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The document is an introduction to the profession of social work, detailing various aspects such as social work education, ethical responsibilities, and the roles of social workers in different fields. It outlines nine competencies required by the Council on Social Work Education and provides links to various editions of related eBooks. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of understanding diversity, human rights, and social justice in social work practice.

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Empowerment Series: An Introduction to the Profession of Social Work - eBook PDF instant download

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Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy
and Accreditation Standards by Chapter
The Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards requires
all social work students to develop nine competencies and recommends teaching and assessing 31
related component behaviors, listed as Educational Policy (EP) Competencies 1–9 below. Multicolor
icons and end-of-chapter “Competency Notes” connect these important standards to classwork in
the chapters identified below.

Competencies and Practice Behaviors

The Nine Competencies and 31 Component Behaviors (EPAS, 2015):
Competency 1—Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior: 1, 5, 13, 14
a. Make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, 1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
relevant laws and regulations, models for ethical decision making, ethical conduct
of research, and additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context.
b. Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain 1, 5, 6
professionalism in practice situations.
c. Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, 1, 6, 9, 12
and electronic communication.
d. Use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes.
e. Use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior.
Competency 2—Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice: 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
a. Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 14
in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels.
b. Present themselves as learners, and engage clients and constituencies as experts 5, 6, 11
of their own experiences.
c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal 1, 2, 5, 6, 7
biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies.
Competency 3—Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic,
and Environmental Justice:
a. Apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to 1, 3, 4, 8, 11, 13
advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels.
b. Engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice. 4, 5, 10, 11, 13
Competency 4—Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice
a. Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research. 1, 10
b. Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative
research methods and research findings.
c. Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, 1, 6, 10, 12, 14
and service delivery.
Competency 5—Engage in Policy Practice: 11
a. Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal levels that impacts well-being, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
service delivery, and access to social services.
b. Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access 4, 7, 10, 11
to social services.
c. Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that
advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice.
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CENGAGE EMPOWERMENT SERIES

An Introduction
to the Profession of
SOCIAL WORK
B E CO M I N G A C H A N G E A G E N T
SIXTH EDITION

Elizabeth A. Segal
Arizona State University

Karen E. Gerdes
Arizona State University

Sue Steiner
California State University Chico

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018

1 What Is Social Work? 1

Social Work as a Profession 2
Who Are Social Workers? 3
Box 1.1 More About . . . Social Work 5
Social Work Education 6
Box 1.2 More About . . . Social Work Education Criteria 6
Box 1.3 What Do You Think? 6
Central Concepts and Theories 7
Person in Environment Concept 7
Theoretical Basis for Social Work Practice 8
Box 1.4 What Do You Think? 12
Box 1.5 More About . . . NASW Standards and Indicators for Cultural
Competence in Social Work Practice 13
The Power of Language 14
Box 1.6 Point of View 16
Box 1.7 What Do You Think? 18
Social Work Values and Ethics 18
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities 19
Box 1.8 Ethical Practice . . . Helping Clients 20
Box 1.9 From the Field: Herman’s Rights or Worker Safety? 21
Social Work Careers 21
Child Welfare: Working with Children and Their Families 21
Box 1.10 What Do You Think? 22
People Who Are Older 22
Health Care/Medical Social Work 22
Mental Health 23
School Social Work 23
Substance Abuse 23
Violence, Victims, and Criminal Justice 24
Crisis, Trauma, and Disasters 24
Military Social Work 24
Public Welfare 24
Community Organization 25
Policy Practice 25
Management/Administration 25

Rural Social Work 25

International Social Work 26
Is Social Work for You? 26
Personal Characteristics Suited to Social Work Practice 26
Social Workers as Change Agents 28
Box 1.11 Becoming a Change Agent 29
Box 1.12 What Do You Think? 30
Choosing Social Work as a Career 30
Conclusion 30

2 The History of the Social Welfare System and the Social Work
Profession 37
How the Social Welfare System Helps People 39
Box 2.1 What Do You Think? 41
The History of US Social Welfare 41
Colonial Period 41
Pre–Civil War Period 43
The Civil War and Post–Civil War Period 43
The Progressive Era 44
The Great Depression and the New Deal 46
World War II and the Postwar Economy 47
The Social Reform Years 48
The Retrenchment Years 49
Social Welfare in the New Millennium: Terrorism, War, Financial Struggles,
and Recovery 50
Box 2.2 Becoming a Change Agent 53
Major Social Welfare Programs 53
Cash Assistance Programs 55
In-Kind Benefit Programs 56
Box 2.3 What Do You Think? 56
The History of the Social Work Profession 57
Charity Organization Societies 58
Box 2.4 More About . . . Mary Richmond 58
Settlement Movement 59
Box 2.5 More About . . . Jane Addams 59
Values, Social Welfare, and Social Work 62
Are Recipients Worthy or Unworthy? 63
Religious Values or Separation of Church and State 63
Box 2.6 Ethical Practice . . . Abortion 64
Should We Change the Person or the System? 64
Impartial Professional or Advocate 64
Helping People We Know or Helping Strangers 65

Crisis or Ongoing Need 65

Box 2.7 What Do You Think? 65
Conclusion 66

3 Poverty and Economic Disparity 71

Defining Poverty 72
Box 3.1 What Do You Think? 73
The Official Definition of Poverty 73
Who Is Poor in America? 74
The Causes of Poverty 75
Values and Blaming the Victim 76
Box 3.2 From the Field: The Faces of Poverty 77
Box 3.3 What Do You Think? 77
Employment and Income Levels 78
Jobs 78
Income Distribution 79
Race 80
The Costs of Poverty 81
Homelessness and Housing 81
Personal Costs 83
The Roles of Social Workers 83
Box 3.4 Becoming a Change Agent 84
Social Welfare Programs 85
Supplemental Security Income 85
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families 85
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program 88
Psychosocial Interventions 89
Advocacy 90
Box 3.5 Ethical Practice . . . Self-Sufficiency or Neglect? 90
Conclusion 91

4 Human Rights and Social and Economic Justice 97

What Is Social Justice? 99
Social Work’s Mandate for Social Justice 100
Barriers to Social Justice 101
Box 4.1 More About . . . Oppression and Violence 102
Box 4.2 What Do You Think? 103
Box 4.3 Becoming a Change Agent 104
Box 4.4 From the Field: Doing My Civic Duty 107
Explanations of Social Injustice 109
Biological Determinism 109
The Socialization Process 109
Psychological Perspectives 110

Sociological Perspectives 110

Models of Intergroup Relations 111
Overcoming Social Injustice 112
Civil Rights 112
Protection from Discrimination 112
Civil Rights for Lesbians, Gay Men, Bisexuals, and Transgender Persons 114
Hate Crimes Prevention Act 115
Affirmative Action 116
Immigration Rights 117
Refugees 118
Social Work Roles in Fighting Social Injustice 119
Box 4.5 More About . . . Social Work’s Commitment to Social Justice 119
Box 4.6 Ethical Practice . . . Social Justice 120
Social Justice and Civil Rights in the Twenty-First Century 120
Conclusion 121

5 Dimensions of Diversity 127

Social Construction of Differences 128
Diversity in the United States 130
Historical Background 132
Exploration and Colonization 132
Forced Relocation and Enslavement 133
Expansion into Mexico 133
Immigration 134
Refugee Status 134
Undocumented or Unauthorized Immigrants 135
Implications for Social Work Practice 135
Influence of History 135
Barriers to Service 136
Box 5.1 From the Field: Cultural Divide 137
Box 5.2 What Do You Think? 137
Cultural Competency 138
Multiculturalism 138
Box 5.3 What Do You Think? 139
Ecological Framework 139
Empowerment Practice 140
Achieving Cultural Competency 140
Awareness of Self 140
Understanding Cultural Differences 141
Box 5.4 More About . . . Core Values for Working with Diverse Populations 142
Stages of Cultural Understanding 142
Box 5.5 What Do You Think? 143
Cultural Humility 143
Box 5.6 Ethical Practice . . . Racism 144
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
viii CONTENTS

Emerging Issues 144

Civil Rights for LGBT People 144
Box 5.7 Becoming a Change Agent 145
Multiethnic or Transracial Adoptions 146
Redress or Reparations for Past Social Injustices 146
Threats to Religious Tolerance 146
Environmental Justice 147
New Research on Human Diversity and Genetic Makeup 147
Conclusion 148

6 Generalist Social Work Practice 155

Box 6.1 More About . . . Generalist Social Work Practice 157
Box 6.2 More About . . . Levels of Practice 157
A Theoretical Framework for Generalist Social Work Practice 158
Ecological Systems Framework 158
The Strengths and Diversity Perspectives 159
Historical Influence of Theories of Human Behavior
in Social Work Practice 160
Psychodynamic Theory 160
Cognitive Behavioral Theory 161
Crisis Theory and Crisis Intervention 162
Mindfulness-Based Theories and Therapies 163
Generalist Social Work Practice with Individuals and Families 164
Case Management 164
Engagement and Assessment 165
Box 6.3 More About . . . Empathy 166
Intervention 167
Monitoring and Evaluation 168
Family Intervention 168
Ethical Challenges in Working with Individuals and Families 169
Box 6.4 From the Field: Using Multiple Practice Skills 170
Box 6.5 Ethical Practice . . . Doing Two Things at Once? 172
Generalist Social Work Practice with Groups 172
The Unique Challenges of Rural Social Work 173
Other Types of Groupwork 174
Support Games 174
Self-Help Groups 174
Social Action Groups 175
Ethical Challenges in Working with Groups 175
Box 6.6 What Do You Think? 175
Community Practice 176
Roles 177
Box 6.7 More About . . . The Goals of Organizing 177
Models of Community Practice 178
Neighborhood and Community Organizing 178
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CONTENTS ix

Functional Organizing 179

Community Social and Economic Development 179
Social Planning 179
Program Development and Community Liaison 180
Political and Social Action 180
Coalition Building 180
Ethical Challenges in Working with Communities 181
The Role of a Global Perspective in Generalist Practice 182
Box 6.8 From the Field: Social Work Takes Many Forms of Practice 183
Box 6.9 Becoming a Change Agent 185
Conclusion 185

7 Child Welfare: Working with Children and Their Families 191

The Importance of Theory 192
Box 7.1 What Do You Think? 193
Theories of Child Development 193
Ecological Approach 194
Box 7.2 More About . . . Systems and Children 195
Human Development 195
Prenatal 195
Infancy 195
Preschool Years 196
Middle Childhood 196
Adolescence 196
Other Theories 197
The Child Welfare System 197
Historical Background 197
Box 7.3 Point of View 199
Child Welfare 199
Child Protective Services (CPS) 200
Juvenile Justice 201
The Roles of Social Workers 201
Case Management 201
Direct Practice 201
Box 7.4 From the Field: Learning from a Child 202
Box 7.5 What Do You Think? 203
Advocacy and Policy Building 203
The Intervention Process 204
Referral 204
Assessment and Engagement 206
Determining Intervention Strategies 207
Planning and Implementation 208
Termination 208
Values and Ethics 209

Respect for the Dignity and Uniqueness of the Individual 209

Respect for Self-Determination 210
Respect for Confidentiality 210
Critical Issues Facing Children and Families 211
Child Maltreatment 211
Box 7.6 Ethical Practice . . . Child Welfare 211
Box 7.7 Becoming a Change Agent 212
Foster Care 213
Substance Abuse 214
Decisions About Sexual Behavior 215
Trauma 215
Delinquency 216
Poverty 216
Immigration 217
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity 217
Box 7.8 What Do You Think? 217
Working with Children and Families from a Strengths Perspective 218
Conclusion 218

