BOTANY & ZOOLOGY NOTES

GROUP 1: BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE & PHYLOGENY

Organism - any living thing that functions as an individual.
Classification - process of arranging organisms, both living and extinct
Taxonomic Hierarchy - greek word taxis (taxonomy) meaning arrangement or division
nomos meaning method.
Binomial Nomenclature - naming system for living organisms using a two-part name
consisting of genus and species.
● entire binomial name should be either italicized or underlined.
● The names are typically derived from Latin or Latinized words.
Carl Linnaeus - swedish botanist and physician
-in late 17th century he introduced the binomial nomenclature
Human - Homo Sapiens Lion - Panthera Leo Corn (Maize) – Zea Mays
House Fly – Musca Domestica
Phylogeny - study of the evolutionary history and relationships among species or
groups of organisms
Phylogenetic Tree or Cladogram - illustrates how different species or groups are
related through common ancestry
Ernst Haeckel - biologist who coined the term phylogeny to refer study of ancestral
relationships
⮚ Phylon - tribe or race
⮚ Geneia - origin or generation
Phylogeny deals with evolutionary relationships and lineage.
Taxonomy deals with the classification and naming of organisms based on their
characteristic
The first person to arrange organisms into a formal classification system that included
the kingdom level was Carl Linnaeus.
In his 1735 work Systema Naturae, Linnaeus introduced a hierarchical classification
system, which initially included just two kingdoms:
Animalia (animals)
Plantae (plants)
Over time, this classification system evolved as scientists discovered more about the
diversity of life. Today, the most widely accepted system is the five-kingdom
classification, proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969. These five kingdoms are:
Monera (prokaryotes)
Protista (single-celled eukaryotes)
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Further discoveries, particularly in molecular biology, have led to newer systems like the
three-domain system, which categorizes life into Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota.
GROUP 2: Biological Classification (THE FIVE KINGDOM)
Plantae- plants Fungi- neither a plant nor an animal
- produce their own food - get food from organic matter
- stay in one place - release spores
Animalia -animals
- have backbones
- have the ability to move

Kingdom Monera
- First proposed as a phylum by Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
- In 1925, Edouard Chatton promoted the.
- Primitive prokaryotes i.e. the Archaebacteria
- Modern prokaryotes i.e. the eubacteria.
- monerans are the original life forms

CHARACTERISTICS:
• prokaryote family; means that they don't have a true nucleus.
• Microscopic
• unicellular organisms and they lack membrane-bound organelles.
• have 70S ribosomes; "Svedberg unit"
• reproduce asexually with the help of binary fission or budding
• Peptidoglycan layers make up the cell wall of prokaryotes.
• They can move by using their flagellum.
• environmental decomposers.

Modes Of Nutrition in Bacteria

Autotrophic - organisms that can produce their own food
Photoautotrophs: Organisms use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into organic
compounds.
Chemoautotrophs: Obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic substances and use it to fix
carbon dioxide into organic compounds.
Heterotrophic: organisms rely on organic material from other organisms for food.
Saprophytic: They feed on dead and decaying organic matter.
Parasitic: Obtain nutrients by living on or inside a host.
Symbiotic: Live in close
CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM MONERA
Archaebacteria - Ancient Extremophiles
- oldest bacteria.
 - found in extreme environments such as methane marshes, hot
springs, and highly salty places.
TYPES:
Methanogens: produce methane, live in anaerobic environments.
Halophiles: Thrive in extremely salty conditions.
Thermophiles: Live in extremely hot environments.
Acidophiles: Survive in highly acidic environments
Psychrophiles: Thrive in extremely cold environments.

Eubacteria - known as “true bacteria"

- size only ranges from 0.2 to greater than 5 micrometers.
TYPES:
GRAM’S POSITIVE GRAM’S NEGATIVE
- thick cell wall and high amount of - cell wall is thin and contains a low
peptidoglycan amount of peptidoglycan
- blue or violet, or purple color in gram - retain the pink or red color of the
safranin.
- lipid content is low; sensitive to - lipid content is high; can resist
lysozyme and antibiotics staining lysozyme and antibiotics
- Mesosomes are present - Mesosomes are absent
- ex. Azotobacter, Mycobacterium - ex. Salmonella, E.coli.
Cyanobacteria (sub-group of eubacteria) - flagella are absent; perform oxygenic
photosynthesis
ECOLOGIC ROLE: critical role in nutrient cycling, vital for nitrogen fixation, some
bacteria are pathogens
⮚ Bacteria are also employed in bioremediation.

