LECTURE 03: Welding

93
Introduction
Welding i.e. the action of the verb “To weld” is same as “To well” which means to boil
or to heat to a high temperature. The weld may be defined as a localized union or
consolidation of metals by the application of heat and with or without the application of
pressure. Welding is usually employed to unite metals where the joining is permanent
and is required to transmit stress and sometimes to develop pressure tightness. In recent
past remarkable advances have given welding a dominant place in the metal industries
and different techniques of welding were developed to achieve certain goals.
The American Welding Society (AWS) definition for a welding process is "a materials
joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable
temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of
pressure alone and with or without the use of filler material".
Welding Classification
WELDING PROCESSES

Arc Welding Other Welding Processes

Gas Metal Arc (GMAW Electron Beam (EBW)
Gas Tungsten Arc ) Welding (LBW)
Plasma Arc (GTAW) Laser Beam Welding (TW)
Shielded Metal Arc (PAW) Thermit
Oxyfuel GasWelding
Welding
Submerged Arc (SMAW) Oxyacetylene (OAW)
Solid State Welding (SAW) Welding (OHW)
Diffusion Welding (DFW)
Oxyhydrogen (PGW)
Explosion Welding (EXW)
(FRW) Welding
Brazing
Friction Welding (DFB)
(HPW) Pressure Gas
Diffusion Welding
Brazing
Hot Pressure
Induction Brazing (IB)
Welding (USW)
Resistance Welding Resistance Brazing (RB)
Ultrasonic Welding
Flash Welding (FW) Soldering
Infrared Soldering (IRS)
Percussion Welding (PEW)
Projection Welding (RPW) Iron Soldering (INS)
Resistance-Seam Welding (RSEW) Resistance Soldering (RS)
Resistance-Spot Welding (RSW)
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages of Welding
■ A good weld is as strong as the base metal
■ General welding equipment is not very costly
■ Portable welding equipments are available
■ Welding permits considerable freedom in design
■ Welding can join metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar
■ Welding can be mechanized
Disadvantages of Welding
■ Welding gives out harmful radiation (light), fumes and spatter
■ Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work-pieces
■ Jigs and fixtures are generally required to hold the parts to be welded
■ Edge preparation of the workpiece is generally required before welding
■ A skilled welder is a must to produce a good welding job
■ Welding heat produces metallurgical changes
■ A welded joint, for many reasons, needs stress-relief heat-treatment.
Application of Welding
■ Aircraft construction and Automobile construction
■ Bridges and Buildings, Household and Office furniture
■ Pressure vessels, Tanks and Storage tanks, Rail, Road equipment, Piping and Pipelines
■ Ships, Trucks and Trailers, Machine tool frames, Cutting tools and dies
■ In addition, arc welding are also used in repair and maintenance work
Types of Weld Joint
Welding produces a solid connection between two pieces called a weld joint. a weld joint is the
junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have been joined by welding. There are five basic types
of joints for bringing two parts together for joining. The five types can be defined as follows:

(a) Butt joint (b) Corner joint (c) Lap joint

(d) Tee joint (e) Edge joint

 Types of Welds

Square groove weld Single bevel groove weld

Inside single fillet corner joint Outside single fillet corner joint

Single V-groove weld single J-groove weld

Double fillet tee joint

Double fillet lap joint
Single U-groove weld
Double V-groove weld for
thicker sections

Plug weld
Slot weld
Pressure Gas Welding
 Arc-Welding Processes

• developed in the mid-18005, the heat required is obtained from electrical energy.
The process involves either a consumable or a nonconsumable electrode.
• An AC or a DC power supply produces an arc between the tip of the electrode and
the workpiece to be welded. The arc generates temperatures of about 30,000°C,
much higher than oxyfuel-gas welding.
• In nonconsurnable-electrode welding processes, the electrode is typically a tungsten
electrode (Fig. 30.4). Because of the high temperatures involved, an externally
supplied shielding gas is necessary to prevent oxidation of the weld zone.
• Typically, direct current is used, and its polarity (the direction of current flow) is
important. The selection of current levels depends on such factors as the type of
electrode, metals to be welded, and depth and width of the weld zone.
• Straight polarity / direct-current electrode negative (DCEN): the workpiece is
positive (anode), and the electrode is negative (cathode). DCEN generally produces
welds that are narrow and deep (Fig. 30.5a).
• Reverse polarity/direct-current electrode positive (DCEP): the workpiece is negative
and the electrode is positive. Weld penetration is less, and the weld zone is
shallower and wider (Fig. 30.5 b).
• DCEP is preferred for sheet metals and for joints with very wide gaps. ln the AC
current method, the arc pulsates rapidly. This method is suitable for welding thick
sections and for using large-diameter electrodes at maximum currents (Fig. 30.5c)
Arc-Welding Processes
Arc-Welding Processes
Arc-Welding Processes
Arc-Welding Processes

Example 30.1 Welding speed for different materials.