8 Gerontology: Working with People Who Are Older 225

Box 8.1 More About . . . Age Discrimination 227
Human Development within the Social Context 227
Biological and Physiological Aspects of Aging 227
Cognitive Process and Emotional/Psychological Development 228
Sociological Aspects of Aging 229
Legal, Economic, and Political Aspects 229
Social Work Practice with People Who Are Older 230
Historical Background 230
Current Context 232
Box 8.2 More About . . . the Group of People Who Are Older 233
Diversity 234
Critical Public Policies 236
The Roles of Social Workers 237
Current Practice Interventions 237
Older People at Risk 239
Values and Ethical Issues 241
Box 8.3 Point of View 243
Box 8.4 What Do You Think? 243
Critical Issues and Emerging Concerns 244
Medicare Drug Prescription Benefit and the Affordable Care Act 245
Box 8.5 Ethical Practice . . . High Cost of Care 245
Elder Abuse and Neglect 246
Box 8.6 From the Field: Quality of Life 248
Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia 249
Mental Health and Depression 250
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CONTENTS xi

Caregivers for Aging Parents 251

Grandparents Caring for Grandchildren 252
Box 8.7 Becoming a Change Agent 253
Conclusion 254

9 Health Care Services 261

Health Care in America 262
Defining Health 263
The US Health Care System 264
Historical Background 264
Health Care Reform: 1960s 265
Health Care Reform: 1990s 266
Health Care Reform: The States 267
Health Care Reform: The Obama Administration 267
The Republican House of Representatives American Health Care
Act of 2017 268
The Current Health Care System 269
Box 9.1 What Do You Think? 270
Limitations of the Current Health Care System 270
Box 9.2 Point of View 271
The Roles of Social Workers 272
Acute Care 273
Box 9.3 From the Field: Helping to Find the Problem 273
Box 9.4 What Do You Think? 275
Ambulatory Care 276
Long-Term Care 276
Developmental Disabilities 277
Social Work Values and Ethics in Health Care Settings 278
Critical Issues 280
Disability 281
Box 9.5 More About . . . the Americans with Disabilities Act 282
HIV/AIDS 282
Box 9.6 Ethical Practice . . . Confidentiality or Health Safety? 283
Medical Use of Marijuana 283
Diabetes 283
Box 9.7 Becoming a Change Agent 284
Conclusion 285

10 Mental Health Services 291

Mental Health and Mental Illness 293
Box 10.1 More About . . . Mental Disorders 294
Biological and Psychological Factors 295
Social Factors 296

The Mental Health Care System 297

Historical Background 297
The Current System 299
Fragmentation of the System 299
Managed Care 300
Deinstitutionalization 301
Criminalization 301
Community Treatment 301
Multidisciplinary Aspects of Mental Health Care 302
Box 10.2 Point of View 303
Box 10.3 What Do You Think? 304
Social Work Practice in Mental Health Settings 304
Social Work Roles 307
Treatment 307
Family Therapy 309
Psychotherapy Groups 309
Online Therapy 310
Culturally Responsive Practice 311
Strengths Perspective 312
Box 10.4 From the Field: Working with People Living with Serious Mental
Illness 313
Box 10.5 What Do You Think? 314
Obstacles to Treatment 314
Box 10.6 Becoming a Change Agent 315
Box 10.7 Katie A. and Increased Collaboration 316
Policy Issues 316
Mental Health Issues and the Military 317
Values and Ethics 318
Box 10.8 Ethical Practice . . . Cost or Care? 319
Conclusion 320

11 School Social Work 327

The History of School Social Work 329
School Social Work Roles and Skills 330
Responsibilities of School Social Workers 331
Working with Students at Risk 332
Box 11.1 From the Field: Social Work Persistence 335
Box 11.2 What Do You Think? 336
Knowledge and Skills 337
Box 11.3 From the Field: Experiencing School Social Work 338
Box 11.4 What Do You Think? 339
Box 11.5 More About . . . School Social Work Credentials 339
Critical Public Policies 340

Students with Disabilities 340

Poor and Homeless Students 341
Diversity 343
Multicultural Education 343
Bilingual Education and Immigration 344
Students Who Are Deaf or Hearing Impaired 345
Box 11.6 Becoming a Change Agent 346
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Students 347
Social Work Values and Ethics 347
Box 11.7 More About . . . School Social Work Standards 348
Challenges Facing School Social Workers 349
Violence Prevention 349
Teenage Pregnancy and Disease Prevention 350
Tobacco, Alcohol, and Illicit Drug Prevention 351
Dropout Prevention 352
Box 11.8 Ethical Practice . . . Confidentiality with Teens 352
Conclusion 353

12 Substance Abuse 361

Substance Abuse and Human Development 364
Types of Drugs 365
Box 12.1 More About . . . Alcoholism 365
Dependence and Addiction 369
Sugar and Caffeine Addiction 369
Box 12.2 More About . . . Criteria in the DSM-5 for Diagnosis of Substance
Use Disorders 370
Causes of Dependence and Addiction 371
Substance Abuse Treatment and Prevention 372
Historical Background 372
Current Context 374
The Role of the Social Worker 375
Box 12.3 From the Field: The Case of Twyla 377
Diversity Issues and Populations at Risk 378
Women 378
African Americans 379
Latino Populations 380
Indigenous People 382
The LGBT Community 383
Social Work Values and Ethics 384
Should Drug Use during Pregnancy Be Prosecuted? 384
Box 12.4 What Do You Think? 385
Are Needle Exchange Programs Ethical? 385
Should Some Drugs Be Legalized? 385
Box 12.5 What Do You Think? 386

Emerging Issues and Future Concerns 386

AOD Problems in the Workplace 386
The Opioid Epidemic 387
Drugs and HIV/AIDS 388
Criminalization or Treatment 389
Box 12.6 Ethical Practice . . . Punishment or Treatment? 390
Steroids and Human Growth Hormone 391
Conclusion 391
Box 12.7 Becoming a Change Agent 391

13 Violence, Victims, and Criminal Justice 399

Violence, Crime, and Punishment in the United States 400
The Criminal Justice System 401
The Extent and Variety of Crime in the United States 401
Theories of Criminal Behavior Relevant to Social Work 402
Individualistic Theories 402
Sociological Theories 404
Box 13.1 What Do You Think? 405
Theories and Social Work 405
The Criminal Justice System 406
Racial Imbalance 407
Women 408
Box 13.2 What Do You Think? 409
Inmates with Disabilities 409
Inmates with Chronic Health Problems 409
Undocumented Immigrants and Crime 410
Social Work Roles and Skills 412
Historical Background 412
Practice Settings 414
Juvenile and Family Courts 414
Juvenile Corrections 415
Adult Corrections 417
Probation, Parole, and Community Corrections 418
Victim Assistance Services 420
Box 13.3 More About . . . Victim Assistance 421
Policy Issues 421
Juvenile Offenders 422
Box 13.4 What Do You Think? 422
Domestic Violence 423
Box 13.5 What Do You Think? 424
Box 13.6 From the Field: An Unexpected Journey 424
Crime and Mental Illness 425
Overcriminalization and Privatization 426
The Death Penalty 426

Box 13.7 The Case of Cameron Todd Willingham: Is the System

Too Fallible? 427
Box 13.8 Becoming a Change Agent 429
Victims’ Rights 429
Box 13.9 Ethical Practice . . . Rehabilitation or Punishment? 430
Ethics and Values 431
Conclusion 431

14 Crisis, Trauma, and Disasters 439

What Do We Mean By Crisis, Trauma, and Disaster? 441
Box 14.1 What Do You Think? 442
Stress 442
Trauma 444
Box 14.2 More About . . . Trauma A Unique Approach to Recovery from Trauma 445
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 446
Box 14.3 More About . . . PTSD 447
Disasters—Natural and Human Made 448
Terrorist Attacks on American Soil—September 11, 2001 449
The Unexpected Nature of Disasters 450
Box 14.4 Becoming a Change Agent 451
International Events 452
The Iraq War 453
Secondary Traumatic Stress 453
Social Work Practice 454
Box 14.5 From the Field: We Didn’t Start the Fire 455
Micro-Level Interventions 456
Techniques for Reducing Stress 458
Mindfulness and stress 458
Cognitive-behavioral therapy 458
Emerging techniques—Energy Psychology and Trauma-Releasing Exercises 459
Pharmacological Treatment 460
Macro-Level Interventions 460
Prevention 462
Military Social Work 463
Social Work Values and Ethics 464
Conclusion 465

APPENDIX NASW Code of Ethics 473

Glossary 495
Index 503

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Preface
The twenty-first century has been a time of extraordinary social and economic
changes. Hillary Clinton was the first female nominated by a major politi-
cal party to run for president. She lost to the Republican candidate Donald
Trump, who was elected as the 45th president. The first African American pres-
ident served two terms in office. America experienced the steepest economic
recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s gripped the nation for
18 months. Major health care legislation was passed, after decades of political
debate and arguments, legislation that is now being challenged by the Repub-
licans in Congress. More Americans struggle against poverty; an opioid epi-
demic has swept the nation; and many face oppression and violence. Millions
live without adequate wages, health care, food, or education. The threat of
international and domestic terrorism still lingers and challenges us to make
our lives safer without turning to hate, bigotry, or repression. Social workers
are called on to address these challenges.

Why We Wrote This Book

As social work educators, we are charged with preparing a new generation of
practitioners trained to help individuals, families, and communities develop and
expand the strengths they need to address their problems. Today’s social workers
face these challenges during a time of budget constraints and vocal distrust of
government and public social welfare efforts. The task of introducing students to
our changing and demanding world often begins in social work classes.
Introductory social work courses attract a variety of students. Most are drawn
to the profession because they want to help people. An Introduction to the Profes-
sion of Social Work: Becoming a Change Agent provides a foundation of knowledge
about social work practice that prepares students for future social work classes
and more advanced study. This book also introduces students to the process of
becoming change agents. Although wanting to help people is critical for any-
one working in human services, there is much more to becoming a professional
social worker. The book provides students with information about the breadth
of social work practice and what it means to be a social worker, helping them
determine whether social work is a good fit for them. Therefore, the book is de-
signed to encourage knowledge building and self-exploration, both of which are
essential to developing good social work practice.

