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 UNITS AND
MEASUREMENTS
PHYSICAL A physical quantity is a property of a material or system that
QUANTITY : can be measured and expressed as a value.

Some examples : mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, light

intensity, force, velocity, and density, etc.

1
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES : DERIVED QUANTITIES :
Independent quantities that cannot Dependent quantities that are
be expressed in terms of other derived from the combination of
quantities. fundamental quantities.

Length (meter)-m Density (Mass/Volume) - Kgm-3

Mass (kilogram)-kg 2 Velocity (Distance/Time)- ms -1
Time (second)-s Acceleration ms-2 (Change in velocity/

Electric current (ampere)-A Time)

Thermodynamic temperature-K Area (Side x Side) - m 2

(kelvin) 3 Force (Mass x Acceleration) - Kg ms -2

Work (Force x Displacement) Kg m2 S-2
Amount of substance (mole)-mol
2 -2
Energy - Kg m S
Luminous intensity (candela)-cd
-2
Current density - J = I/A, A.m
Pressure, Stress(Force/Area)-Kg.m-1.s -2
SUPPLEMENTARY QUANTITIES :
Dimensionless units that are used along
with base units to form derived units.
Plane angle (Radian) - rad
Solid angle (Steradian) - sr
UNIT :
The reference standard used to
measure the physical quantities is
called the unit.

FPS System:
the unit of le
ngth is a CGS System
foot, the un
it of mass
: MKS System: SI System:
The units
is a pound an of length, length,
d the
m ass, and The units of The system is based
unit of time time are me are
is the
centimete mass, and ti on seven basic units
second. r, gram, an am, &
second, re
d meter, kilogr & two supplementary
spectively ectively.
. units.
second, resp

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 [M1L-1 T2]

[L ]
1

DIMENSIONAL The study of the relationship between physical

quantities with the help of dimensions and units of
ANALYSIS: measurement.

DID YOU
M L T
a b c
The dimensional formula can be used to:
KNOW?
(1) Convert the unit of the physical quantity from one system The International System
to another. (Units can change, dimensions can not change).
Of Units (SI) is the metric
(2) To check the correctness of the equation. system that is used
universally as a standard
(3) Deduce the relation connecting the physical quantities.
for measurements.
 MOTION
Motion is a change in position of an object over time.

Motion is described in terms of displacement, distance,

velocity, acceleration, time and speed.

RELATIVE MOTION
Relative motion is the motion of one object in
relation to another object.
Ex : A person sitting on a moving train is not
moving relative to the train, but is moving relative
to the ground at the same speed as the train.

SCALAR QUANTITY VECTOR QUANTITY

A scalar quantity has A vector quantity has both

magnitude but no direction. magnitude and direction.
Ex : mass, length, speed, Ex : displacement, velocity,
time, volume, & temperature. acceleration, force, weight,
and momentum.

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 DISTA ( 8 Km )

NC
E
DISPLACEMENT ( 2Km )
DISTANCE DISPLACEMENT

The total length of the path The shortest distance between

traveled by an object, taking the starting & ending points,
into account every possible measured along the minimum
route. path.
Distance is a scalar quantity, Displacement is a vector
always positive quantity, can be positive,
negative, or zero.
Ex : if a car travels east for
3 km & then south for 5 km, Ex : if an object moves "A"
the total distance traveled meters away in a "B" direction,
is 8 km. that's its displacement.

NUMERICAL : DISTANCE & DISPLACEMENT

If a car travels 5Km from point A to B & then back to point A, Distance is 5Km &
Displacement is zero because the final and initial positions are the same.

Body is moving along a circular path of radius 7 cm. What is the distance
and displacement of the body when it completes half a revolution?
7cm

2πR = πR 22 × 7 = 22cm 7cm + 7cm = 14cm

2 7 (diameter)

Distance = 22cm & Displacement = 14cm

An object moving along a straight path, the object starts its journey from point
O, which is treated as its reference point. Let A, B, and C represent the object's
positions at different instants. Initially, the object moves through points C and B
and then reaches point A. It then moves back along the same path and reaches
point C through B. What are the distance and displacement in this journey?
Distance : (A) 60cm - (C) 25cm = 35cm
35cm + 60cm = 95cm (Distance)
Distance = 95cm & Displacement = 25cm Displacement : (Final) 25 - (Initial) 0 = 25cm
 SPEED VELOCITY

The distance an object The rate of change of the

travels per unit time is called position or displacement of an
its speed. object with time is called
velocity of that object.
SI unit: Meter per second (m/s) SI unit: Meter per second (m/s)

Common Units : Kilometer per Common Units : Kilometer per

hour (Km/hr) hour (Km/hr)
A scalar quantity that A vector quantity that
measures how much distance measures an object's change
an object travels over time. in position over time.
Can never be negative. Can be zero or negative or
positive.
Distance (d)
Speed (S) = Displacement (s)
Time (t) Velocity (V) =
Time (t)

RICK
T

rt
Conveo (m/s)
r) t
(Km/h ×
5
peed 18
Given S
)
) t o ( Km/hr
(m/s 18
pee d × 5
Given S

AVERAGE SPEED AVERAGE VELOCITY

The total distance it travels
divided by the total time it The total displacement
takes to cover that distance. divided by the total time.

Average Total Distance Covered Average Total Displacement Covered

Speed = Total Time Taken Velocity = Total Time Taken

EXAMPLE:
Usha swims in a 90 m long pool. She covers 180 m in one minute by swimming from
one end to the other and back along the same straight path. Find the average
speed and average velocity of Usha.
Average Total Distance Covered = 180 m × 1 min = 3 m/s -1

Speed = Total Time Taken 1 min 60 sec

Average Displacement 0m Average speed of Usha is 3 m s &-1

= = = 0 m/s -1

Velocity Total time taken 60 sec her average velocity is 0 m s.

-1
 NUMERICAL : SPEED & VELOCITY
A car travels a distance of 200 km from Delhi to Ambala towards North in 5
hours. Calculate (i) speed, and (ii) velocity, of the car for this journey.

Average Total Distance Covered Average 200Km

Speed = Total Time Taken Speed
=
5hr
= 40Km/hr

No change in direction, so velocity is same that is 40Km/hr.