Consider a situation in which a welding operation is being performed with V = 20 volts, I = 200
A, and the cross-sectional area of the weld bead is 30 mm2. Estimate the welding speed if the
workpiece and electrode are made of (a) aluminum, (b) carbon steel, and (c) titanium. Use an
efficiency of 75%.
Arc-Welding Processes
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding

• In gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW), formerly known as TIG (for “tungsten inert gas”)
welding, the filler metal is supplied from a filler wire.
• Because the tungsten electrode is not consumed in this operation, a constant and stable arc gap
is maintained at a constant current level.
• The filler metals are similar to the metals to be welded, and flux is not used. Welding with
GTAW may be done without filler metals-for example, in the welding of close-fit joints.
• The shielding gas is usually argon or helium (or a mixture of the two).
• Depending on the metals to be welded, the power supply is either DC at 200 A or AC at 5 00 A
(Fig. 30.4b). In general, AC is preferred for aluminum and magnesium, because the cleaning
action of AC removes oxides and improves weld quality. Thorium or zirconium may be used
in the tungsten electrodes to improve their electron emission characteristics.
• The power supply ranges from 8 to 20 kW Contamination of the tungsten electrode by the
molten metal can be a significant problem, particularly in critical applications, because it can
cause discontinuities in the weld. Therefore, contact of the electrode with the molten-metal
pool should be avoided.
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
■ No flux is used; hence there is no danger of flux entrapment
■ Because of clear visibility of the arc and the job, the operator can exercise a better control on the
welding process
■ Weld in all positions and produces smooth and sound welds with fewer spatters
■ It is very much suitable for high quality welding of thin (0.125mm) materials
■ It is a very good process for welding nonferrous metals and stainless steel.
Disadvantages
■ Under similar applications, MIG welding is a much faster process as compared to TIG welding,
since TIG welding requires a separate filler rod
■ Tungsten if it transfers to molten weld pool can contaminate the same. Tungsten inclusion is hard
and brittle
■ Filler rod end if it by chance comes out of the inert gas shield can cause
weldmetal
contamination
■ Equipment costs are higher than that for flux shielded metal arc welding.
Applications
■ Welding aluminum, magnesium, copper and their alloys, carbon steels, stainless steels, high
temperature and hard surfacing alloys like zirconium etc.
■ Welding sheet metal and thinner sections
■ Welding of expansion bellows, transistor cases, instrument diaphragms, and can-sealing joints
■ Precision welding in atomic energy, aircraft, chemical and instrument industries
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
• Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW) is one of the oldest, simplest, and most versatile joining
processes. About 50% of all industrial and maintenance welding currently is performed by this process.

• The electric arc is generated by touching the tip of a coated electrode against the workpiece and
withdrawing it quickly to a distance sufficient to maintain the arc.

• The electrodes are in the shapes of thin, long rods (hence, this process also is known as stick welding)
that are held manually.

• The heat generated melts a portion of the electrode tip, its coating, and the base metal in the immediate
arc area. The molten metal consists of a mixture of the base metal (the workpiece), the electrode metal,
and substances from the coating on the electrode; this mixture forms the weld when it solidifies. The
electrode coating deoxidizes the weld area and provides a shielding gas to protect it from oxygen in the
environment.

• A bare section at the end of the electrode is clamped to one terminal of the power source, while the
other terminal is connected to the workpiece being welded (Fig. 30.7b). The current, which may be DC
or AC, usually ranges from 50 to 300 A. For sheet-metal welding, DC is preferred because of the
steady arc it produces. Power requirements generally are less than 10 kW.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
■ SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
■ The equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low.
■ This process finds innumerable applications, because of a wide variety of electrodes.
■ A big range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
■ Welding can be carried out in any position with highest weld quality.

Disadvantages
■ Because of the limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating on it mechanization is difficult.
■ In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one electrode finishes, the weld is to be progressed
with the next electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect may occur at the place where welding is
restarted with the new electrode.
■ The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared to M1G welding.
■ Because of flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment and other related defects are more as
compared to MIG or TIG welding.
■ Because of fumes and particles of slag, the arc and metal transfer is not very clear and thus welding
control in this process is a bit difficult as compared to MIG welding.

