters.

Calculate the length of the common rafter and hip rafter for a roof that has a
Why don’t

span of 4 m and a rise of 1.6 m. Calculate the plumb and seat cuts for both
you?

rafters. Use two methods and see if the results match. What pitch (angle) is
this roof?

41.4 Trussed rafter roof

Many roofs are now constructed using roof trusses. These are pre-fabricated in a factory
under controlled conditions. The timber is stress graded (tested for strength) and fixed
together using metal plates. These trusses are strong when placed upright, but weak
when laid down on their side so care must be taken when carrying them.
Trusses are designed carefully to ensure they can carry the loads imposed upon them.
Therefore trusses come with detailed instructions, and they must be fixed and braced as
instructed.

41.5 Working at height

Sometimes you need to stand on something
to reach the work to be done. This is known as
a working platform or access equipment. It is
important to use safe, well-maintained equipment
designed for the job. It must be assembled and
used according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Figure 41.4 A working platform

Ladders should be free from damage, with no missing rungs or splits in the
sides. Steps should always be on a level surface. Do not use painted ladders.
Paint could be hiding dangerous defects or repairs.

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Ladder: Ladders are not suitable for prolonged work operations, but can be used for
access to working platforms.
Stepladder: Used for brief jobs. There is a risk of falling from the ladder, especially if
overreaching. They can also be accidentally knocked over by other people.
Trestles: These are metal stands onto which boards are laid, forming a platform.
A handrail must be fitted to prevent falling.
Scaffold: This is a working platform made from tubular metal. It should be erected and
altered only by trained scaffolders. Scaffolds can be putlog, independent or tower.

Guardrail Guardrail
Intermediate Intermediate
rail or mesh rail or mesh
guard guard
Platform four
Standards
or five boards
wide Toe
board
Transom
diagonal
brace

Ledgers
Reveal
tie

Bridle tube
Through tie
Standard
Base plate
Base plates
Sole plate

Sole plates

Putlog Independent

Figure 41.5 Types of scaffolds

Research the safe use of working platforms including scaffold, tower scaffold
Why don’t

and trestle platforms. Produce a safety poster on the safe use of these
you?

platforms. Include details on handrails, toe boards and trip hazards.

99
 42. Doors and windows

42.1 Doors
Doors have several functions beyond giving access to a room or building.
Security: External doors need to be secure, and therefore must be strong enough
to resist the force of an intruder without the joints breaking or the lock breaking
out of the stile.
Protection against the weather: Doors also keep out the wind and rain. An external door
should be made of a material that is resistant to rain and heat.
Privacy: Doors are produced with varying amounts of glazing. More glazing lets in more
light, but this also means less privacy. If light is a priority, privacy can still be achieved by
using obscure glass, that is, glass that is translucent and lets light through but cannot
be looked through. Glass that is in a door and surrounding a door must be safety glass
(either toughened or laminated).
Ventilation: Where security or privacy is essential but ventilation is also required, louvers
can be included in the door design. Louvers are horizontal slats of timber set into the
stiles of the door at 45° with the lower edge facing out. This allows air to pass through
the door, but prevents rain from getting in. It also provides privacy and security. Louvers
can also be made from metal or glass, and can be adjustable to allow more or less air to
pass through.
Sound insulation: Doors are at times required to deaden sound. Doors can be
constructed with solid materials that inhibit the passage of sound. Hollow doors have
poor sound insulation properties.
Fire resistance: Some doors are required to be fire resistant. These doors have dense
solid cores, and are used in conjunction with fire-resistant ironmongery and frames.
don’t you?

Research fire resistance in doors. What fire rated doors are available?
How are they labelled?
Why

It is important that FLB (framed, ledged and braced) and LB (ledged and
braced) doors are braced, especially LB doors as they have no frame (that is,
no stiles or rails). They are liable to drop over time if not braced. The braces
must be well fixed, go upwards from the hinge side, and not be at an angle of
less than 45° in relation to the braces.