For half Time Body Travel at 50 km/h & for Rest 20 km/h. Find the Average
speed?
d1 = 50 × t = 25t 25t + 10t = 35t
2
d = s× t
d2 = 20 × t = 10t d 35 t = 35Km/hr
S = =
2 t t

ACCELERATION RETARDATION
Acceleration is the rate at Retardation is the rate at
which an object's velocity which an object's velocity
changes over time. decreases over time.
Acceleration is positive, Retardation is negative
zero, or negative. acceleration (deacceleration).
Ex : The falling of an apple,
when a car is stopped at Ex : Throwing a stone
the traffic lights. upwards, Landing of an
Final
aeroplane, Switching off a
- Initial
Acceleration = Velocity (v) velocity (u) fan, A roller coaster
(a) Total Time Taken stopping.

NUMERICAL : ACCELERATION & RETARDATION

A car is travelling with a speed of 30m/s. The driver applies the brakes and
retards the car uniformly. The car stopped after 10 s. Find the retardation of
the car.
Final Initial Acceleration = 0m/s - 30 m/s
- = -3m/s 2
Acceleration Velocity (v) velocity (u) (a) 10m/s
(a) =
Total Time Taken
Retardation (r) = 3m/s 2
-1 -1
A bus decreases its speed from 80 km h to 60 km h in 5 s. Find the acceleration
of the bus.
5 = m/s Acceleration = Change in Velocity (v)
Given Speed ×
18 (a)
5 Total Time Taken
80Km/h × = 22.2 m/s (Initial Velocity)
18
Acceleration = 16.7m/s - 22.2m/s = -1.1m/s2
60Km/h × 5 = 16.7 m/s (Final Velocity) (a) 5sec
18
 UNIFORM MOTION NON UNIFORM MOTION

Covering equal distances in Covering unequal distances in

equal intervals of time. equal intervals of time.
Maintains a constant speed Entails changing speed and
and velocity. velocity.
Zero Acceleration. Non - Zero Acceleration.
Straight-line in (s-t)graph. Curved line in (s-t)graph.

Ex : The motion of a truck on Ex : A speedy vehicle with an

the highway with constant acceleration undergoes non-
speed. uniform motion.

UNIFORM ACCELERATION NON UNIFORM ACCELERATION

An object has uniform An object has non-uniform

acceleration when its velocity acceleration when its velocity
increases or decreases at a changes at a non-uniform rate.
constant rate.
Straight-line in (v-t graph). Curved line in (v-t graph).
Ex : A free falling object, Ex : Circular motion types
Whenever objects fall towards where speed is constant and
Earth under the Earth's direction changes at every
gravitational force alone. point.

EQUATION OF MOTION E M I NDE

R
R

2 v = Final Velocity
v = u + at s = ut + 1
2
at v2 - u2 = 2as u = Initial Velocity
A car starts from rest, and accelerates at a constant rate. After a = Acceleration
0.25 min, it is moving with a velocity of 25 m/s. At what rate is the s = Displacement
car accelerating? t = Time
v = u + at
u=0 t = 0.25 × 60 = 15sec
25 = 0 + a × 15 a = 25 = 1.67 m/s
2
v = 25m/s 15
2
A truck came to rest when the brake was applied for 4s to get retardation of 3 m/s,
Calculate how far the truck would have travelled after applying the brake.
v=0 v = u + at v2 - u2 = 2as s = 144 =24m
t = 4s 0 = u + 12
a = -3m/s2 u = 12 m/s 0 - 144 = 2 × -3 × s 6
 GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION OF
MOTION
DISTANCE-TIME GRAPH
A distance-time graph shows how the distance and speed v = S2 - S1
of an object changes with time. t2 - t 1
This graph plots distance on the y-axis and time on the x-axis.

UNIFORM MOTION NON UNIFORM MOTION

DISPLACEMENT TIME GRAPHS VELOCITY TIME GRAPHS

Zero
When object is Acceleration
at rest or Uniform
Velocity

When object is Uniform Positive

moving with zero Acceleration
acceleration with zero initial
velocity

When object is
When object is moving with uniform
moving with positive negative acceleration
acceleration

When object is
When object is
moving with increasing
moving with negative
acceleration
acceleration

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 FORCE
Force is an external effort that can change an
f = ma

object's state of motion or rest, or change its shape.

• Force is a vector quantity.
• Its SI Unit is Newton (N). 1 N = 100000
DYNE
• Its CGS unit is dyne.

FORCE CAN MAKE A FORCE CAN CHANGE THE FORCE CAN CHANGE THE SHAPE
STATIONARY BODY MOVE. DIRECTION OF A MOVING OBJECT. AND SIZE OF AN OBJECT.
A football can be set to By applying force i.e. by moving By hammering, a block of metal
move by kicking it i.e. by steering, the direction of a can be turned into a thin sheet.
applying a force. running vehicle is changed. By hammering, a stone can be
broken into pieces.

FORCE CAN STOP A FORCE CAN CHANGE THE SPEED

MOVING BODY. OF A MOVING BODY.
By applying brakes, a running cycle or a When you push a swing, you apply
running vehicle can be stopped. force to make it go higher and faster.

NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

A body remains in the state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line until &
unless an external force acts on it (Inertia).
There are two conditions on which the 1st law of motion is dependent:

OBJECT AT REST: OBJECT IN MOTION:

When an object is at rest, velocity When an object is in uniform
(v = 0) and acceleration (a = 0) are motion, velocity is not equal to zero
zero. (v 0), while acceleration (a = 0)
is equal to zero.
Therefore, the object continues
to be at rest. Therefore, the object will continue
to be in motion with constant
Ex : A person sitting on a chair. velocity and in the same direction.
Ex : A person riding a bicycle.
 INERTIA
Inertia is defined as inherent property of matter by
which it tries to maintain its state of rest or of
uniform motion along a straight line.
Quantitively, the inertia of an object is measured by its mass.
Inertia is directly proportional to the mass.
This means inertia increases with an increase in mass
& decreases with a decrease in mass.

INERTIA OF MOTION: INERTIA OF DIRECTION:

The tendency of an object to The inability of an object to
remain in motion unless an change its direction of motion
external force acts upon it. on its own.