Applications
■ Almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can be welded by this process.
■ SMAW is used both as a fabrication process and for maintenance and repair jobs.
■ The process finds applications in (a) Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications; (b) Ship
building; (c) Pipes and Penstock joining; (d) Building and Bridge construction; and (e) Automotive
and Aircraft industry, etc.
Shielded Gas Arc Welding Vs Flux Core Arc Welding
1. See a video from weldnotes youtube channel on FCAW
Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW)
• In submerged-arc welding (SAW), the weld arc is shielded by a granular flux consisting of lime, silica,
manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds. The flux is fed into the weld zone from a
hopper by gravity flow through a nozzle. The thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal. It
prevents spatter and sparks and suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes characteristic of
the SMAW process. The flux also acts as a thermal insulator by promoting deep penetration of heat into
the workpiece. The unused flux can be recovered (using a recovery tube), treated, and reused.

• The consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire 1.5 to 10 mm in diameter; it is fed automatically
through a tube (welding gun). Electric currents typically range from 300 to 2000 A. The power supplies
usually are connected to standard single- or three-phase power lines with a primary rating up to 440 V

• Because the flux is gravity fed, the SAW process is limited largely to welds in a flat or horizontal
position having a backup piece. Circular welds can be made on pipes and cylinders-provided that they
are rotated during welding.

• SAW is automated and is used to weld a variety of carbon and alloy steel and stainless-steel sheets or
plates at speeds as high as 5 m/min. The quality of the Weld is very high-With good toughness, ductility,
and uniformity of properties. The SAW process provides very high welding productivity, depositing 4 to
10 times the amount of Weld metal per hour as the SMAW process. Typical applications include
thick-plate Welding for shipbuilding and for pressure vessels.
Electrode

The prefix “E” designates arc welding electrode. The suffix (Example: EXXXX-A1) indicates the
The first two digits of four-digit numbers and approximate alloy in the weld deposit:
the first three digits of five-digit numbers -A1 0.5% Mo
indicate minimum tensile strength: -B1 0.5% Cr, 0.5% Mo
E60XX 60,000 psi -B2 1.25% Cr, 0.5% Mo
E70XX 70,000 -B3 2.25% Cr, 1% M0
E110XX 110,000 -B4 2% Cr, 0.5% M0
The next-to-last digit indicates position: -B5 0.5% Cr, 1% Mo
EXX1X All positions -C1 2.5% Ni
EXXZX Flat position and horizontal fillets -C2 3.25% Ni
The last two digits together indicate the type of -C3 1% Ni, 0.35% Mo, 0.15% Cr
covering and the current to be used. -D1 and D2 0.25-0.45% Mo, 1.75% Mn
-G 0.5% min. Ni, 0.3% min. Cr, 0.2% min. Mo,
0.1% min. \L 1% min. Mn (only one element
required)
Electrode

Role of Electrode Coatings:

Electrodes are coated with claylike materials that include silicate binders and powdered materials, such
as oxides, carbonates, fluorides, metal alloys, cotton cellulose, and wood flour. The coating, which is
brittle and takes part in
complex interactions during welding, has the following basic functions:
• Stabilize the arc.
• Generate gases to act as a shield against the surrounding atmosphere; the gases produced are
carbon dioxide, water vapor, and small amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
• Control the rate at which the electrode melts.
• Act as a flux to protect the weld against the formation of oxides, nitrides, and other inclusions and,
with the resulting slag, to protect the molten-weld pool.
• Add alloying elements to the weld zone to enhance the properties of the joint among these
elements are deoxidizers to prevent the weld from becoming brittle.
Submersed Arc Welding (SAW)
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
■ High deposition rates (over 45 kg/h) have been reported)
■ Deep weld penetration and Sound welds are readily made
■ High speed welding of thin sheet steels at over 100 in/min (2.5 m/min) is possible
■ Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted
■ Practically no edge preparation is necessary
■ The process is suitable for both indoor and outdoor works.
■ Welds produced are sound, uniform, ductile, corrosion resistant and have good impact value.
■ Single pass welds can be made in thick plates with normal equipment.
■ The arc is always covered under a blanket of flux, thus there is no chance of spatter of weld.
Disadvantages
■ Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and some nickel based alloys;
■ Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions;
■ Normally limited to long straight seams or rotated pipes or vessels;
■ Flux and slag residue can present a health & safety issue;
■ Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.
Applications
■ Fabrication of pipes, pressure vessels, boilers, structural shapes, rail road and earth moving equipment, cranes and under
structure of railway coaches and locomotives.
■ Automotive, aviation, ship-building and nuclear power industry
■ Rebuilding of worn out parts and depositing wear resisting alloys. Hard facing of tractor rollers and idlers and crane pulleys.
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
• In gas metal-arc welding (GMAW), developed in the 1950s and formerly called metal
inert-gas (MIG) welding, the Weld area is shielded by an effectively inert atmosphere of argon,
helium, carbon dioxide, or various other gas mixtures.