Content of the Chapters

An Introduction to the Profession of Social Work: Becoming a Change Agent, like many
other textbooks, informs students about what it means to be a professional so-
cial worker. Unlike some other books, it also instills interest and enthusiasm in
students about pursuing a social work career and encourages students to take an
xvi

active role in changing social conditions for the better. The chapters include de-
tailed, first-person stories by social work practitioners, who describe daily work
in their areas of expertise and highlight cases that illustrate their work. The sto-
ries show the many sides of social work practice. The chapters also include “More
about . . .” and “Point of View” boxes with additional details and differing points
of view on topics of interest. Each chapter includes a box featuring an ethics di-
lemma, an exercise in how to become a change agent, and a concluding section
on how to put into practice the concepts presented.
Pedagogically, the book includes several aids to learning and teaching.
Besides the boxed material, the book features challenging but uplifting case
examples. Some of them remind us why we do this type of work; others end
less positively and make us wonder how to make a difference. The stories give
students a very real picture of social work practice and help them better un-
derstand what it is like to be a social worker. Each chapter is followed by a
conclusion and a list of key terms. Each term is set in bold type in the chapter
and is also defined in the glossary at the end of the textbook

New to This Edition

The authors added five to six student learning objectives at the beginning of
each chapter. In addition, similar to the way CSWE core competencies are in-
tegrated throughout the text, symbols are used to connect the learning objec-
tives with specific parts of the text.
The new edition includes content on the broad-ranging changes in
health care, human rights, education, immigration, and other policy ar-
eas that have been put in motion since the 2016 election that will likely
affect social work practice. In Chapter 4, “Human Rights and Social and
Economic Justice,” content on current human rights challenges have been
added, including a discussion of the record numbers of refugees seeking
asylum in the United States and elsewhere, the increasing numbers of hate
crimes throughout the United States, and the expanding and contracting
rights based on gender identity.
Chapter 5, “Dimensions of Diversity,” offers an updated examination of
the shifting demographic patterns in the United States and the likely impact
they will have on social work related policy and practice and a new section on
“Threats to Religious Tolerance” that became a growing concern in 2017.
In Chapter 6, “Generalist Social Work Practice,” there is an added focus on
mindfulness-based theories and interventions, including mindfulness-based
cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction.
Chapter 9, “Health Care Services,” includes all the latest information
about the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, more commonly known
as the Affordable Care Act (ACA) or Obamacare. Students will be able to com-
pare Obamacare to the latest Republican-sponsored health care plans, includ-
ing the repeal of Obamacare, that have thus far not passed in Congress.
Chapter 10, “Mental Health Services,” now includes an expanded focus
on the recovery model that is widely used in public mental health nationwide.
And in Chapter 12, “Substance Abuse,” the authors have included all the latest

information about the opioid epidemic, including new case examples. Every
day in the United States 100 men and women die from opioid overdoses.
Chapter 14, “Crisis, Trauma, and Disasters,” now includes a trauma-
informed practice perspective. The chapter is designed to help students un-
derstand that clients may be survivors of trauma and therefore social workers
need to create a safe environment for clients to explore their trauma.

Pedagogical Features
In addition to the learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter, the book
functions well as a textbook and workbook. Brief questions are interspersed
throughout the chapters to encourage students to engage more deeply with the
material. At the end of each chapter are questions that can be used for full-class
or small-group discussions or on examinations. The questions are based on the
material presented in the chapter; they encourage students to obtain additional
information and explore their thoughts about important issues. The chapters
end with exercises that are designed as group or individual assignments. Many
are experiential and emphasize self-exploration as well as a review of the mate-
rial presented in the chapter. There is also a set of ancillary materials, includ-
ing exercises linked to the EPAS core competencies, an instructor’s test bank, and
practice questions for students. At the end of the course, each student will have
a compendium of exercises that help put into practice the material presented in
the book and reflect the new CSWE core competencies.
We have deliberately included more exercises than can be done in the avail-
able time in order to provide choice and flexibility. Instructors and students can
choose which exercises to complete, or individuals or groups can work on different
exercises and report back to the class on their findings. The exercises can be used
to stimulate discussions or can be semester-long assignments. The discussion ques-
tions, change agent activities, exercises, and stories challenge students to explore
the concepts introduced in the text and relate them to their own interests.
This book was developed from our combined years of practice experience
and teaching of introductory social work courses. We are appreciative of all
the assistance we received from colleagues, especially those who helped write
some of the chapters, and from the professional social workers who shared
their experiences. We are also grateful to our students who, over the years,
have let us know what does and does not work in the classroom. In particular,
we thank the students who reviewed chapters and provided valuable insights
from the perspective of the target audience.
An introductory textbook cannot thoroughly cover all the topics impor-
tant to all social workers. Therefore, the responsibility for the content and de-
sign of this book rests solely with the authors. We hope that students and
instructors alike will find An Introduction to the Profession of Social Work: Becom-
ing a Change Agent useful, informative, and engaging.

Elizabeth Segal
Karen Gerdes
Sue Steiner

© Heinle Division of Cengage Learning®

LEA RNING O B JEC T IVES

After reading this chapter, students will be able to:

1. Describe and define the profession of social work.
2. Identify the key concepts and theories underlying the profession.
3. Distinguish between different terms used and how those terms reflect meaning.
4. Appraise the importance of values and ethics.
5. Identify professional social work roles and career paths.
6. Assess their own personality in relation to the characteristics that are expected of social
workers and how they might fit in various social work careers.

Jane is a 32-year-old single mother with a 5-year-old son and an 8-year-old daughter.
She has supported her family by working 30 hours a week at a small local grocery
store. Her job performance was excellent, but because of a decline in business, she was
laid off. Now she needs to find a way to support her family. Her low-income neighbor-
hood has very few businesses, and most of her neighbors subsist on small amounts of
earned income and public social service programs.
Jane contacts her local family service agency for advice and direction. “My neigh-
bor said I should come here. I just lost my job, and I have two young kids to support.
My rent is due next week, and I don’t know what to do. Can you help me?”
If Jane came to you, what would you do?
This book will help you identify the resources available to Jane. You will learn
about the skills that the professional social workers at the family social service agency
will draw on to help Jane and her family. Social work is not only about Jane and her
lost job. It is also about neighborhoods and communities. It is about the childhood ex-
periences that have contributed to Jane’s identity and concerns. It is about government
and public policies. This book is a guide to understanding how social workers fit into
all these different areas.
Once you have learned about the resources and skills needed by a professional
social worker, you will be better prepared to decide whether a career in social work
would suit you. You will be ready to choose your next step in pursuing a career in this
ever-changing and diverse field.
This chapter provides an overview of the field of social work. It defines concepts
and terms that are the basis of understanding what social workers do. The structures
in which services are provided and how social work is a part of social change efforts are
also presented. Throughout the chapter and the book, you will explore what it means
to be a social worker and whether a career in social work is right for you.
These notations reflect the link that the material in the book has to the profession-
al accreditation standards of our national organization, the Council on Social Work
Education. You will read more about this organization later in this chapter and how
being accredited reflects the national scope of social work education.

Social Work as a Profession LO 1

The purpose of the social work profession is to promote human and

community well-being. Guided by a person and environment framework,
a global perspective, respect for human diversity, and knowledge based
on scientific inquiry, social work’s purpose is actualized through its quest
EP 3a for social and economic justice, the prevention of conditions that limit
human rights, the elimination of poverty, and the enhancement of the
quality of life for all persons, locally and globally (CSWE, 2015, p. 5).
Many professions participate in promoting and improving human and com-
munity well-being. For example, police officers protect people and improve
safety; lawyers contribute to protecting people’s civil rights; and doctors
strive to save lives and keep people healthy. People who are not profession-
als also help others. Neighbors watch each other’s children or prepare meals
when someone is sick. Volunteers visit the elderly or serve as big sisters or big

brothers. All these efforts are concerned with improving social functioning.
How is the profession of social work unique?
The unique contribution of social work practice is the duality of the profes-
sion’s person and environment mandate: social workers must help society work
better for people and help people function better within society. Helping individ-
uals fit better into their environments, is typically referred to as micro practice, and
EP 6a changing the environment so that it works better for individuals is called macro
practice. In other words, social workers make a commitment through professional
training to help people and to improve society, and to give special attention to the
interactions between people and between people and their surroundings. In some
social work literature you might see the term mezzo practice, which refers to work
with families and small groups. Sometimes it is used to refer to practicing in be-
tween micro and macro, and sometimes you will not see it identified, and practice
with families and small groups is subsumed under micro practice.
A psychologist or counselor would likely focus only on Jane’s anxiety and
depression as a result of losing her job. Although a social worker can also help
Jane deal with anxiety and depression (micro practice), the assistance would not
stop there. The social worker would also connect Jane with local, state, and fed-
eral resources, including Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), food
assistance, job training, and educational programs (again, micro practice). Con-
necting clients with needed resources is one of the most important things a social
worker can do. For this reason, it is critical for social workers to learn about all the
resources available in every community where they work or serve. In addition, if
Jane were unable to get access to a needed resource, such as quality day care, or if
the resource were unavailable in the community, her social worker would advo-
cate for providing the resource and might help create it by campaigning for new
social policies and programs (macro practice). Instead of working only from their
offices and waiting for clients to come to them, social workers are out in the field
trying to change societal structures so that fewer people like Jane will need help.
In addition, social workers “understand how diversity and difference charac-
terize and shape human experience and are critical to the formation of identity”
(CSWE, 2015, p. 7). As a result, we recognize how a culture’s educational, eco-
nomic, and political structures may oppress, marginalize, and alienate some peo-
EP 2 ple while at the same time creating or enhancing privilege and power for others.
Social workers’ keen understanding of societal forms and mechanisms of oppres-
sion has resulted in a strong commitment to human rights, social and economic
justice, and the elimination of poverty. Although other professions may ascribe
to similar ideals and values, there is no other profession that is as engaged and
dedicated to ending injustice, discrimination, and poverty as social work.

Who Are Social Workers?

Professional social workers hold social work degrees from accredited under-
graduate or graduate programs. Baccalaureate social work (BSW) and gradu-
ate social work (MSW) programs are accredited by the Council on Social Work
Education (CSWE) on the basis of whether they meet the criteria discussed later.
Students in CSWE-accredited programs learn the knowledge, values, ethics,

and a variety of intervention techniques or skills to work with individuals,

families, small groups, communities, and organizations in order to solve
problems and create change.
Upon graduation from an accredited social work program, social workers
must comply with state licensing or certification requirements. Most states dis-
tinguish among three levels of social work: (1) BSW, (2) MSW, and (3) MSW
with two years’ postgraduate clinical practice. Applicants must pass the exam-
ination appropriate to their level of practice. For clinical licensure, they must
also complete at least two years of post-MSW practice experience under the
supervision of a licensed clinical social worker.
MSW- and BSW-level social workers engage in micro practice or direct
services to individuals, families, and small groups. They also participate in
macro practice by conducting research into social problems and their solu-
tions; engage in policy analysis and legislative advocacy; administer pro-
grams; and organize people to fight for social change. To effectively address
problems, social workers must help individuals and families function better
and at the same time work to change societal conditions that limit individ-
ual and family functioning. For example, a woman like Jane who has recently
lost her job can benefit from job training and help with interviewing skills
so that she can more easily get a new job. She and others like her can also be
helped by social advocacy efforts to develop new jobs in low-income areas
and by legislative efforts to provide health coverage for the unemployed and
working poor.
In addition to BSW and MSW degrees, there are also two types of doc-
toral-level social work degrees. Students interested in pursuing a doctorate in
social work can either get a doctor of social work (DSW) degree or a doctor
of philosophy (PhD) degree, depending on the school they attend. Although
the DSW was the original social work doctoral degree, the PhD has become
more common over the years. The course work is generally the same in DSW
and PhD programs, though there are recent efforts to make the DSW more of
an advanced clinical practice degree and the PhD more of a research-focused
degree. Social workers holding doctoral degrees generally work as social work
educators, researchers, administrators, or policy analysts.
The desire to help others and change social conditions does not earn a
person professional status as a social worker. The desire must be combined
with the knowledge, values, and skills delivered in one of the 250 graduate
and 511 undergraduate programs accredited by the Council (CSWE, 2017).
Even though other human service practitioners are sometimes referred to as
social workers, if they have not completed an accredited social work program
and met licensure or certification requirements, they are not professional so-
cial workers.
Few careers rival social work for the diversity and wealth of opportunities
offered to practitioners. Social workers operate in a variety of urban and ru-
ral settings, including public and private mental health centers, community
centers, courts, prisons, schools, public welfare offices, the military, hospitals,
nursing homes, businesses, and child welfare offices. They address drug and al-
cohol abuse, mental and physical illness, poverty, violence, lack of community

power, family conflicts, workplace tensions, discrimination, oppression, and

inadequate housing, among other problems (see Box 1.1).
There are currently over 650,000 social workers employed in the United
States (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017). Forty-seven percent of social work-
ers are employed as child, family, or school social workers, and 43 percent
are working in the areas of health or mental health. Employment opportuni-
ties for social workers are expected to grow faster than the average profession,
through 2024. Social workers who specialize in services related to health care
and substance abuse are projected to have the easiest time finding a job due to
growing need in these areas.
The professional organization formed to support and advocate for social
work professionals is the National Association of Social Workers (NASW). The av-
erage NASW member holds a master’s degree in social work, has practiced so-
cial work for 16 years, and earns on average $45,000 annually (NASW, 2017a).
Hospital social workers tend to have the highest median salary ($56,650);
child, family, and school social workers have a median salary of $42,350; and
practitioners in state-funded or public social work positions earn on average
$46,940 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017).