Ex : When a bus stops suddenly, Ex : The rain drops falling

passengers fall forward because vertically downwards cannot
the lower part of their body stops change their direction of motion
while the upper part continues to and so cannot wet us when the
move. umbrella is up.

INERTIA OF REST:
It is the resistance of the body to change its state of rest unless acted
upon by an external force.

Ex : When a bus starts suddenly, the passengers tend to fall backward

because the lower part of their body moves with the bus while the
upper part remains at rest.

Impulse
The measure of the action of a large force acting
for a short duration of time to produce a finite
change in momentum.
Impulse = Average force * time.
S.I Unit is Newton - Second.

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 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
The rate of change of momentum of an
object is directly proportional to the
applied unbalanced force in the direction
of the force.

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net

force acting on it.
F = ma, or net force is equal to mass times acceleration.
Ex : Pushing a car and a truck.

MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION:
Acceleration = Change in Velocity (v) F ∝ m (v - u) km × (v - u) = kma
=
(a) Total Time Taken t
t

NEWTON'S THRID LAW OF MOTION

Newton's third law of motion states that for
every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

NUMERICIAL EXPRESSION: Find the recoil velocity of a gun having mass equal to 5
kg, if a bullet of 50 gm acquires the velocity of 200 m/s
m 1 × u1 + m2 × u2 = m1 × v1 + m2 × v2 after firing from the gun.
(0.050 kg x 0) + (5 kg x 0) = (0.050 kg x 200) + (5 kg x v2 )
O = 10.00 kg m/s + 5 kg v2 From the above equation, the negative sign indicates
5 kg v 2 = -10.00 kg m/s that the velocity of the gun is opposite to the velocity
of the bullet. it means the gun will recoil.
v 2 = -10.00/5
v 2 = -2 m/s Thus, the recoil velocity of the gun is equal to -2 m/s.

(FRICTIONAL FORCE)
Whenever a body moves or tends to move over the surface of another
body, a force comes into play which acts parallel to the surface of contact
and opposes the relative motion. The opposing force is called friction.
Depends on nature of surface of contact.
Independent of area of contact.
Directly proportional to Normal Reaction.
Limiting Friction > Kinetic Friction > Static Friction
 Momentum of a body is the quantity of motion
possessed by the body.
p = mv
Momentum is a vector quantity, it is defined as the product of its
mass (m) and velocity (v) and is denoted by p.
1
The S.I unit for momentum is kg.ms-1 K.E. = 2 mv 2

EXAMPLE :
The kinetic energy of a body becomes four times its
initial value. The new linear momentum will be:

p =√2m × K.E. p = √2m × 4K.E. p = 2 √2mK.E.

The new linear momentum becomes twice p = 2p
the initial linear momentum.

p2 IF THERE WERE MOBILE AT

K.E. = 1
mv 2
= p =√2m ×K.E. P.E. = mgh THE TIME OF NEWTON.
2
2m

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. POTENTIAL ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY
(MAXIMUM) (MAXIMUM)

Energy changes from one form of energy to NO KINETIC

ENERGY

another form of energy. KINETIC ENERGY (MAXIMUM) &

NO POTENTIAL ENERGY

The SI unit of energy is Joule.

EXAMPLE :
Kinetic energy is dependent on velocity, if an object is at rest and at a
height, its kinetic energy is zero because its velocity is zero.
As the object falls, its potential energy decreases and
its kinetic energy increases. P.E. = mgh

When an object is about to reach the ground, its potential

energy is minimum and its kinetic energy is maximum.
KE + PE
When the object hits the ground, all of its kinetic (CONSTANT)
energy is converted into heat energy & sound energy.

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 Y IS CONVERTED TO
NERG KIN
ET
L E IC
IT A E

NE
TE

RG
PO

Y
KINETIC POTENTIAL
ENERGY ENERGY
Potential energy is energy
Kinetic energy is energy of an
stored in an object due to
object due to its movement -
its position or configuration.
its motion.

Determined by mass, height,

Determined by mass and velocity. and distance.
Ex : Flowing water, a picture frame Ex : Water at the top of a hill .
falling from the wall.

MECHANICAL CHEMICAL
ENERGY ENERGY
The energy stored in an object The energy stored in the bonds of
due to its position or motion. chemical compounds.
Can be either kinetic energy or Can be released when a substance
potential energy. undergoes a chemical reaction,
Ex : Stretched rubber bands, often as heat.
machines that generate Ex : Biomass, petroleum, natural
electricity. gas, and coal.

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 SOUND Sound is a mechanical wave & needs
material medium for its propagation.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
Sound can’t go through a vacuum.

Amplitude: Speed of sound generally depends

The magnitude of maximum on the elasticity and density of the
disturbance in the medium on medium.
either side of the mean value . It
determines the loudness of sound.

High amplitude wave carries Low amplitude wave carries a

a large amount of energy. small amount of energy.

Quality or Timbre of sound : Intensity: The amount of sound

energy passing each second through
The characteristic that allows us to unit area.
differentiate between two sounds that Loudness: Measure of the response
have the same pitch & loudness. of the ear to the sound.
It is determined by the shape of the SI of loudness is deciBel.
sound's waveform, which is dependent Intensity & Loudness are not the
on the material used to produce it. same.
Crest Wavelength

Amplitude

Rest
Position
Frequency: Trough

It is number of oscillations per Wavelength:

unit time, & this determines
the pitch of the sound. The distance travelled by a wave
in one complete oscillation is
called as wavelength.
Wavelength is represented by the Greek
Frequency measurement is letter lambda (λ).
Hertz (Hz). The SI unit of wavelength is meter (m).
Higher Pitch - Shrill voice. The distance between two consecutive
Lower Pitch - Grave voice. compressions or rarefactions.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Radio Micro Infrared Visible Ultra X- Gamma

waves waves Light violet Radiation Ray

Maximum WAVELENGTH Minimum

Minimum FREQUENCY Maximum

Infrasonic range : Ultrasonic Range :

Below 20HZ Above 20kHz
Whales Dolphins Lightning:
Elephants Bats Speed of sound : Less.
(Inaudible) (Inaudible) Speed of light : Fast.