• The consumable bare Wire is fed automatically through a nozzle into the Weld arc by a
Wire-feed drive motor.

• In addition to using inert shielding gases, deoxidizers usually are present in the electrode metal
itself in order to prevent oxidation of the molten-weld puddle.

• Multiple-weld layers can be deposited at the joint. There are four primary methods of metal
transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of which
has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations. (for details 1) (for details
2)

• The temperatures generated in GMAW are relatively low; consequently, this method is suitable
only for thin sheets and sections of less than 6 mm; otherwise incomplete fusion may occur.

• The operation, which is easy to perform, is commonly used for welding ferrous metals in thin
sections. Pulsed-arc systems are used for thin ferrous and nonferrous metals.
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
■ Because of continuously fed electrode, MIG welding process is much faster as compared to TIG
■ It can produce joints with deep penetration
■ Thick and thin, both types of workpieces can be welded effectively
■ Large metal deposition rates are achieved by MIG welding process
■ The process can be easily mechanized
■ No flux is used. MIG welding produces smooth, neat, clean, and spatter free welded surfaces, which require no
further cleaning AND reducing welding cost.
■ Higher arc travel speeds associated with MIG welding reduce distortion considerably.
Disadvantages
■ The process is slightly more complex as compared to TIG because a number of variables (like electrode stick out,
torch angle, welding parameters, type and size of electrode, welding torch manipulation, etc.) are required to be
controlled effectively to achieve good results.
■ Welding equipment is more complex, more costly and less portable
■ Since air drafts may disperse the shielding gas, MIG welding may not work well in outdoor welding applications
■ Weld metal cooling rates are higher than with the processes that deposit slag over the weld metal
Applications
■ The process can be used for welding of carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum, magnesium, copper,
nickel, and their alloys, titanium, etc.
■ For welding tool steels and dies
■ For the manufacture of refrigerator parts
■ MIG welding has been used successfully in industries like aircraft, automobile, pressure vessel, and shipbuilding.
Shielding Gas
The shielding gas, forms the arc plasma, stabilizes the arc on the metal being welded, shields
the arc and molten weld pool, and allows smooth transfer of metal from the weld wire to the
molten weld pool. The primary shielding gasses used are:
■ Argon
■ Argon - 1 to 5% Oxygen
■ Argon - 3 to 25% CO2
■ Argon/Helium

CO2 is also used in its pure form in some MIG welding processes. However, in some
applications the presence of CO2 in the shielding gas may adversely affect the mechanical
properties of the weld.
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Electron beam welding (EBM) is defined as a fusion welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the
heat obtained from a concentrated beam composed primarily of high velocity electrons. As the high velocity
electrons strike the surfaces to be joined, their kinetic energy changes to thermal energy thereby causing the
workpiece metal to melt and fuse.
The electron beam is produced in a high vacuum
environment by an electron gun, usually consisting of a
tungsten or tantalum cathode, a grid or forming
electrode and an anode. A stream of electrons is giving
off from a tungsten filament heated to about 2200oC.
The electrons are gathered, accelerated to a high velocity
and shaped into a beam by the potential difference
between cathode and anode. The beam is collimated by
passing through the field of an electro- magnetic
focusing coil or magnetic lens. Beams typically are
focused to about 0.25 to 1 mm diameter and have a
power density of about 10 kW/mm2, which is sufficient
to melt and vaporize any metal.
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
■ Ability to make welds that are deeper, narrower and less tapered than arc welds with a total heat input much
lower than in arc welding
■ Superior control over penetration and other weld dimensions and properties
■ High welding speeds are common: no filler metal is required; the process can be performed in all positions
and preheating or post heating is generally unnecessary
■ Clean and sound welds
■ Energy conversion efficiency is high, about 65%