Box 1.1 More About...Social Work

What people think they know about social work is often a Fact
myth. ■■ About one-quarter of all child welfare cases are handled
Myth Most social workers work for the government. by professional social workers.
Fact ■■ About 1 percent of NASW members work in public assistance.
■■ Fewer than 3 percent of all professional social workers ■■ Professional social workers practice in many settings:
work for the federal government. family services agencies, mental health centers, schools,
■■ About a third of all professional social workers are hospitals, corporations, courts, police departments, pris-
employed by federal, state, and local governments ons, public and private agencies, and private practice.
combined. ■■ More than 200 professional social workers hold elective
Myth For therapy you need a psychologist or psychiatrist. office, including one US senator and six representatives
Fact during the 115th Congress.
■■ Professional social workers are the nation’s most nu- Myth Social service employees, caseworkers, and vol-
merous providers of mental health and therapy services. unteers are social workers.
Professional social workers are often the only mental Fact
health care providers serving residents of many poor, ■■ A social worker is a trained professional who has a
rural counties. bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree in social work.
■■ Social work is designated as one of the four core ■■ All states license or otherwise regulate social work
mental health professions under federal legislation practice.
that established the National Institute of Mental
■■ A social service employee, caseworker, or volunteer
Health.
community worker is not a social worker unless she or
Myth Most social workers are employed in public wel- he has a social work degree.
fare or child welfare.
Source: Information drawn from naswdc.org website.

Social Work Education

The social work profession’s unique integration of knowledge from a number
of disciplines with the profession’s own skills, values, ethics, and knowledge
can be seen in the content of social work education. Accredited BSW programs
include relevant material from biology and other social sciences. Most require
students to take economics, political science, human biology, philosophy, psy-
chology, and sociology courses. This material is combined with social work–
specific courses in human behavior and the social environment, research,
practice, and social policy.
In addition, students in accredited BSW programs complete a minimum
of 400 hours of field practicum, and MSW students complete a minimum
of 900 hours. In the field practicum course, students are assigned to a social
service–related agency or organization under the supervision of a social work
practitioner. Field practicum organizations include child welfare agencies,
schools, hospitals, mental health agencies, senior centers, homeless and bat-
tered women’s shelters, and juvenile and adult probation programs, among
others (see Box 1.2).
Many two-year colleges offer social or human service programs in which
students can earn preprofessional degrees. These programs provide important
foundation knowledge and skills that can lay the groundwork for a BSW de-
gree. Students with degrees from two-year programs can work in most areas
of social services. The positions are typically entry level, and they provide ex-
cellent work experience should the preprofessional choose to pursue a BSW
degree. Many students who complete two-year degrees transfer into accredited
BSW programs (see Boxes 1.2 and 1.3).

Box 1.2 More About...Social Work Education Criteria

The criteria for social work education are outlined by provides a report to the accreditation board. The report
the Council of Social Work Education in its “Educational and self-study documents are then reviewed, and a
Policy and Accreditation Standards.” All schools that determination is made whether to grant accredited
wish to be accredited must follow the guidelines. Every status. This process ensures uniform standards for
eight years, programs conduct self-studies and submit training social workers. No matter where you choose to
a comprehensive written portfolio to the CSWE accred- study, as long as it is in a CSWE-accredited program,
itation board. As part of the accreditation process, a your curriculum will reflect the standards and values of
team of social work educators reviews the school and the profession.

Box 1.3 What Do You Think?

What are the differences between a BSW and an MSW type of job a BSW graduate might do compared with an
degree? What is the difference in emphasis between the MSW graduate?
two degrees? How might the different training affect the

Central Concepts and Theories LO 2

Part of what defines a profession is a shared vision, typically referred to as a

mission. The primary mission of social work, according to the membership of
NASW, is

to enhance human well-being and help meet the basic human needs of
all people, with particular attention to the needs and empowerment of
people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty. A historic
and defining feature of social work is the profession’s focus on individual
well-being in a social context and the well-being of society. Fundamental
to social work is attention to the environmental forces that create, con-
tribute to, and address problems in living. (NASW, 2017b, p. 1)

Person in Environment Concept

Several aspects of the mission make the profession unique. One is the focus,
as stated above, on the “needs and empowerment of people who are vulner-
able, oppressed, and living in poverty.” The profession has a clear commit-
ment to working with members of society who are often left behind or left
out. A second unique characteristic is the fact that individuals’ problems are
addressed in combination with the social context. Social workers realize that
they must pay attention to the environment in which people live, and they
work to change the environment so that it functions more effectively for indi-
viduals, families, and communities. This dual view is known as the person-in-
EP 7b, 8b environment perspective (Karls & Wandrei, 1994).
The person-in-environment perspective is what sets social work apart from
other helping professions. The environment is not just the physical place where
people live and their relationships with those who are nearest. It is broader and
includes the culture and beliefs that are part of people’s lives, the impact they
experience as a result of public policies, and the effects of prejudice and oppres-
sion that are part of the larger environment of our society (Langer & Lietz,
2015). If we consider Jane and her family from the person-in-environment per-
spective, we need to ask about relationships between Jane and her extended
family, what living in their neighborhood was like before she lost her job, what
activities the children have been involved in, and what those activities mean to
them. Perhaps Jane and her children belong to a church, a synagogue, or a
mosque that might be a place of support and resources that Jane did not think
of and which her social worker can suggest she consider. Does she have social
connections from her job at the grocery? Or does her former boss have connec-
tions with other businesses that might need someone, and he could recommend
Jane? Are there barriers to opportunities like education so that Jane has not been
able to gain skills that would prepare her for better-paying employment? When
people face a crisis, it is difficult to consider the entire picture, their place in the
larger environment. Social workers are trained to take that perspective. In Jane’s
case, maybe finding a program that will train her for a higher-paying job would
be a long-term plan that could change Jane’s situation.

The importance of understanding problems and directing change efforts at

both the individual and environmental levels is central to good social work prac-
tice. Which approach social workers use depends on where they see problems
originating. If all change efforts are directed at individuals, social workers see the
causes of people’s problems as being inside themselves. If they focus only on the
environment, they believe that the problems begin outside the individual.
Although it is true that some problems lie exclusively within individuals and
others are purely environmental, most problems have multiple causes. Some
causes are individual, whereas others are societal or structural in nature. If social
workers do not address both individual and environmental causes, they will not be
able to solve problems effectively. For example, to help someone who is depressed,
a counselor might immediately engage in therapy and refer the client to a medical
doctor who can prescribe antidepressant drugs. Although these are certainly viable
approaches, the person-in-environment concept dictates also considering whether
something in the person’s environment is contributing to or even causing the de-
pression. If the person lives in poverty, for example, the everyday struggle to sur-
vive might result in depression. Therefore, interventions aimed at reducing poverty
would also be appropriate ways to alleviate the individual’s depression.

Theoretical Basis for Social Work Practice

Social work practice is based on a number of theories developed in a variety of
fields. For example, social workers rely on biological, sociological, anthropo-
logical, and psychological knowledge and theories to help them understand
human development. A theory is “an organized set of ideas that seek to explain
a particular phenomenon,” which can help social workers understand complex
situations (Langer & Lietz, 2015, p. 8). A theory attempts to explain why some-
thing is the way it is. Theories can explain social relationships; for example,
some theories explain why people develop biases against members of other
groups. Theories can also make predictions about the likely outcomes of peo-
ple’s efforts. For example, many types of therapies are based on the theory that
people’s understanding of what happened to them during childhood leads to
improved functioning as adults. A theory must be testable, meaning that re-
search can be conducted to see whether it is accurate. For social work, theories
EP 4c help us practice effectively and understand our profession (Payne, 2014).
Theories help us understand human behavior, which is particularly import-
ant for social workers, who must apply knowledge of human behavior and the
social environment across the life span. Theories alone do not create change,
but social workers apply various theories in practice settings to create desired
change. Social workers use conceptual frameworks to help determine which the-
ories to apply. A conceptual framework combines theories, beliefs, and assump-
tions to help us understand how people interact in their social systems and how
those systems help or block health and well-being. A conceptual framework
gives social workers a basis from which to view situations with clients and pro-
vides guidance for the assessment, intervention, and evaluation process.
Most of the theories used by social workers today developed from a cen-
tral theoretical framework, the general systems theory developed by biologist