Kingdom Protista
● Eukaryotic; single-celled organisms or a colony of single cells.
● Primarily aquatic
● Motility: Use flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia for movement.
● Forms a link between plants, animals, and fungi
Three categories:
● Plant-like Protists (Photosynthetic autotrophs).
● Fungus-like Protists (Heterotrophs decomposers).
● Animal-like Protists (Heterotrophs that ingest food).

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTISTS
● Chrysophytes
● group of algae commonly found in lakes.
● Also known as Golden Algae.
 ● Includes diatoms and desmids.
● Microscopic organisms that mostly live in freshwater and marine
environments.
● Diatoms have cell walls made of silica, forming two thin overlapping shells (like
a soapbox).
● Silica cell walls form intricate patterns and are often preserved as fossils.
● Chrysophytes are primary producers in aquatic environments and play a crucial
role in ocean ecosystems

● Dinoflagellates
● Unicellular organisms, many of which have two flagella for movement.
● Their bodies are covered with theca, a protective layer made of cellulose plates.
● Exhibit mixotrophy: They can be autotrophic (photosynthesize) or
heterotrophic.
● Many dinoflagellates are bioluminescent, meaning they can produce light.
● Associated with harmful algal blooms, known as red tides, which can have
severe ecological impacts.
● They are primary producers in marine environments and support various marine
organisms.
.
● Euglenoids
● Majority are freshwater organisms found in stagnant water.
● They lack a cell wall, but have a protein-rich layer called pellicle, which makes
their body flexible.
● Two flagella emerge from a reservoir, one long and one short, aiding in
movement.
● Eye-spot (stigma) located at the base of the flagellum helps in detecting light for
photosynthesis.
● Euglenoids can switch between autotrophic (photosynthetic) and heterotrophic
modes depending on the availability of light.

● Slime Molds
● Saprophytic protists that live on decaying organic matter.
● Move along decaying twigs and leaves, engulfing organic material.
● In favorable conditions, they form a mass called plasmodium, which can spread
over large areas.
● Under unfavorable conditions, the plasmodium forms fruiting bodies that
release spores.
● Spores are highly resistant and can survive for many years in adverse
conditions.
● Slime molds play an essential role in decomposition and nutrient cycling in
ecosystems.
Reproduction:
o Asexual: Binary fission, budding, spore formation.
o Sexual: Conjugation, syngamy.

Kingdom Fungi
● also known as Mycota
● distinct group of eukaryotic organisms that are separate from plants, animals,
and bacteria.
● Eukaryotic: Their cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
● Cell wall: Composed of chitin, providing strength and resilience.
● Non-photosynthetic: lack chlorophyll and thus do not undergo photosynthesis.
● Digestive enzymes: release enzymes to break down organic material, which
they then absorb.
● Grow as hyphae: Microscopic filaments that form a network called mycelium.
● Lack true roots, stems, and leaves.
● Some fungi are edible, while others are harmful or toxic.
● Fungicide - chemicals used to kill fungi
Heterotrophic Nutrition in Fungi
Saprophytic- fungi that feed on dead organic
Symbiotic- fungi live in mutualistic relationships with other organisms.

Parasitic- fungi live on or within a host organism, often causing harm.

STRUCTURE OF FUNGI
Yeasts (Unicellular)
● Shape: Can be true yeasts (retaining individual cells) or form pseudohyphae
(elongated yeast cells that attach to each other, resembling hyphae).
Molds (Multicellular):
● Molds are more complex than yeasts and grow as hyphae, forming a network
called mycelium.
FUNGI CAN BE:
1. Monomorphic- has only one shape or morphology.
2. Dimorphic (Dhipasic)- can have two different morphologies depending on the
environmental factors e.g. Temperature.
● Fungi reproduce both asexually and sexually.
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
Chytridiomycetes- microscopic fungi found in freshwater and wet soils.
Ascomycetes- found on dry land around the world, in habitats ranging from tropical
and temperate forests to grasslands and beyond
Physomycetes- thrive in soil or decaying plant matter
Basidiomycota- found in soil, logs, and tree trun
- important decomposers in ecosystems
 Kingdom Plantae
- term "Plantae" was first coined by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in his seminal
work Systema Naturae published in 1735

