Triangulation

Because, at one time, it was easier to measure angles than it was distance, triangulation
was the preferred method of establishing the position of control points.
Many countries used triangulation as the basis of their national mapping system. The
procedure was generally to establish primary triangulation networks, with triangles
having sides ranging from 30 to 50 km in length. The primary trig points were fixed at
the corners of these triangles and the sum of the measured angles was correct to •± 3’’.
These points were usually established on the tops of mountains to afford long,
uninterrupted sight lines. The primary network was then densified with points at closer
intervals connected into the primary triangles. This secondary network had sides of 10–
20 km with a reduction in observational accuracy. Finally, a third-order net, adjusted to
the secondary control, was established at 3–5-km intervals and fourth-order points fixed
by intersection.

Resection and intersection

Using these techniques, one can establish the coordinates of a point P, by observations to
or from known points. These techniques are useful for obtaining the position of single
points, to provide control for setting out or detail survey in better positions than the
existing control may be.
Intersection
This involves sighting in to P from known positions (see figure below).

a. Intersection by angles

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Surveying II Notes by Sichangi
If the bearings of the rays are used, then using the rays in combinations of two, the
coordinates of P are obtained as follows:
In the figure below it is required to find the coordinates of P, using the bearings α and β to
P from known points A and B whose coordinates are EA, NA and EB, NB.

b. Intersection by bearing

……. (1)

……. (2)

Subtracting equation (2) from (1) gives

……. (3)

……. (4)

Using equations (3) and (4) the coordinates of P are computed. It is assumed that P is
always to the right of A → B, in the equations.

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If the observed angles α and β, measured at A and B are used (Figure a above) the equations
become

The above equations are also used in the direct solution of triangulation. The inclusion of
an additional ray from C, affords a check on the observations and the computation.
Resection
This involves the angular measurement from P out to the known points A, B, C (Figure c
below). It is an extremely useful technique for quickly fixing position where it is best
required for setting-out purposes. Where only three known points are used a variety of
analytical methods is available for the solution of P.

Resection

Method 1

…………….……a
……………….…b

Equating equation (a) and (b)

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Thus, knowing θ and (S – θ), the triangles can be solved for lengths and bearings AP, BP
and CP, and three values for the coordinates of P obtained if necessary.
The method fails, as do all three-point resections, if P lies on the circumference of a circle
passing through A, B and C because it has an infinite number of possible positions which
are all on the same circle.

Networks
Simple survey figures have their limitations. If, as in intersection or resection, two angles
are measured to find the two coordinates, easting and northing, of an unknown point
then only the minimum number of observations have been taken and there is no check
against error in either observations or the computations.
A fully observed traverse is a little better in that there are always three more observations
than the strict minimum. If the traverse has many stations then this redundancy of three
is spread very thinly in terms of check against error.
A survey is designed for a specific purpose so that a technical or commercial objective
can be achieved at a minimum cost. The major questions the planner will ask are: What
is the survey for? How extensive must it be? With logistical constraints in mind, where is
it? How precise and reliable does it need to be?
The first of these four questions puts the last into context. The second and third require
administrative answers. The last question is entirely technical and is the most difficult to
answer.
In this context the terms precise and reliable have specific meaning. Precision is a measure
of the repeatability of the assessment of a parameter under question. Precise observations
usually lead to precise coordinates. Accuracy is a measure of truth. Precision is related to

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accuracy in that it is a practical best estimate of accuracy because true values of survey
quantities are never known, they can only be estimated.
Measurement is an estimation process. It is therefore quite possible to have a set of
measurements that are very precise but wholly inaccurate.
Reliability is an assessment of the fact that what has been found is what it appears to be.
A distance measurement made with a tape from one control station to another could be
in yards or metres, the difference between them is only about 10%. A way to be assured
that the measure is in the units that you believe it to be in, would be to include
measurements from other control points in the solution, so that it will be apparent that
the suspect measurement does or does not fit at a certain level of statistical confidence.
Consider the Figure below, where the stations A, B and C are fixed stations with known
coordinates. Stations D and E have yet to be computed. The distance measurements from
D have been made by pacing and the directions to A, B and C observed with a handheld
compass. The angle ABE has been observed with a theodolite and the distance BE
measured with a tape measure. The quality of the observations that will be used to
compute the coordinates of D is very poor so the precision of the computed coordinates
of D will also be poor. The observations’ reliability will be good because there are many
more observations than the strict minimum necessary to estimate the coordinates of D.

On the other hand the coordinates of E may be precise because of the quality of the
instrumentation that has been used but they will have zero reliability because a gross
error in either of the two observations would not be detected. Consider the independent
check in the context of this situation.

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If precision is the measure of repeatability, then reliability is the measure of assurance of
absence of error.
Statements of precision and reliability may be obtained from the least squares adjustment
of a survey that has been carried out. Precision and reliability may also be estimated for
a survey that has yet to be undertaken, provided the number and quality of the proposed
observations is known. These will then lead to an estimate of the cost of the work. If the
estimate is not acceptable, then it may be possible to redesign the survey, by network
analysis, or failing that, the requirements of precision and reliability may need to be
reconsidered.

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