Range of Hearing :
Audible Range 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
Children (under 5yrs) & dogs can hear 25 KHz.

Conversion of waves :
Microphone: sound wave into an electrical signal.
Loudspeaker: electrical signal into sound waves.
Headphone: electrical energy into mechanical (sound) energy.
Sonar systems: ultrasonic sound waves into electrical signals.
Ultrasonic transducer: electrical energy into ultrasonic waves.

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 hammer

sound wave

ECHO :
Echoes are formed when
sound waves reflect off
a surface and return to
the listener.
The minimum distance
between the sound
source & the reflecting
surface should be 17.2m.
Reverberation : repeated
reflections that results
in the persistence of
sound
Reverberation occurs in
closed spaces with
multiple reflecting
objects.

A person burned a firecracker before a cliff and heard its echo

5 seconds after it burst. The distance of the cliff from the
person, if the speed of the sound is 340 m/s, is close to :
850m

850m
 WAVES :
Electromagnetic Mechanical wave :
(EM) wave :
A vibration in matter that
A type of radiation that transfers energy through
are made up of electric a material medium.
and magnetic fields that
travel through space

Longitudinal waves : Transverse wave :

The particles vibrates The particles vibrates
parallel to the direction perpendicular to the
of the wave. direction of the wave.

POTENTIAL ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY

(MAXIMUM) & K.E. = 0 (MAXIMUM) & K.E. = 0

Particle at Extreme :
• Acceleration is maximum.
P. • Restoring force is maximum.
E.

E.
K.

= • Velocity is 0.
=

K.
E.

E.
P.

• Kinetic energy is 0.
KINETIC ENERGY • Potential Energy is maximum
(MAXIMUM) & P.E. = 0

The time period of a 1 m long Particle at Mean :

pendulum approximates to : • Acceleration = 0
• No force acts on it
•Velocity is maximum
• Kinetic energy is maximum
• Potential Energy is minimum

The time period approximates to 2 seconds.

If T= 2sec, it is called 2nd Pendulum.

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 Gravitation
Gravitation or gravity is the force of attraction between any two
bodies.
The force of gravitational attraction between two point bodies is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

i.e.,
Acceleration due to
gravity (𝑔)
Every second an object is in free
m1 m 2 m1 m 2 fall, gravity will cause the velocity
F∝ F= G of the object to increase 9.8 m/s.
r2 r2
24

Where G is the universal GM 6.67 × 10 × 6 × 10

-11

g= = = 9.8 m/s.
3 2
2

gravitational constant, its r 2

(6400 × 10 )
value is 6.67 × 10 -11 N-m2 kg-2
(SI Unit).
Moon : 1.625m/s Mercury : 3.7m/s
2
2

-8 2 -2
Sun : 274m/s Jupiter : 24.79m/s
2 2

6.67 × 10 dyne cm g : CGS

Unit. Earth : 9.8m/s Neptune : 11.15m/s
2 2

Dimensional formula of G :
Venus : 8.87m/s Uranus : 8.87m/s
2 2

[ M L T
-1 3 -2
] Mars : 3.7m/s 2 Saturn : 10.44m/s 2

Numerical :
What happens to the gravitational force between two objects if
the mass of one object is doubled and the distance between
them is also doubled?

m1 m 2 2m 1 m 2 1
F= G F’ = G F’ = F
r2 4r 2 2
The force would be halved.
 Weight of a Body at the Moon
As mass and radius of the moon is less than the
earth. so the force of gravity at the moon is also less
than the earth.

It's value is g/6.

Geostationary
Satellites
Geostationary satellites
Polar Satellites.
orbit the equator. Polar satellites orbit in a north-
Slower orbit speed (3 km/s). south direction.
Higher orbit speed (7.8 km/s).
Appear to be stationary in the
sky Appears to move across the sky
Used for communication and Used for earth observation,
weather forecasting weather,& military applications.
Orbit at an altitude of about Orbit as low as 200 km above
36,000 km. sea level.

Value of g decreases with the

increasing height of an object
and becomes zero at an infinite
distance from the earth.

Value of g decreases with the

Variation increasing depth of an object &
becomes zero at the center of

of (𝑔) the earth .

Value of g is the highest on

BRAND poles and lowest on equator.
IMAGE Radius of equator is greater
than radius of poles.

DID YOU Value of g decreases due to the

rotation of the earth.
KNOW?
Value of g decreases, if the
If orbital velocity of a angular speed of the earth
satellite is increases increases, and increases, if the
by 41%, it will leave angular speed of the earth
orbit and escape. decreases.
 DID YOU
KNOW?
Centripetal force is a force on an object
directed to the center of a circular path
that keeps the object on the path.

The apparent weight of a The apparent weight

person inside the lift is equal to the
increases. actual weight.

free falling

R= 0
The apparent weight of
a person inside the lift
becomes zero.
The apparent weight
of a person inside the
lift decreases.

Numerical :
A man, of mass 60kg, is riding in a lift. The change in apparent weight
of the man, when the lift is accelerating upwards and downwards at
2m/s 2 is :-

W = mg + ma W = mg - ma
W = 60(10+2) W = 60(10-2) W = 720 - 480 = 240 N
W = 720 N W = 480 N
 Kepler's laws
Based on the Copernican model, which states that the
sun is the center of the solar system.

Law of orbits
(First law)
Each planet revolves around
1
the sun in an elliptical orbit
.
with the sun situated at one
of the two foci. Law of areas
(Second law)
The radius vector drawn from the
2 sun to a planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal intervals of time.
i.e., the areal velocity (area
Law of periods covered per unit time) of a planet
(Third law) around the sun is constant.

The square of the period of

revolution of a planet around the 3
sun is proportional to the cube of the
semimajor axis of its elliptical orbit.

Orbital velocity Escape velocity

The velocity given to an artificial

earth's satellite a few hundred The minimum velocity required
kilometers above the earth's to escape the gravitational pull
surface so that it may start of the Earth.
revolving around the earth.
Body near Earth's surface: 8(km/s). Earth's surface: 11.2(km/s)

Relationship between escape

velocity and orbital velocity:
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 REFLECTION OF
LIGHT
The phenomenon of bouncing back of a ray of light after
falling on a polished surface is known as reflection of light.