- have different organelles for anchorage, reproduction, support and

photosynthesis
- non-motile
- autotrophs
- reproduce asexually or sexually
- eukaryotic
- Multicellular eukaryotes
- Cellulose cell wall
Reproduction in Plants
● Sexual Reproduction:
Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther (male part) to the stigma (female
part).
Self-pollination: Pollen transferred between the anther and stigma of the same flower.
Cross-pollination: Pollen transferred between different flowers or plants of the same
species.
● Asexual Reproduction:
● Offspring are genetically identical to the parent, called clones
Vegetative Propagation- New plants grow from parts of the parent plant
Fragmentation- New plants grow from fragments or small parts that break off from the
parent plant.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTAE
Plant Body- presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body
Vascular System- presence or absence of a vascular system for the transportation of
water
Xylem- carries water and nutrients that enter the plant in the root up
Phloem- runs parallel to the xylem and carries the sugar that is produced on the leaves
Seed Formation- presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if the seeds are
naked or enclosed in a fruit
Vascular Plants (Tracheophytes)- grouped under the subkingdom tracheobionta of
the plant kingdom.
Tracheobionta- includes pteridophytes and all the seed-bearing plants called
spermatophytes; contain gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Non-vascular Plants- Lack a well-developed vascular system (no xylem or phloem)
- possess simpler tissues that have specialized functions
for the internal transport of water.
TYPES OF NON-VASCULAR:
Thallophyta- lack a well-differentiated body structure
 - plants with primitive and simple body structures
Bryophyta - do not have vascular tissues.
- terrestrial plants known as “amphibians of the plant kingdom”’; require
water for sexual reproduction.
TYPES OF VASCULAR:
Gymnosperms:
● Non-flowering plants with reproductive systems in cones.
● Seeds are exposed or naked (not enclosed within a fruit).
● Primarily pollinated by the wind.
Angiosperms:
● Flowering plants with reproductive systems in flowers.
● Seeds are enclosed within a fruit.
● Pollinated by animals, wind, or water.
Pteridophytes:
● Vascular plants that reproduce through spores instead of seeds.
● Plant body is well-differentiated into roots, stem, and leaves.

TWO GROUPS OF KINGDOM PLANTAE:

Cryptograms:
● Reproduce via spores.
● Includes algae, bryophytes, and pteridophytes.
● Do not produce seeds or flowers.
Phanerogams:
● Reproduce via seeds.
● Differentiated plant body with well-developed vascular tissues.
● Divided into gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Kingdom Animalia/ Animal Kingdom

● Eukaryotic and multicellular.
● Heterotrophic: Cannot produce their own food and rely on external organic
matter.
● capable of movement at some point in their life.
● Reproduction: Sexual reproduction is dominant, although some also exhibit
asexual reproduction.
● Aerobic respiration: Animals utilize oxygen for respiration.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALIA
Vertebrates- animals that have a vertebral column or backbone
o Agnatha- Primitive, jawless fishes
o Chondrichthyes- Jawed fish with cartilage skeletons, paired fins, and
scales
 o Osteichthyes- jawed fishes having a bony endoskeleton
o Amphibia- cold-blooded animals that live both on land and in water
o Reptilia- cold-blooded animals with scaly skin and typically lay eggs
o Aves (Birds)- warm-blooded animals and front limbs primarily modified for
flight
o Mammalia- females have mammary glands that produce milk to nourish
young.
Invertebrates- animals without a backbone or vertebral column.
o Porifera
o Cnidaria
o Platyhelminthes
o Nematoda
o Annelida
o Arthropoda
o Mollusca
o Echinodermata

Internal Fertilization- sperm fertilizes the egg inside the female

External Fertilization- occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are
released into the water.
Hermaphroditic Animals- possess both male and female reproductive organs.
Budding- new organism develops as an outgrowth or bud from the parent organism.
Fragmentation- organism breaks into pieces, and each fragment develops into an
individual; clone of the original organism
Regeneration- ability to regenerate lost body parts; the lost part can grow into a
complete organism
Animal Symmetry- repetition of the parts in an animal or plant in an orderly fashion
Radial Symmetry- the pattern is consistent and repeats; usually slow moving
Bilateral Symmetry- one half of an object/organism being a mirror image of the other
half