The Shannon river forms the most important feature in the inland
navigation of Ireland. For the first 144 miles of this waterway, from
the head of Lough Allen to the sea below Limerick, the Shannon is
like a series of rivers and lakes. Issuing from Lough Allen, it passes
Leitrim, Carrick, Tarmonbury, &c., and then enters, at Lanesborough,
a very irregularly-shaped and extensive sheet of water, called Lough
Ree, about 17 miles in length. Leaving it, the river, now greatly
augmented, passes Athlone, and then winds by Shannon Bridge and
Banagher to Portumna, near which it expands into Lough Derg,
another narrow lake, 23 miles long, with deep bays and inlets. From
the southern extremity of this lake it flows on to Limerick. In this
extent of navigation we have first Lough Allen, 10 miles; thence to
Lough Ree, 43; Lough Ree itself, 17; thence to Lough Derg, 36;
Lough Derg, 23; thence to Limerick, 15; making together 144 miles.
The mean height of Lough Allen above the sea at Limerick is about
143½ feet, being on an average about a foot of declivity per mile.
Instead of the natural fall, however, the water has been reduced by
means of locks to a series of level pools. The estuary or firth of the
Shannon extends south-west about 70 miles beyond Limerick to its
mouth, which is finally about 8 miles wide between Loop Head and
Kerry Head, at the Atlantic.
The direction of the Shannon from Lough Allen to Limerick,
though generally south by south-west, is very circuitous, and broken
by many streams, islands, and rocks. The soundings are as various,
and both banks are liable to be overflowed by the river to a great
extent; and the large expanse of the lakes would require a different
sort of vessel from those which navigate the river. The works which
have been constructed to overcome the natural difficulties of the
navigation are either insufficient or in a state of decay; and it seems
to be generally admitted that very little real good can be effected
until the natural obstructions are removed, the number of lakes
reduced, and the channel deepened and improved in various parts;
though it is still doubted if the navigation would even then be
suitable for anything but steam-vessels. The Shannon connects with
the Royal Canal at Tarmonbury, and with the Grand Canal at
Shannon harbour, near Banagher. At Shannon Bridge it receives on
the west its principal tributary, the Suck; on the east, the Inny, the
Upper and Lower Brosna, Mulkerna, Maig, Fergus, &c.
The Shannon river connects the tide water of the Atlantic in
Limerick with Dublin by two canals, the Grand and the Royal. It
passes by the towns of Limerick, Killaloe, Portumna, Banagher,
Shannon Bridge, Athlone, Lanesboro’, Yarmon, Roosky, Drumsna,
Carrick, Leitrim, and Drumshambo.
The expenditure on the river up to 1878 was 800,738l. The
average cost of maintenance was 3300l., and the total receipts from
tolls during the previous five years was 9510l., being an average
yearly receipt of 1902l. This sum, deducted from the average
expenditure of 3300l., left a net yearly loss of 1398l. At this average
rate for the previous thirty years the money loss by the Shannon
navigation amounts to 41,940l.
The depth of water for this navigation, over 7 feet to 10 feet, is
maintained by eight wholly immovable weir-mounds. These weir-
mounds cause inundations, damaging 24,000 acres of land. This
damage during the last thirty years amounts to more than 100,000l.
In the section between Limerick and Athlone, 68 miles, the average
receipts of tolls for the five years ending 1878 was 1274l. Out of that
sum an engineer and eighteen lock-keepers had to be paid 686l.,
together with repairs, which left from 300l. to 400l. a year profit.
In the section above Athlone, about 80 miles, the average receipt
of tolls in the same five years was 197l., against the annual
expenses of repairs and the salaries of an engineer and ten lock-
keepers, amounting to 385l.
The interests of the Shannon drainage do not, in Mr. Lynam’s
view,[58] require to diminish the minimum depth of water under 5½
feet on the lock sills. These interests require merely that the surface
of the river and lakes shall be kept within a range of 5½ feet to 8½
feet on the sills of all locks from Athlone to Limerick. The bye-laws
made by the Board of Works for the Shannon limit the draught of
boats to 4 feet 10½ inches. The river and locks are maintained by
the weir-mounds at levels that rarely are less than 7½ feet on the
lock sills, and rise in floods to 9 feet.
The Earne and Shannon rivers have three features which render
them, in Mr. Lynam’s opinion, peculiarly easy to regulate their floods,
and prevent inundations. They have large superficial areas of lakes.
Their channels between the lakes are wide and deep, so capacious
as to carry their floods with an inclination of less than an inch a mile.
Their floods rise slowly, 4 inches to 8 inches in twenty-four hours,
very rarely rising 1 foot in twenty-four hours. On the Shannon, all
the mill-weirs and fish-weirs have been purchased and removed, and
all the shoals have been deepened at a cost of 529,716l. The lakes
in the Lough Earne basin have an area of about 50,000 acres. The
shoals and straits, which obstruct the river and cause the
inundations, have an aggregate length of merely 6 miles. Only one
mill-weir (which is the only fish-weir) exists, and it is at the outlet,
where there is a fall of 12 feet. The Shannon basin has lakes of the
superficial area of 87,000 acres. In the length, from the Battle Bridge
above Carrick-on-Shannon to Killaloe Bridge, of 128 miles, the lakes
occupy 50½ miles; the broad, deep channel extends for 73½ miles;
the confined portions of the channel occupy merely 4 miles; the
portions of the channel confined so as to be visible obstructions are
but 2 miles long. Neither mill-weir nor fish-weir stands in the way of
the current. The floods scarcely ever rise 1 foot in twenty-four hours.
The great floods are but 4 feet where deepest on the lands, and
generally but 2 feet deep, and merely 18 inches deep over large
areas. Many damaging floods are not more than 6 inches deep on
the land.
From Lough Allen to the tide of the Atlantic Ocean at Limerick, a
length of 149 miles by the sinuosities of the river, the Shannon has
been made navigable for steamers with a depth of 6 feet of water.
The river lies naturally in eight separate levels, but the lowest, at
Limerick, is very small, and detached from the others by a length of
5 miles and a fall of 90 feet. The upper level, at the outlet from
Lough Allen, has a fall of 20 feet in 6 miles. The lowest level,
between Castleconnell and Killaloe, contains only 641 acres of
lowland, rarely flooded in summer or autumn, and rarely covered by
more than 1½ foot of water. To preserve the land from summer and
autumn floods the surface of the floods must be lowered 2 feet
nearly. A permanently solid embankment, used during many years
for a navigation horse tow-path, extends along one side of the river,
the only openings being four culverts for side drainage.
On the other side of the river there exists a natural ridge, which
is a little higher than the highest floods. It is not continuous, but
interrupted in five places. These circumstances are held by Mr.
Lynam to “render it very easy to protect the lowlands from all
floods.” Very favourable sites exist for back-drains to carry off rain-
water and springs. The 641 acres of lowlands may be thus protected
from summer and autumn floods at a cost of 6000l., being 10l. per
acre. This would allow of winter irrigation also, which the occupiers
of the lands particularly require. The system of river embankments is
much objected to as dangerous, and properly so, when it is
proposed to make high embankments. In this case the required
embankments are in existence for seven-eighths of the required
length, so permanently solid as to be absolutely safe, and the small
portions to be built need not be more than 3 feet to 5 feet high. The
obstructions are a rock-shoal near the middle of the length, an old
bridge with narrow arches and thick piers, and a shoal of solid
limestone rock at the outlet.

Minor Irish Rivers.

The Barrow River has been rendered navigable from the tideway
below St. Mallins up to where it is joined by the Grand Canal at Athy
Bridge, a distance of 43 miles, falling 172 feet. But from Athy to the
mouth of the Barrow, in the estuary of Waterford Harbour, and
through that to St. George’s Channel, the distance exceeds 60 miles.
The Blackwater River, county Cork, is navigable from its mouth at
Youghall up as far as the tide reaches, or at most to Cappoquin.
There is another, and smaller Blackwater, connected with the
Tyrone Canal, and flowing into Lough Neagh.
The Boyne River is navigable from the Bay of Drogheda for 22
miles, up to Trim, in the last 7 miles of which it ascends from Navan
189 feet by means of locks, which are from 80 to 100 feet long and
15 feet wide.
The Corrib River and Lough, or Lake, form a navigable line,
commencing at the mouth of that river, in Galway Bay, and
extending from Galway town in a north-westerly direction for about
24 miles.
The Earne River and Lough, or Lake, are navigable through the
lake from the upper part, where the river enters it, below Belturbet,
till it leaves it again at Enniskillen, where it is obstructed by weirs;
but below the isle on which that town is built the river again expands
into the lower part of the lake, through which it is also navigable.
Thus far the entire distance is about 30 miles, and the navigation is
terminated by a fall, from which the river has a rapid course of 9
miles to Donegal Bay.
It has been proposed to construct a canal from Lough Earne,
beginning near Belturbet, and to follow along the valleys of the Finn
and Blackwater to Lough Neagh.
The Fergus River, county Clare, is navigable from its mouth, in
the Shannon, up to Ennis, the county town.
The Foyle River is navigable for 10 miles from its mouth, in the
estuary of Lough Foyle, below Londonderry, up to Strabane.
The Lagan Navigation commences in the tideway at Belfast, and
proceeds mostly by the course of the rivers as far as Lisburn, from
which it is continued by a canal by Hillsborough and Moira to Lough
Neagh. The total length is 28 miles.
The Lee River is navigable in the tideway up to the city of Cork,
and for small craft somewhat farther. Below Cork, however, the
navigation is principally an arm of the sea called Cork Harbour.
The Liffey River is navigable from its mouth in Dublin Bay for
about 3 miles up to Carlisle Bridge, at the farther end of the city of
Dublin. From the south side of this navigable part proceeds the
Grand Canal, and from the north side the Royal Canal, of which we
shall presently speak.
The Limerick Navigation commences at that city, and proceeds in
a north-easterly direction, partly in the Shannon and partly by
canals, for 15 miles, to Killaloe, at the south end of Lough Derg.
The Moig River, county Limerick, is navigable from its mouth in
the Shannon to near Adare.
The Moy River, county Mayo, is navigable for about 5 miles, from
Killala Bay up to Ballina.
The Neagh Lough, or Lake, being about 20 miles long and 10
broad, is generally of sufficient depth to be navigable to a
considerable extent in every direction. It communicates with Belfast
by the Lagan Navigation, with the Tyrone Collieries by the
Blackwater, with Antrim by the Antrim river, and southward with the
sea by the Newry Navigation.
The Newry Navigation commences in the tideway of Lough
Fathom, 3 miles below Newry, which it passes, and proceeds 16
miles by a canal to the Upper Bann River, in which it continues to
Lough Neagh. The entire length is about 30 miles, generally in a
northerly direction. This, which has always been a very imperfect
navigation, was the first executed in Ireland.
The Slane, or Slaney River, is navigable from its mouth in
Wexford Haven, for 14 miles, to Enniscorthy.
The Suir, or Sure River, unites with the Barrow in the estuary
called Waterford Harbour, about 5 miles below the town, and is
navigable from that up to Carrick for sloops, and to Clonmel for
barges. At the town of Waterford the largest ships lie afloat in 40
feet water.
The Tyrone Colliery Canal commences at the south-west
extremity of Lough Neagh, proceeding by a short cut across the
isthmus of Maghery to the Blackwater River, and, following it a short
way, passes by another cut of 3 miles to the Colliery Basin, from
which a railway extends to the mines.

The Grand Canal.

The Grand Canal was begun in 1765 by a body of subscribers;

but they could not have completed the work without very large
advances from Government. The canal commences at Dublin and
stretches in a westerly direction, inclining a little to the south, to the
Shannon, with which it unites near Banagher, a distance of 85
statute miles, and thence on the west side of the river to Ballinasloe,
4 miles distant. But, exclusive of the main trunk, there is a branch to
Athy, where it joins the Barrow, a distance of about 27 miles, and
there are branches to Portarlington, Mount Mellich, and some other
places. There is also a westerly branch, more recently constructed,
from the Shannon to Ballinasloe, about 14 miles in length. The total
length of the canal, with its various branches, is about 164 English
miles. Its summit elevation is 230 feet above the level of the sea at
Dublin. It is 40 feet wide at the surface, from 24 to 20 feet at the
bottom, has 6 feet depth of water, and cost, in all, about 2,000,000l.
The tonnage on this canal for the eight years ending with 1837
varied from 215,000 to 237,000 tons, while the tolls varied from
33,000l. to 38,000l. The highest part of the canal rises 298 feet
above sea level.
Two errors are said to have been committed in the formation of
the Grand Canal; it was framed on too large a scale for that time,
and it was carried too far north. Had it been 4 or 4½ feet, instead of
6 feet deep, its utility would have been but little impaired, while its
expense would have been very materially diminished.
But the greatest error was in the direction of the canal. Instead
of joining the Shannon about 15 miles above Lough Derg, it should
have joined it below Limerick, and conversely would have avoided
the difficult and dangerous navigation of the upper Shannon. The
canal would then have passed through a comparatively fertile
country, and it would not have been necessary to carry it across the
bog of Allen, in which, says Mr. Wakefield, “the company have buried
more money than would cut a spacious canal from Dublin to
Limerick.” The main line of the Grand Canal is 89 miles long, but
there are branches to Naas, Mount Mellick, Portarlington, and other
places. On the main line there are six locks, each 70 feet by 14½
feet.