LAWS OF REFLECTION
The angle of incidence(i) is equal to the angle of
reflection(r).
The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point
of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in the same
plane.

REGULAR IRREGULAR
REFLECTION REFLECTION
Occurs on smooth Occurs on rough
surfaces and produces surfaces and produces
a clear image. a diffused image.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT Rarer medium: Light

Refraction is the bending of light as travels faster, like air.
it passes from one medium to
Denser medium: Light
another medium.
travels slower, like
water or glass.
When a pencil is placed
in a glass of water

Air
RARER TO DENSER
Light ray bends towards the normal.
(Speed slows down.)
Water
DENSER TO RARER
Light ray bends away from the normal.
(Speed increases.)
 On increasing the
temperature of medium, its
INDEX FOR
refractive index decreases. I VE MU
C T L
Maximum for diamonds. A

A
FR
RE
REFRACTIVE
INDEX
The ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum
to its velocity in a specific medium.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

refractive
If the angle of incidence in denser medium is index

greater than critical angle(C).

Then the ray is reflected back into the first Critical
denser medium. angle

NECESSARY
CONDITIONS FOR TIR
Angle of incidence > Critical angle
Light should go from
denser to rarer medium.

Brilliance of diamond
Mirage formation
Fish inside see only a circular
surface of water.

SNELL'S LAW
The ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to that of sine of angle of
refraction is always a constant.
LAW OF REFRACTION
SNELL'S
FORMULA

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF 2ND

MEDIUM W.R.T MEDIUM 1ST
 PLANE MIRRORS Virtual & Erect Image.
Flat mirrors that reflect light at the same angle it hits the mirror.

Image formed : same size as object, but laterally inverted (left to right).
Minimum length of plane mirror so, the Full image of object (h) is visible h/2.

SPHERICAL
MIRRORS
Curved mirrors that can
be further classified into
concave and convex
mirrors.

CONCAVE MIRRORS
Mirror with inward curved reflecting surface.

Image formed : depends on the placement

of the object.
Converging mirrors.

CONVEX MIRRORS
These mirrors bulge outwards and reflect
light rays at a wider angle near the edges.

Image formed : virtual, diminished, and erect

for a real object.
Diverging mirrors.

SHAVING MIRRORS STREET LAMPS

TORCHES REAR VIEW
MIRRORS
USES OF USES OF
HEADLIGHTS

CONCAVE CONVEX
SECURITY MIRRORS
OPHTHALMOSCOPE
IN SHOP
MIRRORS ASTRONOMICAL
SURVEILLANCE MIRRORS
MIRROR USED
TELESCOPES AT BENT OF ROAD DENTAL MIRR
SOLAR FURNACES
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 REAL VIRTUAL
vs
IMAGE IMAGE
Formed by the actual convergence Formed by the apparent divergence
of light rays. of light rays.

Can be projected onto a screen or Cannot be projected onto a screen

surface. or surface.

Created by light rays actually Created by the way our eyes

coming together. perceive light rays.

Exists at a specific point in Appears to be located behind

space. the mirror/lens.

Can be captured using a physical Cannot be captured on a screen or

device. paper.

Usually inverted (upside-down) Can be either upright or

compared to the object. inverted.

Created by light rays actually Created by the way our eyes

coming together. perceive light rays.

Examples: Examples:
An image formed on a movie screen. Image seen in a rear-view mirror.

REAL
VIRTUAL
IMAGE
IMAGE

IMPORTANT TERMS
• Principal Axis (PA) • Principal Focus (F)
• Centre of Curvature (C), not part of mirror.
• Radius of Curvature (R) • Focal Length (f)
• Pole of Mirror (P) • Optical Centre of Lens

• Aperture: diameter of the reflecting

surface of a spherical mirror.

DO YOU KNOW
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 IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR
Position of Position of Nature & Size
Object Image of Image

LEFT SIDE MIRROR At infinity At Focus

Real & Inverted,
Highly diminished
Real and inverted
u, v, f = negative. Beyond centre Between focus Real & Inverted,
of curvature and curvature Diminished
Concave mirror.
At Curvature Real & Inverted,
At Curvature
Same size

Between focus Beyond centre Real & Inverted,

RIGHT SIDE MIRROR and curvature of curvature Enlarged

Virtual and erect.

Real & Inverted,
u = negative. At Focus At infinity
Highly Enlarged
v, f = positive.
Convex mirror. Between pole Virtual & Erect,
Behind the mirror
and focus Enlarged

Position of Position of Nature & Size

Object Image of Image

At Focus Virtual & Erect,

At infinity
Behind the mirror Highly diminished

Between Infinity Between Pole Virtual & Erect,

and Pole and Focus Diminished

IMAGE FORMATION BY
CONVEX MIRROR
 IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS
Position of Position of Nature & Size
Object Image of Image

LEFT SIDE LENS At infinity At Focus (F2 )

Real & Inverted,
Highly diminished
Virtual and erect.
Real & Inverted,
u, v, f = negative. Beyond 2F 1 Between 2F & F 2
Diminished
Concave lens.
At 2F1 At 2F2 Real & Inverted,
Same size

Real & Inverted,

Between F 1 & 2F1 Beyond 2F 2
RIGHT SIDE LENS Enlarged
Real and inverted.
At Focus (F1 ) Real & Inverted,
u = negative. At infinity
Highly Enlarged
v, f = positive.
Convex lens. Between F 1 & On the same side Virtual & Erect,
Optical Centre O of the lens as the Enlarged
object

Position of Position of Nature & Size

Object Image of Image

Virtual & Erect,

At infinity At Focus (F1 )
Highly diminished

Between Infinity & Between F 1 & Virtual & Erect,

Optical Centre O Optical Centre O Diminished

IMAGE FORMATION BY
CONCAVE LENS
 POWER OF LENS
Ability of the lens to bend light rays that pass
VE LEN
through it by either converging or diverging them.
O NCA S
Power = 1 / Focal length of lens(in m).
C
Converging lens.
SI unit of Power of lens = Diopter (D) Negative focal
length
The power of a lens is the inverse of its
focal length, which is measured in meters:
Shorter focal length lens has more power.
O N V E X L E NS
C
Longer focal length lens has less power.
Diverging lens.
Positive focal
Lens has two principle Foci Fi & F2. length

Center point of the lens is the optical center 0°.