100
Doors come in a variety of styles.

Pattern 10 2XG (half glazed) Six panel door Portcullis door

Flush door LB (ledged and braced) FLB (framed ledged French door
matchboarded door and braced)
matchboarded door

Figure 42.1 Types of door

42.2 Door construction

Head

Jamb
Transom
Top rail
Mullion
Stiles

Middle rail

Muntin
Panel

Bottom rail

Cill
Figure 42.2 Door and frame components

101
42.3 Hanging a door
The process of hanging a door is made much easier if the frame (or the lining to which
it will be fitted) has been carefully installed with the jambs of the frame straight, plumb
and out of twist. The head must be level. Check the door lining before fitting the door.
Also check that it is the correct door for the opening, and on which side of the door lining
it will be hung.
The door is then planed to the size of the opening, allowing a 2 mm gap all around the
door (commonly known as a “penny gap”), and a 5 mm gap at the bottom. This will
need to be increased if there is a thick carpet for the door to open over. External doors
sometimes also require a rebate to be taken from the bottom rail. This can easily be
done using a router.
You should always use a jack plane to fit a door. As the plane is longer than a smoothing
plane, it will produce a straighter edge to the door and therefore a more even gap.

Door hanging tips

Always apply a leading edge to a door. This involves making a slight bevel to the closing
side of the door, giving clearance as the door shuts.
Frame
Leading edge
to door

Hinge
Figure 42.3 Apply a leading edge to a door

The bottom hinge is always further in from the end of the door than the top hinge. This is
more pleasing to the eye. Common measurements for this are 225 mm from the bottom
and 150 mm from the top, with any middle hinge being at the centre of these. Use a
sharp pencil or marking knife to mark out the hinge leaves. A marking gauge is also
useful for marking an accurate parallel line to cut to.

102
Be sure to mark the door and frame at the same time, and indicate on which side of the
mark the hinge will be put, as it is easy to chop the hinge out from the wrong side of the line.

150 mm
Equal
Equal

225 mm

Figure 42.4 Position of hinges

The hinges can be cut out either by hand using a wide chisel or with a router in
conjunction with a jig. This must be carried out accurately or the door may bind
when shut.

First position Last position

Figure 42.5 Cutting out hinges

103
When the door is hung, the door latch and handle can be fitted along with the door stops
and any other ironmongery.
don’t you?

Working in pairs, have a go at hanging a door.

Why
don’t you?

Research the process of fitting a tubular latch and handles. Produce a

step-by-step guide to carrying out this process with safety tips.
Why

42.4 Windows
Windows serve similar functions to external doors, and can be used for escape in case
of emergency. There are a large variety of window designs.

Research traditional and modern windows. Sketch an elevation and sections of:
Why don’t you?

● a traditional casement
● a hopper window
● an awning window
● a sliding sash window (vertical and horizontal)
● a pivot.

104
42.5 Ironmongery
Ironmongery is a term that applies to metal items such as hinges, locks and letter
plates, whether or not they are made from iron.

Hinges
There are a number of types of hinge.
Butt hinge: The most simple hinge, this consists of two plates of metal (leaves) with a
knuckle formed down one side and joined together with a pin. The two halves are joined,
but can pivot freely. The knuckles sometimes incorporate washers or bearings which
make the hinge harder wearing.
Double action hinge: Used for “two-way” doors, these hinges incorporate springs that
have to be tensioned after fitting them.
Concealed hinge: Used for lighter duty work such as cabinet work, this hinge is invisible
when the door is shut.
Tee hinge: A face fixed hinge, this is most commonly used on ledged and braced doors.
don’t you?

Research the following hinges and their uses: parliament hinge, rising butt
hinge and flush hinge.
Why

Locks and latches

A latch holds a door closed and will allow it to open when a handle or knob is turned.
The latch mechanism is activated by a square spindle that passes through the door and
locates into the handles. Most latches and locks available today are easily adaptable for
right-hand hung or left-hand hung doors.
A deadlock will secure a door with the turn of a key; the door cannot be reopened without
the key. Latches and deadlocks are often combined into one lock.
Rim locks are face mounted and generally considered low security. Cylinder night latches
are a type of rim lock. More secure versions of these are now available.
A hasp and staple are used on low security doors. A padlock can be used to secure this
type of door.
Bolts come in a variety of types, and are used to lock doors from the inside, or to hold
one of a pair of doors.
don’t you?

Using trade literature, produce a poster of commonly available ironmongery for

doors, windows and furniture.
Why

105