The Royal Canal.

The Royal Canal was undertaken in 1789. It stretches westwards

from Dublin to the Shannon, which it joins near Tormanbury. Its
entire length is about 92 miles, exclusive of a branch of 5 miles,
from Kilashee to Longford; its highest elevation is 307 feet above the
level of the sea. At the bottom it is 24 feet wide, and it has 6 feet
depth of water. It had cost, exclusive of interest on stock, loans, &c.,
advanced by Government, in February 1823, 1,421,954l. The tolls
produced in 1826 25,148l., the expenses of the canal for the same
year being 11,912l., leaving only 13,236l. net. The canal has paid
dividends over a number of years, although not on a high scale.
This canal seems to have been wrongly planned, for throughout
its whole course it is nearly parallel to, and not very distant from, the
Grand Canal. There are consequently two large canals where there
ought not to be more than one. It is probable that one canal of
comparatively small dimensions would have been quite enough for
all the business of the district, though it were much greater than it
is, or is likely to become.
Besides the above there are some other canals, as well as
various river excavations in Ireland, but hardly one of them yields a
reasonable return for the capital expended upon it. They have
almost all been liberally assisted by grants of public money, and their
history, and that of the two canals now adverted to, has been said to
strikingly corroborate the caustic remark of Arthur Young, that “a
history of public works in Ireland would be a history of jobs.”

FOOTNOTE
CHAPTER V
[58] ‘The Engineer,’ Oct. 11, 1878.
CHAPTER VI.
PROJECTED CANALS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

“Where of late the kids had cropt the grass,

The monsters of the deep now take their place.”
—Ovid.
Sketch of the Proposed National Canal.
One of the most notable features of the engineering and
commercial development of to-day is the movement, elsewhere
alluded to, for making ship canals with the view of converting inland
towns into seaports. The Manchester Ship Canal, now well advanced
towards completion, undoubtedly gave the first impulse and has
since supplied the impetus to this movement. Whether the
movement will proceed much farther than plans and prospectuses
remains to be seen. But at the present moment the principal
proposals affecting the United Kingdom are—
1. The construction of a National canal, passing
right through from the Bristol Channel to the
Humber on the one side, and from the Thames to
the Mersey on the other.
2. The conversion of the existing waterways into
a ship canal, between Sheffield and Goole.
3. The construction of a ship canal between the
Forth and the Clyde.
4. The construction of a canal from the Irish
Sea to Birkenhead through Wallasey Pool and the
Wirral Peninsula.
5. The construction of a ship canal between the
Mersey and the city of Birmingham, connecting
with the Manchester Ship Canal and the Mersey, by
way of the Weaver Navigation.
6. A canal to connect the city and district of
Birmingham, with the river Trent, and thereby with
the North Sea.
7. An improved waterway between the Midlands
and the Thames.
8. The improvement of the Wiltshire and
Berkshire canal, so as to give better inland water
transport between Bristol and London.

The Forth and Clyde Canal.

The most probable, and at the same time one of the most
important of the foregoing proposals, is that designed to connect the
Forth with the Clyde, thereby enabling vessels of considerable
tonnage to pass from the one sea to the other, without passing
round the further extremity of the island. There is already a canal
between the two seas, but this waterway is too contracted to be of
much use for vessels of any size, and it is not, therefore, proposed
to utilise the existing canal in the new scheme.
The greatest height of the present canal is 141 feet. It is crossed
by about 30 drawbridges, and passes over 10 considerable
aqueducts, and 30 small ones, the largest being that over the Kelvin,
at Maryhill, near Glasgow. The canal is supplied with water from
eight reservoirs, which cover 721 acres. The original cost of the
canal was about 300,000l., and 50 years after its opening the annual
revenue amounted to about 100,000l., and the expenditure to about
40,000l. In 1869, the canal passed into the possession of the
Caledonian Railway Company, when, with the adjoining Monkland
Canal, it was valued at 1,141,000l. The Caledonian Company
undertook to pay an annuity of 91,333l., being a guaranteed
dividend of six and a quarter per cent. It was, however, like many
other similar arrangements made by railway companies in Great
Britain, a very bad bargain for the new proprietors, since the profits
from the working of the canal are now much less than they were.
Messrs. Stevenson, of Edinburgh, who have been consulted as to
the most practicable route for the proposed canal, have
recommended that the canal proper should begin at Alloa on the
Forth, where vessels would be raised by a lock to the level of Loch
Lomond, 13 feet above high water, which would be the summit level
of the canal. The canal would proceed thence along the valley of the
Forth to Loch Lomond, through that loch to Tarbet, and would
afterwards be carried along the narrow neck of land to Loch Long,
or, alternatively, across to the opposite shore of Loch Lomond, near
Arden, and thence into the Forth of Clyde, near Helensburgh. The
average depth of cutting is stated at 47 feet, but there would be a
heavy cutting, some three miles long and 203 feet deep on an
average, which the engineers propose to make a tunnel, with 150
feet of headway. The estimated cost of the work is about
8,000,000l., or much the same as the cost of the Manchester Ship
Canal. The traffic is calculated at 9,516,000 tons, and it is estimated
that at 1s. 6d. per ton, this traffic would yield a gross annual income
of 713,748l. which would be sufficient to yield 8 per cent. after
deducting working expenses, &c. It is proposed to make the canal
30 feet deep, and 72 feet wide at the bottom.
And the route has been recommended for the proposed ship
canal, which is termed the direct route, and which is 27 miles
shorter from Greenock than the proposed Loch Lomond route viâ
Tarbet. This route would start from the Clyde at a point near to
Whiteinch, join the line of the present Forth and Clyde Canal near
Maryhill, and thereafter proceed in the same direction to the junction
of the canal with the Firth of Forth. The shorter route would,
however, be the most difficult, inasmuch as there is a very steep hill
immediately after leaving the Clyde, between Whiteinch and
Maryhill. The height to be surmounted here is not less than 150 feet;
and for a ship canal, which ought to be a tide-level waterway, in
order to be satisfactory, this would be a serious drawback.
It is contended that, being the shortest route between America
and the Baltic, the Continent, and the east coast of Scotland and
England, the through traffic would be considerable. This may be
true, but the gain in time would be reduced materially by the fact
that vessels in coming off the Atlantic would be required to sail up
the long forth (Clyde), and would probably require, particularly if
deeply laden, to wait on the tide to get to Bowling, which is some
distance up the river, or the channel would need to be deepened and
broadened, thus adding to the cost. For channel steamers going
from Ireland, or the west coast of Scotland, England or Wales to the
east coast or the Continent, the canal would be a decided benefit,
for not only would their voyage be shortened, but the rocky and
dangerous coast of the north of Scotland would be avoided. The
canal would pass through the coal and oil districts of Scotland, a fact
which has been adduced in favour of the scheme.
Another consideration which carries much weight is the facility
gained for the rapid passage of battleships from one shore to
another, rendering defence in time of war more effective.

The Proposed Sheffield and Goole Canal.

The town of Sheffield, with a population of some 300,000, and

extremely important and diversified industries, has hitherto been
practically landlocked. There is, however, a system of canals actually
in existence which gives communication with the sea. This system
embraces the Sheffield and Tinsley Canal, 4 miles long; the Dun
Navigation, 28¼ miles; the Stainforth and Keadby Canal, 12¾ miles;
and the Dearne and Dove Canal, 14 miles, giving a total of 59 miles
of navigation.
In this chain of communication the most important link is the
Dun River Navigation, which begins near the village of Tinsley, and
proceeds thence by the Tinsley Cut, which was made to avoid a
bend in the river, under powers of the Act of 12th George I. There
are several other cuts in the river which have been constructed at
various times, their total length, from Mexborough Church to the
Dearne river, being not less than 2220 yards. The river has passed
through the hands of Vermueden, who, in the reign of Charles I.,
used it to drain the low lands in the vicinity of Hatfield Chase. The
total rise of the Dun Navigation, by sixteen locks, from low-water
mark in the river, is 92¼ feet. Writing in 1831, Priestley stated that
“the Dun Navigation is of the utmost importance for exporting the
produce of the extensive coal and iron works which abound at its
western extremity; also, the vast quantity of manufactured iron
goods and cutlery which is annually produced in the populous town
and neighbourhood of Sheffield.” This, however, was before the
present system of railways was completed, and before the
waterways on this route fell into the hands of their great rivals. Not
more than half a million tons now annually pass through the port of
Keadby, which is the connecting point between the Dun Navigation
and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal, the latter being a continuation
thereof, and the river Trent.

It is not proposed to do more than improve the existing

navigations to the extent of enabling them to take barges with a
carrying capacity of 700 tons, and sea-going steamers capable of
carrying 300 to 400 tons, whereas at present they cannot carry
boats of more than 80 tons. Such vessels could carry coal cargoes
from the South Yorkshire collieries situated upon this waterway, and
London or any other large consuming centre on the British shores.
The existing waterways are, however, in the hands of the
Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway Company, which, of
course, will have to be consulted as to their acquisition. The
accompanying diagram shows the route of the proposed improved
navigation.

The Proposed Irish Sea and Birkenhead Ship Canal.

A company was established in 1888 for the purpose of cutting a

canal, through the Wallasey Pool, from the Irish Sea to Birkenhead,
The object of this undertaking is to improve the approach to the port
of Liverpool, which is at present greatly prejudiced by the shifty
channel, the numerous sandbanks on either side of the bar, and the
risks and delays that are thereby entailed. The scheme is not a new
one entirely. On the contrary, Telford, Nimmo, and Robert
Stephenson, in 1838, reported upon a kindred project, and
estimated its cost at 1,400,000l. The sum named, however, was too
much for the promoters to raise, and a modified plan was submitted,
calculated to cost about half the money. The Corporation of
Liverpool, however, opposed the scheme, and privately bought up
the land on either side of the Wallasey Pool, with a view to frustrate
its accomplishment. Telford’s plans have, however, quite recently
been revived, and it is now proposed to make a cut from an arm of
the Wallasey Pool—which, running for about half a mile inland, has,
notwithstanding the enormous extension of dock accommodation all
around, been left in its natural condition—to the west end of the
Leasowe embankment, near Dove Point, whence a tidal channel
would be formed through the foreshore to the Rock Channel, the
ancient entrance to the port of Liverpool. This tidal channel would be
protected by a breakwater running from the Leasowe embankment
to a point in the Rock Channel west of the Dove Spit. An outer
breakwater would also run in an easterly and south-easterly
direction for a distance of 5000 feet, sheltering the greater part of
the Rock Channel, which is to be dredged for upwards of a mile to a
depth of 30 feet below low-water mark. The scheme does not
appear to be either difficult or costly, but as it is objected to by the
Corporation of Liverpool and by the Mersey Harbour Board, it may
not come to maturity. That it would, if carried out, be a great
convenience to the many thousands who annually arrive at or depart
from Liverpool for the United States and other countries, is
sufficiently manifest.

The Canal Connection between London and Bristol.