Ray of light passes through the optical center of
the lens passes without suffering any deviation.
TOTAL MAGNIFICATION
When lenses are used in combination,
THIN LENSES IN CONTACT each lens magnifies the image formed
by the preceding lens.
Total magnification m is equal to product
of the magnifications
Equivalent power, produced by the individual lenses.
 MIRROR LENS
IMAGE IMAGE
Concave - real & Convex - virtual Concave - virtual Convex - real
inverted & erect. & erect. & inverted

u = negative.
f = negative (Concave).
u = negative.
f = positive (Convex).
f = negative (Concave).
f = positive (Convex). v = positive (real)
v = negative (virtual).

MIRROR LENS
FORMULA FORMULA

If v = positive, (m = positive, virtual). If v = positive, (m = negative, real).

If v = negative, (m = negative, real). If v = negative, (m = positive, virtual).

An object 4 cm in size is placed at a A concave lens has a focal length

distance of 25 cm from a concave mirror of 15cm. At the distance shown, the
of focal length 15 cm. Find the position, object from the lens is placed to
nature and height of the image : form an image at 10cm from lens,
and find magnification of lens?
 Red
(longest
wavelength)
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue

PRISM
Indigo

A prism is a wedge shaped portion of a

transparent refracting medium bounded by two plane
faces inclined to each other at a certain angle.
Violet (shortest
The splitting of white light into different wavelength)
colors is called dispersion.

Different wavelengths of

RA I NBOW
light travel at different
speeds through a prism,
Rainbows are created by the causing them to refract or
refraction, dispersion and bend by different angles.
reflection of light, which occurs The more the wavelength
when sunlight passes through the less the it bends.
water droplets in the air:

Always formed on the

opposite direction of
the sun.
Red light bends the
(TIR) least, while violet light
PRIMARY bends the most.
RAINBOW
Primary rainbow is
formed by rays
which undergo one
internal reflection Refraction: Light bends as it passes from air into
and two refractions a raindrop, which is denser than air.
& finally emerge Reflection: The light reflects off the back of the
from the raindrops raindrop (TIR).
at minimum Refraction again: Light refracts again as it exits
deviation. the raindrop and travels toward your eyes.
 REFRACTION Internal
Y
O ND A R R A I NB REFLECTION
C OW
SE Formed when sunlight
LIGHT REFLECTS TWICE
BEFORE EXITING THE DROPLET
undergoes two refractions (DOUBLE REFLECTION)
and two internal reflections Internal
REFLECTION
within a water droplet at
minimum deviation.

REFRACTION

Color reversal: Violet appearing on the outer edge and

red on the inner edge.

Lower intensity: Usually fainter than primary rainbows

due to the increased light loss with each reflection.

E R I NG O F L BLU
E SKI ES
TT IG
Shorter wavelengths, like blue
A

When light waves

HT
SC

and violet, are scattered

deviate from a straight
more by particles in the
path and spread out in
atmosphere, making the sky
different directions.
appear blue.

H SUN AT SU
S NR
DIScattering of light
D

IS
RE

can explain why the

sun appears reddish at
sunrise and sunset.

ITE CLOUDS
WH
Clouds contain water
molecules and dust particles
that scatter all colors of
light equally, making clouds
appear white.
 Structure Of the
Human Eye
Sclera Crystalline lens transparent structure behind
The tough, white outer the pupil that changes shape to focus light
layer that protects the eye
Lens on the retina.
Cornea Retina
The transparent front Light-sensitive layer of tissue at
part of the eye that the back of the eye that converts
allows light to enter. images into electrical impulses.
Located in front of (Real & Inverted image)
the eye, covering the Vitreous Body
pupil, iris, and
anterior chamber.

Pupil Optic Nerve

Located in the centre of Transmits visual
eye, small black opening information from the
in the middle of the Iris. retina to the brain

Retinal Blood vessels

Iris ciliary muscles
Located behind the cornea, colored, Responsible for accommodation,
ring-shaped muscular tissue that the process of changing the
surrounds the pupil and controls the shape of the lens to focus on Do
amount of light that enters the eye. corn nated
nearby objects. ea
one from
resto eye :
all (two re vision
Eyeb :
peop
le).
eter
diam .3cm. The eye is made up of
t2
abou three coats, which Can donate: People with
enclose the optically diabetes, hypertension,
The crystalline lens of clear aqueous humour, or who have had
people at old age eye lens, and vitreous body. cataract surgery.
becomes milky and
cloudy, this condition is A normal visual field of Cannot donate: People
called cataract. This each eye usually spans with severe infections,
causes partial or over 120 degrees communicable diseases
complete loss of vision. horizontally and 90 like HIV or hepatitis, or
degrees vertically. certain cancers.
 DID YOU
KNOW
?
The light from stars bends as it passes through the Earth's
atmosphere, causing the apparent position of the star to
fluctuate and making it appear to twinkle.

presbyopia
Hypermetropia The power of accommodation
Myopia Farsightedness.
of the eye usually decrease
with aging.
Nearsightedness.
Condition causes: nearby Condition causes: difficult
Condition causes: faraway objects appear to be to see nearby objects
objects appear to be blurry. blurry distinctly
The image of a distant The image of a distant Due to the gradual weakening
object is formed in front object is formed behind of the ciliary muscles.
of the retina. the retina.
Bifocal lenses, both Concave
Concave/Diverging lens is Convex/Converging lens lens (Upper part), convex lens
used to correct myopia. is used to correct (Lower part).
The focal length becomes hypermetropia.
Typically requires corrective
small. The focal length becomes glasses to see clearly up
long. close.

DID YOU
KNOW
?
The human eye can focus
on objects at different
distances by adjusting the
lens's focal length, which is
due to accommodation.