Disadvantages
■ The equipment is expensive and high operating cost
■ High cost of precision joint preparation and precision tooling
■ Limitations of the vacuum chamber. Work size is limited b the size of the chamber
■ Production rate and unit welding cost are adversely affected by the need to pump down the work chamber for
each load.
Applications
■ Materials that are difficult to weld by other processes, such as zirconium, beryllium and tungsten can be
welded successfully by this method but the weld configuration should be simple and preferably flat.
■ Narrow weld can be obtained with remarkable penetrations
■ The high power and heat concentrations can produce fusion zones with depth-to-width ratios of 25:1 with
low total heat input, low distortion and a very narrow heat-affected zone
■ Heat sensitive materials can be welded without damage to the base metal.
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
The word LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser beam
welding is defined as a welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from the
application of a concentrated coherent light beam impinging upon the surface to be joined.
The laser crystal (Ruby) is in the form of a cylinder, the ends being flat
and parallel to a high degree of accuracy and silvered to give mirror-
reflecting surfaces. There is a small aperture on the axis of the crystal,
through the mirror at the output end. When the crystal is pumped with
high-intensity white light from a xenon or krypton lamp, the Cr ions in
the crystal get excited. The excited ions posses more energy and some
of it are given as a red fluorescent light. This light is reflected
backward and forward in the crystal between the two ends (mirrors),
striking more Cr ions on the path. These ions affected by the collisions
are each caused to emit their quota of red light. There is a cumulative
effect of the increasing red light existing more and more Cr ions, until
the number of collisions is high enough to cause a burst of red light
through the small aperture in the mirror at the output end of the crystal.
The beam produced is extremely narrow and can be focused to a
pinpoint area by an optical lens.
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
■ Welds can be made inside transparent glass or plastic housings
■ A wide variety of materials can be welded
■ As no electrode is used, electrode contamination or high electric current effects are eliminated
■ Unlike electron beam welding it operates in air, no vacuum is required
■ Laser beam being highly concentrated and narrowly defined produces narrow size of the heat
affected zone
■ It is possible to weld heat-treated alloys without affecting their heat-treated condition
■ Because it is light, it is clean – no vaporized metal or electrodes dirty up the delicate assemblies.
Disadvantages
■ The major drawback to laser beam welds is the slow welding speeds (25-250 mm/min) resulting
from the pulse rates and puddle sizes at the fusion point
■ Laser welding is limited to depths of approximately 1.5 mm and additional energy only tends to
create gas voids and undercuts in the work
■ Most industrial laser are of the CO2 variety and consume considerable amounts of power
■ Reflected or scattered laser beams can be quite dangerous to human eyes.
Applications
■ Laser is a high energy light beam that can both weld and cut the metals
■ For connecting leads on small electronic components and in integrated circuitry in the electronic
industry
■ It is possible to weld wires without removing the polyurethane insulation. The laser simply
evaporates the insulation and completes the weld with the internal wire.
■ Laser beam is used for micro welding purposes. It is particularly suitable for the welding of
miniaturized and microminiaturized components.
Laser Beam Welding (LBW) Application
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used
to join two to four overlapping metal sheets which are up
Force
to 3 mm thick each. In some applications with only two
overlapping metal sheets, the sheet thickness can be up to 6
mm. Two copper electrodes are simultaneously used to Electrode
clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through Current +
the sheets. When the current is passed Weld nugget
electrodes
through the to the sheets, heat is generated in the air gap at
Sheet
the contact points. At the contact points between electrodes
metal
and workpiece the heat dissipates throughout the copper parts
electrodes quickly, sincethe copper is an
excellent
conductor. However at the air gap between metal sheets the
heat has no where to go, as the metal is a poor conductor of
heat by comparison. Therefore the heat remains in the one Electrode
location, which melts the metal at that spot. As the heat Current -
dissipates throughout the workpiece over a second or so, it
cools the spot weld, causing the metal to solidify.
Force
The steps in a spot welding cycle are
F F F

Weld
Electrode Molten nugget
metal

F F F
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
■ Low cost
■ High speed of welding
■ Less skilled worker will do
■ More general elimination of warping or distortion of parts
■ High uniformity of products
■ Operation may be made automatic or semi-automatic, and
■ No edge preparation is needed
Disadvantages
■ The initial cost of equipment is high
■ Skilled persons are needed for the maintenance of equipment and its controls
■ In some materials, special surface preparation is required
■ Bigger job thickness' cannot be welded
Applications
■ Spot welding of two 12.5 mm thick steel plates has been done satisfactorily.
■ Many assemblies of two or more sheet metal stampings that do not require gas tight joints can be
more economically joined by spot welding than by mechanical methods
■ The attachment of braces, brackets, pads or clips to formed sheet-metal parts such as cases,
covers, bases or trays is another application of spot welding.
■ Spot welding finds application in automobile and aircraft industries.
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
Resistance seam welding (RSEW) is a modification of spot welding wherein the electrodes are
replaced by rotating wheels or rollers. Using a continuous AC power supply, the electrically
conducting rollers produce a spot weld whenever. the current reaches a sufficiently high level in
the AC cycle. With a high enough frequency or slow enough traverse speed, these spot welds
actually overlap into a continuous seam and produce a joint that is liquid tight and gastight
Different types of seams produced by electrode wheels
Electrode Individual weld nuggets
Sheet metal
wheel
parts
Overlapping weld
nuggets

V V

Conventional resistance seam welding Roll spot welding

Continuous weld
seam

Continuous resistance seam

Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
■ It can produce gas tight or liquid- tight joints
■ Overlap can be less than for spot or projection welds
■ A single seam weld or several parallel seams may be produced simultaneously