The Wiltshire and Berkshire Canal was acquired by some

capitalists towards the close of 1889, with a view to working it in
competition with the Great Western Railway between London and
Bristol. The canal in question leaves the Kennett and Avon Canal at
Semington, a few miles on the Bristol side of Devizes, and proceeds
thence through Melksham, Wootton Bassett, Swindon, and Challow
to the Thames at Abingdon. Although the Kennett and Avon Canal,
which joins the Thames at Reading, is 23 miles shorter between
London and Avonmouth, it labours under the disadvantage of rising
to a much greater height, and therefore requiring twenty-eight
additional locks. It is also proposed to develop the Thames and
Severn Canal, which is connected by a short branch from Swindon,
through Cricklade, with the Wiltshire and Berkshire.
During the year 1888 attention was called to a project for the
union of the Bristol and English Channels by a ship canal, running
from Stolford, near Bridgwater, which has the advantage of being
opposite Cardiff, viâ Bridgwater, Taunton, and Exeter, to Langstone
Point, on the west side of Exmouth Bight, where the southern
harbour would be formed.
This route is described as offering every facility for the work, the
chief elevation, White Ball Hill, which is 536 feet high, being turned
by following the course of the old Great Western Canal. A part of the
existing canals, or their remains, and the floating basin at Exeter,
with its 5½ miles of canal to the Exe, are intended to be acquired,
and the deepest cutting on the whole system will not exceed 200
feet. The canal would be on the level of the sea, taking its supply
chiefly from that source, with sea-locks only at each end. The
dimensions proposed are: length, 62 miles; width at surface, 125
feet, at bottom, 36 feet; and depth 21 feet, the figures being much
the same as those of the ship canal from Amsterdam to the Helder,
which admits loaded vessels of 1000 to 1500 tons, drawing 18 feet.
Coal from South Wales and adjoining fields would be likely to provide
a large revenue for a short cut to the English Channel, and thence to
London, say 355 miles, in order to better compete with the North of
England. The cost of the scheme has been set down at 3,080,000l.

Proposed Waterways from Birmingham to the Sea.

Of all the towns in the United Kingdom that labour under the
disadvantage of being remote from the sea, none are so entirely
excluded from sea competition as the capital of the Midlands.
Birmingham is unlike most of the other cities and towns of the
country in this respect, that it is neither built upon a navigable river,
nor upon any other waterway that would be likely to secure for
traders some relief from their almost abject dependence upon
railway transport. And yet the town and district of Birmingham are
not altogether without the means of water transport. The locality is,
in point of fact, the centre of a network of canals, which, if they
were properly adapted to its requirements, would place it in direct
communication by water with all the principal ports and markets in
the kingdom. By the Birmingham, Warwick and Birmingham,
Warwick and Napton, Oxford, Grand Junction, and Regent’s Canals it
is placed in communication with the metropolis, although the
distance is 163½ miles, as against only 100 miles by the shortest
railway route. It has two similar routes to the great port of Liverpool
—the first by the Birmingham, Staffordshire and Worcestershire,
North Staffordshire, and Bridgwater Canals, and the river Mersey;
the second route by the same route as regards the Birmingham
Canal, and thence viâ the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal for
a mile and a quarter, until the Shropshire Canal is broached, when
the route is continued over this waterway for a distance of 68 miles,
until the Mersey is reached. The distance by the first of these routes
is 106½, and by the second only 89¼ miles, against 90 miles by
railway. Hull is in water communication with Birmingham by way of
the Birmingham, the Coventry, and the North Staffordshire Canals,
and thence by the open navigation of the Trent and the Humber for
a distance of 120½ miles. Finally, Birmingham has three separate
water routes to the Severn ports, all of them terminating in the
Gloucester and Berkeley section, after traversing the Severn for 30
to 44 miles—the entire distance being 86 miles in two cases, and 95
miles in another. The nearest means of getting at the sea available
at present to the people of Birmingham is, therefore, 86 miles. But
neither this nor any of the other routes indicated are of any real
value to the Midlands, owing to the limited size of the canals, and
the difficulty of working them as an unbroken chain of
communication. Thus, taking the water route to London, the three
first canals—the Birmingham, the Warwick and Birmingham, and the
Warwick and Napton—have locks only 72 feet long by 7 feet broad
and 4 feet draft. On the section of the Oxford Canal to be passed
over, only 5 miles in length, there is no lock, but on the Grand
Junction Canal, which has to be traversed for a distance of 101
miles, the locks are 14 feet by 6 feet by 4 feet 6 inches, and on the
Regent’s Canal, where the transport terminates, the locks are 90 feet
by 15 feet by 5 feet. The same condition of things applies to the
physical characteristics of the waterways between Birmingham and
Liverpool. Hull might be more readily reached if only the Trent were
a little deeper, but as the average draft of the locks on that
waterway does not exceed 3 feet 6 inches, it is clear that no vessel
of large size could navigate it, and to dredge it to a reasonable
depth for the whole distance of 102 miles would be a most serious
undertaking. The most promising means of reaching the sea are
therefore those provided by the Severn route. The river itself is
available for the greater part of the distance on this route in one
case, after traversing 26 miles of canal on the Birmingham,
Stourbridge, and Staffordshire and Worcestershire systems. The
average depths of the locks on the Severn over the 44 miles that it
has to be navigated by this route is about 6 feet, while they are 99
feet long and 20 feet wide. These dimensions would allow of the
passage of really good-sized boats, but as it is, with the broken
gauge of the other canals, no boat can pass through to the Severn
loaded beyond 33 tons. Another matter that seriously militates
against the water facilities of Birmingham is that the different canals
are, of course, under different administrations, and each authority
levies tolls capriciously and disproportionately to the distance
traversed and facilities afforded. Thus, it was given in evidence
before the Canal Committee of 1883[59] that the Birmingham Canal
Company charged in respect of bricks 11¼d. per ton for 6¾ or 7
miles, whereas the adjoining Warwick Canal Company charged 6½d.
for 37¼ miles, and the Grand Junction Canal Company only charged
1s. 4½d. for 101 miles.
At different times during the last two or three years proposals
have been put forward, having for their object to place Birmingham
in direct connection with the sea, either—
1. By a ship canal, that would enable vessels of
200 tons at least to proceed to the Bristol Channel.
2. By a canal that would enable canal boats to
navigate the lower Trent to the North Sea; and
3. By the construction of an improved canal,
between the Midlands and London.
Each of these routes has been canvassed and considered over
the last few years; and it is probable that some really effectual steps
will be taken before long, in order to realise the long cherished and
most desirable end of giving Birmingham a satisfactory outlet to the
sea. The people of the Midlands have really been more active in this
direction than those of any other locality. But they have apparently
sought too much from the State and trusted too little to themselves.
The Birmingham Town Council, in 1888, appointed a committee,
with instructions either to get clauses introduced into the Railway
Rates Bill, then under consideration, or to introduce a separate
measure with a view to the formation of Canal Trusts, &c. In May of
1889, again, the Midlands sent a deputation to the Board of Trade,
in order to urge upon that department, the desirability of improving
the canal communication, between the Midlands and the sea.
Besides this, the traders and manufacturers of Birmingham, have
met and passed resolutions, calling upon the Government to inquire
into the canal system without delay, with a view to its acquisition by
the State. More real good would be done if the money were
subscribed, to open up a first class waterway to the sea, as has been
done, with so much spirit, by the people of Lancashire. Whether this
waterway should connect with London, with Bristol, or with the
Mersey, or whether it would be worth while to incur the expenditure
required to connect all three, is a matter that would have to be very
carefully considered.
As regards the proposal to provide an improved canal, between
London and Birmingham, it is suggested that it should have a
minimum top width of 45 feet, and a depth of 8 feet. The number of
locks proposed is 90 instead of 154, but by adopting a partially new
route, so as to avoid the depression in crossing the valley of the
Avon, at Warwick, the number may be reduced to 75. The time of
transit between Birmingham and London would thereby be
shortened by 12 hours, and it is estimated that the additional
facilities afforded for the passage of steam-tugged trains of boats,
would enable the cost of haulage to be reduced nearly one-half. The
carrying capacity of the improved canal has been put at two millions
of tons annually, and the cost of the improvements at a million and a
quarter. A committee of traders in the Midlands has recently had this
project under consideration.

FOOTNOTE
CHAPTER VI
[59] Report, Q. 251.
CHAPTER VII.
THE WATERWAYS OF FRANCE.
Within recent years, the advocates of water transport in Great
Britain and other countries, have been accustomed to point to
France as a notable example of the advantages of improving and
extending the internal navigations of a country. It is true that no
nation has done more with this end in view. From first to last, France
has expended a larger sum on canal navigation than any other
nation. Her system of water transport is also in some respects more
complete than that of any other country, having been designed and
carried out upon a systematic plan, which permits of the ways of
water communication being connected with each other, and with the
chief centres of population and industry. The waterways of France,
are, moreover, mainly owned by, or under the control of the State,
which has instituted elaborate inquiries from time to time into the
subject of their development and utilisation. It cannot, nevertheless,
be claimed for the canals of France, as a rule, that they present any
unusual economic or engineering features, although they provide for
a low cost of transport, of which we shall have more to say when we
come to deal especially with that branch of our subject.
A glance at a canal and river map of France, is sufficient to show
that in the more important parts of the country, there is a very
excellent system of communication by water. Between Dunkerque,
Gravelines, and Paris, there is a large traffic carried to the latter city,
through an elaborate system of main and lateral canals. The river
Seine connects Paris with the ports of Havre and Rouen. From the
Belgian frontier, quite a network of canals connect with Paris; and on
the German frontier, near Nancy, the Canal de la Marne au de Rhin
gives access to the capital, both by the Marne river to the Seine, and
by the Oise, through the Aisne canal.
On the Mediterranean seaboard, the Canal du Midi connects with
the Canal des Etangs and the Canal de Beaucaire, and thence by the
Rhone and Saône, the Canal du Centre, the Canal de Briare, the
Canal de Loing, and the Seine to Paris, taking Lyons, Chalons, Dijon,
Nivers, and other important towns en route. In the south of France,
the only important canal is that of the Midi, which connects
Bordeaux with Cette; and on the west, the ports of Brest and St.
Nazaire are connected with the main line of communication already
described—the former by the Canal de Nantes à Brest, and the latter
by the Loire river, the Canal Noyers du Berry, and the Canal
d’Orleans. It is, however, on the north that the canal system has its
greatest development, and especially on the Belgian frontier. The
system has been contrived to meet the requirements of all the
populous places on the line of route, so that it is very far from
having been arranged to save time and distance. This, however, is
no disadvantage in cases where density of traffic was the point to be
kept in view. Some of the canals have at one end no outlet or
through communication. The Canal du Berry, for example,
terminates abruptly at Montluçon, the Canal de Roanne à Dijon at
Roanne, and the Canal de l’Ourcq at Port-aux-Perches, but this is
very exceptional. The system is generally designed to enable one
waterway to give immediate access to another, so that through
routes are the most characteristic and valuable feature which it
presents.
The very elaborate statistics which the French people make it
their business to collect relative to all their mundane affairs enable
us to obtain information as to the character of the traffic on French
waterways, and the conditions of its movement, that are not
accessible for most other countries. In order that some light may be
thrown upon the problem of “how they manage these things in
France,” we have been at some pains to get together the most
important data bearing on the subject.
Imprimis, then, it appears that the total tonnage carried on the
canals of France in 1887—there are no returns yet issued for a later
year—was 21,050,180 tons. As this traffic was carried for a total
distance of 1762 millions of miles, it follows that the average
distance over which each ton was carried was 84 miles.
It is interesting to compare these returns with the corresponding
returns for the French railways, which carried 80,360,000 tons for a
total distance of 6801 millions of miles, giving an average transport
or lead of 84½ miles per ton.
There are no detailed returns at command of the amount of
expenditure at which the traffic on the waterways of France has
been carried on. In the nature of the case, indeed, there could
hardly be such information, seeing that the rivers, and to a large
extent the canals as well, are free of tolls, and the expenses of
haulage will vary in every case, according to the means employed,
and other determining circumstances. On the French railway system,
however, the average rate charged for the transport of goods per ton
per mile amounted in 1887 to less than 0·9d., taking the eight great
companies as a whole.[60]
Roughly, therefore, the average distance over which each ton
was transported on the waterways and railways of France was
almost exactly the same, but the railways carried almost four times
as much traffic as the waterways. This difference applied almost as
much to heavy as to light traffic. The total quantity of coal and coke
carried on the waterways was 5,964,000 tons, while on the railways
it amounted to 22,395,000 tons, being again nearly four times as
much.
The total length of the canals of France in 1887 was 4759
kilometres, or 2998 miles. The average number of tons carried for
each mile of canal constructed was, therefore, 4005. The railways of
France had, at the same time, a length of 28,922 kilometres, or
18,095 miles, and the average number of tons carried per mile was
about 4400. The French waterways, therefore, had a somewhat less
density of traffic than the railways.
Many of the canals of France, however, have almost ceased to be
used, and their traffic has become so small that it is hardly worth
reckoning.
In the case of Paris, the second largest city in Europe, the total
quantity of traffic brought within the municipal bounds for the use of
the inhabitants amounted, in 1886, to 9,412,589 tons, of which 60
per cent. was received by railway and 40 per cent. by waterways. Of
the traffic sent out from Paris, amounting to 2,989,000 tons, 80 per
cent. was despatched by rail, and 20 per cent. by water.[61] In
reference to the traffic entering Paris, it would seem as if the
waterways competed with some measure of success with the
railways, but as regards the traffic sent out from Paris, the railway is
by no means so successful.
The waterways that give access to Paris are mainly the High
Seine, the Low Seine, and the Canal de l’Ourcq. The Seine carried
1,979,000 tons to Paris in 1886, as compared with 1,791,000 tons
carried on the canals as a whole.
These are the broad general facts of the situation in which Paris
is placed as regards her supplies of food, fuel, and other
requirements. The details of the movement of this traffic are equally
interesting, but we have no space to devote to them here. We may,
however, remark that from every part of the empire, from Belgium
and the Ardennes, from the north and the east, from Marseilles on
the one hand and from Rouen and Havre on the other, the traffic on
which Paris is dependent from day to day is carried as well by
waterways as by railways. From the coal basins of the Nord and of
the Pas-de-Calais the waterways carry almost as much fuel to Paris
as the railways; from the basins of the Loire and of the Centre they
carry much more. Belgium, again, sends a large proportion of the
total quantity of coal that she supplies to Paris by water, but German
and English coal is received mainly by rail.[62]
It would be interesting to compare the quantities of merchandise
and food supplies of all kinds received by water and by rail in
different large centres of population, but the materials do not exist
for a very exact comparison over a wide area. In no English city can
such materials be obtained, inasmuch as no record is available of the
different quantities that constitute the transit trade; but in several
German cities there are more accurate materials at command, and
the following figures show how the import traffic of Paris compares
with that of some German towns for the year 1887:—