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 ELECTRICITY
Electric charge is the property associated with matter
due to which it produces and experiences electrical and
magnetic effects.
Electric charge are positive (Protons) and negative (electrons).
Scalar quantity, SI unit is coulomb (C).
Charge is conserved i.e., it can neither be created nor be
destroyed.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
The charge of a particle is an integral multiple of 1.6×10 -19coulombs.
Coulomb's law states that the force of attraction or repulsion
between two stationary point charges is:
(i) Directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of two charges.
(ii) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. This force acts along the line joining the two charges.
COULOMB’S LAW

ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
ELECTRIC
Electrostatic force can be repulsive
(between two positive or two negative
FIELDS
charges), or attractive (between a positive
LINES
and a negative charge).
An electric field line in general is a curve
drawn in such a way that the tangent to it
at each point is in the direction of the
electric field at that point.
Lines always point away from a positive
ELECTRIC charge and towards a negative point.
FIELDS Two field lines can never intersect each
other.
Electric fields are created by voltage, or
Do not form closed loops.
the presence of electric charges.
Perpendicular to the surface of a charged
Measured in volts per meter (V/m).
conductor.
 Rate of flow of charge is called the electric current (I)
Scalar quantity, Unit of electric current is Ampere(A).
When 1 coulomb of charge flows through a conductor in 1
second, the electric current flowing through it is 1 ampere.
Direction of flow of current is opposite to the direction
ELECTRIC
of flow of electrons.
CURRENT
DIRECT Magnitude & direction do
A current of 150mA flows through a circuit
CURRENT (DC) not change with time.
for 2 min. Find the amount of charge that
flows through a circuit. Magnitude changes
ALTERNATING continuously & direction
CURRENT (AC) changes periodically.

It is a sensitive device that detects

current in a circuit.
Ammeter is connected in series with the circuit It produces a deflection proportional
to the electric current flowing
in which the current is to be measured.
(connected in series)
through it. GALVANOMETER
AMMETER

If there is no change in the physical state of a conductor,

then the ratio of potential difference across its ends and
the current flowing through it is constant
Constant R is called electric resistance of the circuit.
Unit of electric resistance R is ohm ( Ω).
OHM’S LAW

VOLTMETER Q. The potential difference between the terminals of

The potential difference is an electric heater is 75 V when it draws a current of
measured by means of an 5A from the source. What current will the heater
instrument called the draw, if the potential difference is increased to 150 V.
voltmeter.
The voltmeter is always
connected in parallel across
the points between which the
potential difference is to be
measured.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The energy required to move a charge unit Potential difference between two points
from a reference point to a specific location is the amount of work required to move
in an electric field, also known as the a unit of charge from one point to the
electric field potential. other.
The SI unit for electric potential is the volt,
SI unit of potential difference is volt.
equal to one joule per coulomb.

Q. When the wire is stretched such Q. How much work is done in moving a charge
that its length is doubled and its of 2C across two points having a potential
area is halved, the new resistance difference of 12V?
becomes :

ELECTRICAL
RESISTANCE
SPECIFIC Ratio in the potential difference(V) across
RESISTANCE the ends of the conductor to the current(I)
flowing through it.
ρ’s unit is ohm-metre. Inverse of resistance is called Conductance.
Inverse of Specific Resistance is Unit of conductance is mho or siemen.
called conductivity (σ).
Unit of conductivity is mho/metre. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESISTANCE :
RESISTANCE : Increasing temperature of metal -> Resistance
Increase
Directly proportional to Length of conductor.
Increasing temperature of semiconductor ->
Inversely proportional to Area of conductor. Resistance decrease.

Increases on mixing of impurity and increase Increasing temperature of alloy -> Resistance
of mechanical stress. Increase but smaller than metals.
Increasing temperature of electrolytes ->
The resistance of superconductor is zero.
Resistance decrease.
 COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE

SERIES PARALLEL
Current through each resistance is Current through each resistance is
same. different.

Potential Difference across each Potential Difference across each

resistance is different. resistance is same.
?
OW

COMMON WIRING
KN

COLOR CODES
U
YO
D
DI

Red, Brown are used for live

wire.

Black or Blue is used for the

ELECTRICAL
neutral wire.
ENERGY
Green or Green with Yellow
Stripes is used for the Total work done by the source of emf in
earth or ground wire. maintaining the electric current in the
circuit for a given time
SI unit of electric energy is joule but
ELECTRIC another unit is watt-hour.
POWER One horsepower is equal to 746 watts
Kilowatt - hour.

Electric power is the rate at which

HEATING EFFECT
electrical energy is generated, OF CURRENT
transmitted, and used to perform work.
It is measured in Watt.
 CONDUCTOR
A conductor is a material that
allows the electric current to
INSULATOR
pass through it. The insulator is a material
that does not allow the
SEMICONDUCTORS
The thermal conductivity of electric current to pass Materials that are
the conductor is very high. through it. somewhere between
conductors and
The resistance of the The thermal conductivity insulators in their
conductor is very low. of the insulator is very ability to conduct
low. electricity.
Ex : Silver, Copper, Gold, Ex : Carbon (Graphite)
The resistance of the
Aluminum, Tungsten, Iron Germanium, Silicon.
conductor is very high.
Platinum. Mercuy
Nichrome (Ni, Fe, Cr alloy) Ex : Glass, Hard rubber.

RESISTIVITY Higher Resistance : Poor

conductor of electricity.
The SI unit of resistivity Low Resistance : Good
is ohm meter (Ω⋅m). conductor of electricity.
Insulator > Alloys > Semiconductor > Conductor
(max.) (min)

FUSE WIRE CONSTANTAN

Fuse wire is made of mixed conductor (63 % In resistance box, the standard
tin and 37% lead). resistances are made of manganin or
The value of melting point is low but constantan.
resistivity is very high. Their resistivity do not depend upon
The fuse wire is placed in the series to temperature, therefore the value of
protect the main line standard resistance does not vary.