Disadvantages
■ Welding can be done only along a straight or uniformly curved line
■ It is difficult to weld thicknesses greater than 3mm
■ A change in the design of electrode wheels is required to avoid obstructions along the
path of the wheels during welding.
Applications
■ Girth welds can be made in round, square or rectangular parts
■ Except for copper and high copper alloys, most other metals of common industrial use
can be seam welding.
■ Besides lap welds, seam-welding can be used for making butt seam welds too.
Thermit Welding (TW)
Thermit welding differs from other welding processes principally in that the heating is
obtained from the thermit chemical reaction rather than from fire or electric current. A
mixture of a metallic oxide and finely divided aluminum were ignited. The two materials
react exothermically thereby converting the mixture into a superheated mass of the metal
itself and a slag. The superheated metal flows into a mood around the parts to be united and
weld them into one homogeneous mass while the slag overflows on top of the mold. Thermit
welding now finds only limited application, chiefly in the repair of large iron and steel
castings, though it was the traditional method for joining rails on site.
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
■ The heat necessary for welding is obtained from a chemical reaction and thus no costly
power-supply is required. Therefore broken parts (rails etc.) can be welded on the site itself.

Disadvantages
■ Thermit welding is applicable only to ferrous metal parts of heavy sections, i.e., mill housings
and heavy rail sections.
■ The process is uneconomical if used to weld cheap metals or light parts.

Applications
■ For repairing fractured rails (railway tracks).
■ For butt-welding pipes end to end.
■ For welding large fractured crankshafts.
■ For building up worn wobblers.
■ For welding broken frames of machines
■ For replacing broken teeth on large gears.
■ For welding new necks to rolling mill rolls and pinions.
■ For welding cables for electrical conductors.
■ For end welding of reinforcing bars to be used in concrete (building) construction.)
Brazing
• Brazing is a process in which metals are joined by melting a filler metal into the joint to
create strong permanent bonds. Brazing requires a small joint spacing to allow capillary
action to draw the filler metal into the joint when the parts reach the proper phase
temperature above 840°F (450°C).
• Brazing uses flux to strengthen and improve its mechanical properties. Fluxes used in
brazing have three major functions:

• They remove any oxides that form as a result of heating the parts.
• They promote wetting which is the phenomenon whereby a liquid filler metal or flux spreads
and adheres in a thin, continuous layer on a solid base metal.
• They aid in capillary action by pulling the molten alloy into the joint.
• Fluxes are available in many forms, such as solids, powders, pastes, liquids, sheets, rings
and washers. Flux and filler metal combinations are most convenient and easy to use.
Soldering
• Soldering is a process in which metals are joined by melting a filler metal into the joint to
create strong permanent bonds. Soldering may or may not have capillary attraction and is
done at a temperature below 840°F, much lower than welding. This process allows for
different metals to be soldered, including copper, brass and gold, just to name a few.
• Like brazing, soldering uses flux to strengthen and improve its mechanical properties.
• Soldering methods are grouped according to the method with which heat is applied: torch,
furnace, induction, dipped or resistance. Soldering alloys are usually identified by their
major alloying elements. The below chart lists the major types of solder and the materials
they will join.
• While soldering may seem similar to welding, it serves a different purpose. Typically, a
solder is soft and comes in tubes and reels. It’s often used in electronic devices, as it
allows the parts to connect electronically. In general, a soldered bond isn’t as strong as
one that has been brazed or welded—however, it allows for pieces to conduct electricity
Welding Vs Brazing Vs Soldering
Read the article
Zones in a Weld Joint
Weldability
• The weldability of a metal is usually defined as its capacity to be Welded
into a specific structure that has certain properties and characteristics and
will satisfactorily meet service requirements.
• Weldability involves a large number of variables; hence, generalizations are
difficult. As noted previously, the material characteristics (such as alloying
elements, impurities, inclusions, grain structure, and processing history) of
both the base metal and the filler metal are important.
• Carbon Content in Steel (high) Weldability (low)
• Varying types and thickness of coating Weldability varies
Weldability
Weldability of Ferrous Materials:
• Plain-carbon steels: Weldability is excellent for low-carbon steels, fair to good
• for medium-carbon steels, poor for high-carbon steels.
• Low-alloy steels: Weldability is similar to that of medium-carbon steels.
• High-alloy steels: Weldability generally is good under well-controlled conditions.
• Stainless steels: These generally are weldable by various processes.
• Cast irons: These generally are weldable, although their weldability varies greatly.