Tonnage brought into By Rail. By Water.

tons. tons.
Paris 5,647,000 3,765,000
Berlin 3,504,000 3,348,002
Hamburg 1,191,000 3,221,000
Cologne 1,132,000 314,000
Magdeburg 1,650,000 1,118,000
Total 13,124,000 11,766,000

During the year 1886 the traffic of the port of Paris amounted to
a total of 5,455,000 tons, which was transported in 35,291 boats.
The boats thus carried an average of about 155 tons.[63] This,
however, was composed of a considerable range of variations, the
boats from the Sambre, on the canal of that name, carrying an
average of 216 tons, while those on the canals of the Aisne and the
Ardennes only carried about 55 tons. On the Seine, from Oise to
Paris, the average size of the boats was 166 tons.
More than a fourth of the water-traffic entering Paris belongs to
the Ourcq Canal, which is connected with the Marne and with the
Seine, both above and below Paris, by means of the St. Martin and
the St. Denis Canals. These and the Ourcq Canals belong to the
Municipality of Paris, which has recently increased the width of the
swing bridge across the canal from 25½ to 50 feet, and has
provided an uniform depth of 10½ feet
According to an interesting statement issued by the French
Minister of Public Works in 1880,[64] the length of the canals then
constructed in France was 2882 miles, of which 2248 miles were
described as principal lines, and cost about 10,300l. per mile, while
634 miles were secondary lines, and cost 7200l. per mile. The total
amount expended on canals of both categories was about thirty-
three millions sterling.
There were besides, 4598 miles of rivers which had been
adapted, by canalisation or otherwise, for purposes of navigation, at
a total cost of about 11½ millions sterling. About 1398 miles of river
routes were classed as principal lines, and upon these an
expenditure of 7,918,000l. had been undertaken, or about 5700l. per
mile. About 3200 miles more were classed as secondary lines, and
had been improved for navigation at a total cost of 3,561,000l., or
1113l. per mile. On both canals and rivers the total amount
expended had been over 44 millions sterling. Besides this, however,
190 miles of additional waterways had, up to 1880, been
constructed and improved, at an additional cost of 3,400,000l., and
were described as new waterways; and it may be added that, up to
the same date, about 19¾ millions sterling had been expended on
the ports of France, especially those of Havre (3,300,000l.),
Marseilles (2,800,000l.), St. Nazaire (1,100,000l.), and Bordeaux
(960,000l.).
These figures appear large, but while it may very well be that the
amount expended upon canals pur et simple has been greater in
France than in our own and other countries, the expenditure upon
the rivers of France and upon the improvement of ports and
harbours is very greatly below that incurred in our own country. At
Liverpool alone the sums expended in this direction from first to last
will probably exceed the total amount expended upon the harbours
of France up to the present time. France is, however, so fully aware
of the importance of providing good shipping facilities, that she has
quite recently undertaken a large expenditure in improving the
harbours of Havre and Calais, canalising the Seine, and other similar
works.
At the end of 1886, there were thirty-one chief canals in
operation in France having a total length of 3267 kilometres, and
1446 kilometres of smaller canals, making a total of 4713 kilometres.
The canals varied in their volume of annual traffic from over 3½
millions of tons each on the Deûle (Haute) canal, 63 kilometres in
length, and on the St. Quentin canal, 93 kilometres in length, to
243,700 tons on the Latéral à la Garonne, 204 kilometres in length.
The total traffic carried on the canals from year to year has been
remarkably constant.[65] The canals have, moreover, carried a
considerably larger quantity of traffic than the rivers of France,
notwithstanding that the latter have a total length of 7825
kilometres, or 66 per cent. more, and that one or two of them,
especially the Aisne and the Oise have been specially canalised.[66]
The waterways of France are classified by basins, and according
to the statistics published for 1886, the number of waterways in
each basin with the number of vessels of all kinds making use of
them, and the number of tons transported were as under:—

French Rivers and Streams only

(Canals not included).

Total Number of
Number Tons of
Basin of Length Vessels
of Traffic
the in employed
Lines. carried.
Kilometres. in 1886.
Aa 1 29 12,778 1,308,564
Adour 9 257 19,903 423,666
Charcute 8 301 20,169 239,069
Escaut 8 219 42,242 8,184,233
Garonne 25 1752 30,952 1,096,482
Loire 22 1660 17,669 1,084,542
Moselle 6 231 1,601 200,980
Rance 1 16 1,832 66,498
Rhone 22 1731 25,799 2,358,675
Sambre 1 54 2,589 580,761
Seine 18 1191 102,117 18,843,313
Total Number of
Number Tons of
Basin of Length Vessels
of Traffic
the in employed
Lines. carried.
Kilometres. in 1886.
Vilaine 4 151 4,450 216,601
Vire and
3 113 6,494 111,207
Taute

We may now appropriately follow up the more general

information already afforded by some details as to the history and
topography of the chief canals and river works in France.

Some French Canals.

Briare, &c.—The canal of Briare was begun in the time of Henry

IV. and the Duke of Sully, and was completed under Louis XIII. and
Cardinal Richelieu. Its length is eleven French leagues, and it forms
a communication between the Loire and the Loing, which is one of
the tributaries of the Seine. Under Louis XIV. another canal was
drawn from the Loire, near Orleans, which flowed to meet the first
canal of Briare, near Montargis; and as in summer there was an
insufficiency of water in the Loing to supply a considerable
navigation, under the minority of Louis XV. they determined to run
another canal along the banks of the river to the vicinity of the
Seine, which is, properly speaking, the continuation of the old canal
of Briare. In this canal there are, in all, forty-two sluices; and in that
of Orleans, twenty. In the reign of Louis XV., and under the
inspection of the celebrated Belidor, the canal of Picardie was carried
out, forming a junction between the Somme and the Oise, which
afterwards enters the Seine about five leagues from Paris.
Languedoc.—The famous canal of Languedoc, better known as
the Canal du Midi, which forms a communication from the
Mediterranean Sea to the Garonne and the Ocean is one of the best
known in France. By this canal, for many years, boats have passed in
a few days from the one sea to the other, traversing valleys and hills,
and ascending to the height of 600 feet above the level of the two
seas. The harbours of Bordeaux and Marseilles formerly avoided, by
this means, a circuitous route of communication of several hundred
miles. This great undertaking, projected under three other kings,
was at last perfected in the reign of Louis XIV., after a labour of
fourteen years, at an expense of eleven millions of livres, without
reckoning the additional expense of two millions more, incurred in
re-establishing the harbour of Cette. Andressi first suggested the
plan, and Riquet directed almost the whole of its execution. He
began the work in 1666. The canal begins at a lake nearly four miles
in circumference, which, collecting the waters of Mont Noir, conveys
them at Naurose into a reservoir, of very considerable extent,
whence the waters are distributed to the right until they meet the
Garonne near Toulouse, and to the left as far as the Lake of Tau,
which is near the port of Cette. The breadth of the canal is 30 feet,
its length is rather over 125 miles, which equals 50½ French
leagues. Nearly a sixth part of the canal is carried over mountains
deeply excavated; and, at a spot called the Mal Pas, it crosses a rock
cut into the form of an arch, eighty toises in length, four toises in
width, and four and a half in height. It has one hundred sluices, and
a great number of aqueducts and bridges.
Admiral Lord Clarence Paget undertook, in 1881, a canal voyage
through this Canal, of which he has supplied some interesting
particulars. The yacht, the Miranda, was 85 feet over all, 11 feet
beam, and 4 feet 8 inches draught of water. She carried 6½ tons of
coal, equal to about eight days’ consumption, at full speed.
“Originally,” writes Lord Clarence, “the canal, which immortalised
its constructor, P. P. Riquet, was only intended to connect the head
waters of the Garonne at Toulouse with the Mediterranean, and it
was opened with great pomp and ceremony by Louis XIV. in 1681,
but it was soon found inadequate to the purposes required, as the
Garonne was subject to all sorts of vicissitudes of drought and
floods.
“It was not, however, till our own times that the ‘Canal Latéral,’
between Toulouse and near Bordeaux, has been completed, and,
curiously enough, just at the moment when the railway between
Bordeaux and Cette has almost entirely absorbed the traffic. So here