DIFFERENT ELECTRICAL CONDUCTING MATERIALS

NICHROME
TUNGSTEN
In heating equipment (heater, geyser
and electric press), the coils are made The filament of bulb is made of tungsten.
of nichrome because the resistivity and The resistivity and melting point of
melting of nichrome is very high. tungsten both are high.
 MAGNETISM
MAGNETIC FIELD
The area surrounding the magnet in which, another magnet
experience a force on it is called magnetic field.
Region or space around a magnet or current carrying conductor
or a moving charge in which its magnetic effect can be felt.
SI UNIT IS TESLA (T) MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
RULES TO FIND THE DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD The imaginary lines which represents
the direction of magnetic field is
RIGHT HAND PALM RULE MAXWELL’S RIGHT HANDED known as magnetic field lines.
SCREW RULE Always form closed curves.
Leave north pole and enter south
pole only.
Move from south pole to north pole
within the magnet.
Never intersect each other.
If we spread our right hand in such If a right handed cork screw is
a way that thumb is towards the rotated, so that its tip moves in
direction of current and fingers are the direction of flow of current
towards that point, where we have through the conductor, then the
to find the direction of field, then rotation of the head of the screw
the direction of field will be gives the direction of magnetic
perpendicular to the palm. lines of force.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO THIN STRAIGHT WIRE

Are circular and centered at wire.

Field decreases with increase of distance
from wire.
Direction can be found by right hand rule
as shown in figure.
 SOLENOID
A cylindrical coil of many tightly wound turns of insulated wire
with a general diameter of the coil smaller than its length is
called solenoid.
The magnetic field within the solenoid is uniform and parallel to
the axis of the solenoid.
THE STRENGTH OF MAGNETIC FIELD IN
A SOLENOID IS GIVEN BY:
N = number of turns, l = length of solenoid,
I= current in the solenoid

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD

Electromagnetic and gravitational forces act on neutral and large bodies.
If the moving charge is moving perpendicular to the magnetic field, then
its kinetic energy remains constant.
FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN THE
MAGNETIC FIELD IS GIVEN BY:
where θ = angle between direction of velocity and direction
of magnetic field.

RULES TO FIND THE DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD

FLEMING'S LEFT HAND RULE

If we spread the forefinger, central finger & thumb of our
left hand in such a way that these three are
perpendicular to each other.

First forefinger is in the direction of magnetic field.

Second central finger is in the direction of current and

thumb will represent the direction of force.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNATIC FERROMAGNETIC

These substances when These substances when These substances when
placed in an external placed in an external placed in an external
magnetic field. magnetic field. magnetic field.
Acquire feeble magnetism Acquire feeble magnetism Acquire feeble strongly
opposite to the direction in the direction of the magnetized in the direction
of the magnetic field. magnetic field. of the magnetic field.
e.g. Bi, Zn, Au, NaCl, etc. e.g. Al, Na, Pt, Mn, etc. e.g. Fe, Ni, Co, etc.

NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

ELECTRON PROTON NEUTRON

Discovered By J J Thompson E Rutherford James Chadwich

Charge Negative Positive Neutral

Charge -1.6*10^(-19) 1.6*10^(-19) 0

Mass 9.1 * 10(-31) kg 1.672*10^(-27) kg 1.6750*10^(-27) kg

NUCLEAR ENERGY
NUCLEAR FISSION NUCLEAR FUSION
The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into When two light nuclei combine together to form
two nuclei of nearly comparable masses with the a single nucleus, then this phenomena is called
liberation of energy is called nuclear fission. nuclear fusion.

ATOM BOMB & URANIUM BOMB HYDROGEN BOMB

AND SUN
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
WORK NUMERICAL :
Work is said to be one Joule when
When a force acts on an object and the object actually
a force of:
moves in the direction of force, then the work is said to
be done by the force.
Work done = Force × Displacement of the object in
the direction of force
W=⋅Fs
or
W = Fs cosθ 4 N moves an object by 25 cm.

TYPES OF WORK

POSITIVE WORK NEGATIVE WORK ZERO WORK

If a force acting on an object If a force acting on an object If the object gets displaced along
has a component in the has a component in the opposite a direction perpendicular to the
direction of displacement. direction of displacement. direction of the applied force.
eg: like work done by friction

ENERGY Some
SOME other
OTHER units
UNITS of
OF
The energy of an object is defined as its capacity of doing work. work
WORK or
OR energy
ENERGY
Energy is a scalar quantity. S.NO. UNIT SYMBOL VALUE IN SI
SI unit is joule. Gravitational Potential Energy erg erg
1.
Potential Energy of Spring
2. Electron volt eV
Electrostatic Potential Energy
TYPES 3. Calorie cal
KINETIC POTENTIAL
ENERGY
OF ENERGY 4. Kilowatt hour kWh
ENERGY

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VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY
DEVICE ENERGY CONVERSION
Photosynthesis Light to Chemical
Dynamo Mechanical to Electrical
Electric Motor Electrical to Mechanical
Microphone Sound to Electrical
Loudspeaker Electrical to Sound
Solar Cell Light (Solar) to Electrical
Tube Light Electrical to Light
Battery Chemical to Electrical
Photocell Light to Electrical
Sitar Mechanical to Sound
Nerve Impulse Chemical to Electrical

POWER NUMERICAL :
A 100 W electric bulb is used for 10 hours a
The rate of doing work or the rate at which energy is day. How many units of electrical energy are
transferred or used or transformed is called power. consumed by the bulb in 3 days?
(1 unit = 1 kWh)
Work
Power =
Time
Commercial Unit of Energy
The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour(kWh).
Bulb consumes 3 units of electrical energy
in 3 days.

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 COLLISION
ELASTIC COLLISION INELASTIC COLLISION
The kinetic energy is conserved. The kinetic energy is not conserved.

The momentum is conserved. The momentum is conserved.

Total energy is conserved. Total energy is conserved.

Forces involved during the Some or all of the forces involved

collision are conservative. are non- conservative.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM IN COLLISION

ELASTIC COLLISION IN INELASTIC COLLISION IN
ONE-DIMENSION ONE-DIMENSION
Kinetic Energy is Conserved Momentum is Conserved

NUMERICAL :
A boy of mass 52 kg jumps with a horizontal velocity of 2 m/s onto a
stationary cart of mass 3 kg. The cart is fixed with frictionless wheels.
Which one of the following would be the speed of the cart?
Momentum before jump = Momentum after jump

m/s

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This time I want your roll no. in PDF

For CDS & NDA (1) 2025

1640 SELECTIONS IN NDA & CDS (2) 2024

2119 SELECTIONS IN AFCAT (2) 2024
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