Weldability of Nonferrous Materials:

• Aluminum alloys: These are weldable at a high rate of heat input. An inert
• shielding gas and lack of moisture are important. Aluminum alloys containing zinc or copper generally
are considered unweldable.
• Copper alloys: Depending on composition, these generally are weldable at a high
• rate of heat input. An inert shielding gas and lack of moisture are important.
• Magnesium alloys: These are weldable With the use of a protective shielding
• gas and fluxes.
• Nickel alloys: Weldability is similar to that of stainless steels. The lack of sulfur is undesirable.
• Titanium alloys: These are weldable with the proper use of shielding gases. ° Tantalum: Weldability is
similar to that of titanium.
Testing of Welds
2 Types: 1. Destructive; 2. Non-destructive
Testing of Welds
2 Types: 1. Destructive; 2. Non-destructive (Refer to chap 36 for details)

• Visual
• Radiographic (X-rays)
• Magnetic-particle
• Liquid-penetrant
• Ultrasonic
joint Design and Process Selection
General design guidelines for welding:
• Product design should minimize the number of welds because, unless automated,
welding can be costly.
• Weld location should be selected so as to avoid excessive stresses or stress
concentrations in the welded structure and for appearance.
• Weld location should be selected so as not to interfere with any subsequent processing
of the joined components or with their intended use.
• Components should fit properly prior to Welding. The method used to prepare edges,
such as sawing, machining, or shearing, also can affect weld quality.
• The need for edge preparation should be avoided or minimized.
• Weld-bead size should be as small as possible, While maintaining the strength of the
joint, to conserve Weld metal and for better appearance.
joint Design and Process Selection
Criteria for selecting a welding process:
• Configuration of the parts or structure to be joined, joint design, thickness and size of
the components, and number of joints required.
• The methods used in manufacturing the components to be joined.
• Types of materials involved, which may be metallic or nonmetallic.
• Location, accessibility, and ease of joining.
• Application and service requirements, such a type of loading, any stresses generated,
and the environment.
• Effects of distortion, warping, discoloration of appearance, and service.
• Costs involved in edge preparation, joining, and postprocessing (including
machining, grinding, and finishing operations).
• Costs of equipment, materials, labor and skills required, and the joining
operation.
joint Design and Process Selection
Weld Design Selection
Defects in Welding
Defects during welding may be caused by the presence of impurities and gases at the
liquification temperature, fast solidification of the weld metal, thermal shock and
microstructural changes. Common defects in welding and their remedies are discussed
below:
Lack of Fusion and Lack of penetration
Porosity and blow holes
Slag inclusions
Cracking
Distortion
Welding profile
Residual stresses
Surface damage

Any of these defects are potentially disastrous as they can all give rise to high stress intensities
which may result in sudden unexpected failure below the design load or in the case of cyclic
loading, failure after fewer load cycles than predicted.
Lack of Fusion and Lack of Penetration
■ To achieve a good quality join it is essential that the fusion zone extends the full thickness of the
sheets being joined. Thin sheet material can be joined with a single pass and a clean square edge
will be a satisfactory basis for a join. However thicker material will normally need edges cut at a V
angle and may need several passes to fill the V with weld metal. Where both sides are accessible
one or more passes may be made along the reverse side to ensure the joint extends the full
thickness of the metal.
■ Lack of fusion results from too little heat input and / or too rapid traverse of the welding torch (gas
or electric).

Porosity and Blow Holes

■ This occurs when gases are trapped in the solidifying weld metal. These may arise from damp
consumables or metal or, from dirt, particularly oil or grease, on the metal in the vicinity of the
weld. This can be avoided by ensuring all consumables are stored in dry conditions and work is
carefully cleaned and degreased prior to welding.
Slag Inclusions
■ These can occur when several runs are made along a V join when joining thick plate using flux
cored or flux coated rods and the slag covering a run is not totally removed after every run before
the following run.
Cracking
■ This can occur due just to thermal shrinkage or due to a combination of strain accompanying
phase change and thermal shrinkage. In the case of welded stiff frames, a combination of poor
design and inappropriate procedure may result in high residual stresses and cracking. Where alloy
steels or steels with a carbon content greater than about 0.2% are being welded, self cooling may
be rapid enough to cause some (brittle) martensite to form. This will easily develop cracks.
■ To prevent these problems a process of pre-heating in stages may be needed and after welding a
slow controlled post cooling in stages will be required. This can greatly increase the cost of welded
joins, but for high strength steels, such as those used in petrochemical plant and piping, there may
well be no alternative.
Distortion
■ While welding a job, base metal under the arc melts, base metal ahead gets preheated and the
base metal portion already welded starts cooling. There is good amount of temperature difference
at various points along the joint and thus at any instant certain areas of the base metal expand
and others including weld bead contract. This phenomena lead to distortion. Distortion is the
change in shape and difference between the positions of the two plates before welding and after
welding. The various factors leading to distortion are:
More number of passes with small diameter electrodes
Slow arc travel speed
Type of joint. A V-joint needs more metal to be deposited to fill the groove as compared to a
U- joint, thus leading to comparatively more distortion
High residual stresses in plates to be welded
Welding sequence being improper. Use of jigs and fixtures, clamps, presetting, wedging, and
proper tacking may minimize distortion.
Welding Profile
■ Weld profile is important not only because of its effects on the strength and appearance of the weld,
but also because it can signal incomplete fusion or the presence of slag inclusions in multiple layer
welds.
Underfilling results when the joint is not filled with the proper amount of weld metal.
Undercutting results from the melting away of the base metal and the consequent generation
of the groove in the shape of a sharp recess or notch. If it is deep or sharp, an undercut can act
as a stress raiser and can reduce the fatigue strength of the joint; in such cases, it may lead to
premature failure.
Overlapping is the surface discontinuity usually caused by poor welding practice and by the
selection of improper materials.
Residual Stresses
■ Because of the localized heating and cooling during welding, expansion and
contraction of the weld area causes residual stresses in the workpiece. Residual
stresses can cause the following defects:

Distortion, warping and buckling of the welded parts

Stress-corrosion cracking
Further distortion, if a portion of the welded structure is subsequently removed
(by machining or by sawing)
Reduced fatigue life.
Surface Damage
• Some of the metal may spatter during welding and be deposited as small droplets on
adjacent surfaces. In arc welding processes, the electrode may inadvertently touch
the parts being welded at places other than the weld zone (arc strikes). Such surface
discontinuities may be objectionable for reasons of appearance or of subsequent use
of the welded part.
Robotic Welding
Robot welding is the use of mechanized programmable tools (robots), which completely automate a
welding process by both performing the weld and handling the part. Processes such as gas metal arc
welding, while often automated, are not necessarily equivalent to robot welding, since a human
operator sometimes prepares the materials to be welded. Robot welding is commonly used for
Resistance Spot welding and Arc Welding in high production applications, such as the Automotive
Industry.
Robot welding is a relatively new application of robotics, even though robots were first introduced
into US industry during the 1960s. The use of robots in welding did not take off until the 1980s,
when the automotive industry began using robots extensively for Spot Welding. Since then, both the
number of robots used in industry and the number of their applications has grown greatly. Cary and
Helzer suggest that, as of 2005, more than 120,000 robots are used in North American industry, about
half of them pertaining to welding. Growth is primarily limited by high equipment costs, and the
resulting restriction to high-production applications.
Robot arc welding has begun growing quickly just recently, and already it commands about 20% of
industrial robot applications. The major components of arc welding robots are the manipulator or the
mechanical unit and the controller, which acts as the robot's "brain". The manipulator is what makes
the robot move, and the design of these systems can be categorized into several common types, such
as the SCARA robot and Cartesian coordinate robot, which use different coordinate systems to direct
the arms of the machine.
Spot welding

Arc welding
Welding Automation with Robots
There are two basic categories of welding automation: semi-automatic and fully automatic
■ Semi-automatic welding occurs when an operator manually loads the part(s) into the welding fixture. The
torch/part motions and welding parameters are controlled by a weld controller to ensure a quality, repeatable
weld. When the weld is completed, the operator removes the completed part and then the process starts over.
■ Fully automatic welding utilizes a custom machine or succession of machines to load the workpiece, place
the part or torch into position, effect the weld, supervise quality control, and then when the product is
finished, unload it. If necessary, additional "part in place" and final product quality checks may be designed
into the machine. The details of the specific operation designate whether a machine operator may or may not
be necessary.
There are many factors that need to be considered when setting up a robotic welding facility. Some of the
consideration for a robotic welding facility are listed below:
■ Accuracy and repeatability
■ Number of axes and Reliability
■ Fixtures
■ Programming
■ Seam tracking systems
■ Maintenance and Controls
■ Weld monitors
■ Arc welding equipment
■ Positioners and Part transfer
Benefits of Automated Welding
Well-engineered welding systems include benefits that range from improved weld
quality to decreased variable labor costs. The foremost advantages are:
Improved Weld Quality: Mechanized welding improves weld integrity and
repeatability.
Increased Output/Volume: Production weld speeds are set by the machine at a
reasonable percentage of maximum. With minimized part set up time, and
higher weld speeds increased output will occur.
Decreased Scrap/Rework: Automating the torch/part motions and part
placement minimizes the error potential.
Decreased Variable Labor Costs: Relying on human welders dramatically
increases a manufacturer's labor costs. A Semi-Automatic system will normally
have at least twice the output of a skilled welder. A fully automatic system with
sufficient stations can run at four times the pace of semi-automatic system or at
eight times the pace of a skilled welder.