70B-66 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

factor usually indicates problems with bushings, operating a multitude of potentially dangerous situations. Proper diagno‐
road, support insulation or the SF6 gas. Bushing values should sis and remedial action of these situations have also helped to
be within ten percent of nameplate rating for bushings or prevent numerous major losses.
manufacturer’s published data. Hot collar tests are evaluated
11.17.1.2 The instruments most suitable for infrared inspec‐
on a milliampere/milliwatt loss basis and the results should be
tions are of the type that use a scanning technique to produce
compared to values of similar bushings or manufacturer’s
an image of the equipment being inspected. These devices
published data.
display a picture in which “hot spots” appear as bright or
Δ 11.16.4.2.3.4 For further information on power factor or dissi‐ brighter spots.
pation factor testing, see 11.9.3.2.
11.17.1.3 Infrared surveys can be accomplished either by in-
11.16.4.2.4 Direct-Current (dc) Overpotential Test. house teams or by a qualified outside contractor. The econom‐
ics and effectiveness of the two alternatives should be carefully
Δ 11.16.4.2.4.1 Measure leakage current on each phase with the weighed. Many organizations find it preferable to obtain these
circuit breaker closed and the poles not under test grounded. surveys from qualified outside contractors. Because of outside
Test voltage should be in accordance with manufacturer’s contractors' more extensive experience, their findings and
published data. For further information on dc overpotential recommendations are likely to be more accurate, practical, and
testing, see 11.9.2.6. economical than those of a part-time in-house team.
11.16.4.2.4.2 If no evidence of distress or insulation failure is 11.17.1.4 Infrared surveys of electrical systems should not be
observed by the end of the total time of voltage application viewed as replacement for visual inspections. Visual inspections
during the dc overpotential test, the circuit breaker is consid‐ or checks are still required on lightly loaded circuits or on
ered to have passed the test. circuits not energized or not carrying current at the time of the
11.16.4.2.5 Time-Travel Analysis. infrared survey (e.g., neutral connections).

11.16.4.2.5.1 This test, used on medium- and high-voltage 11.17.2 Advantages of Infrared Inspections. Infrared inspec‐
circuit breakers, provides information as to whether the operat‐ tions are advantageous to use in situations where electrical
ing mechanism of the circuit breaker is operating properly. All equipment cannot be deenergized and taken out of service or
test instruments should be used in strict compliance with the where plant production is affected. They can reduce typical
manufacturer's instructions and recommendations. Failure to visual examinations and tedious manual inspections and are
follow the manufacturer's instructions can result in injury to especially effective in long-range detection situations.
personnel and can produce meaningless data. The test presents 11.17.2.1 Infrared detection can be accurate, reliable, and
in graphical form the position of the breaker contacts versus expedient to use in a variety of electrical installations. More
time. This test can be used to determine the opening and clos‐ important, it can be relatively inexpensive to use considering
ing speeds of the breaker, the interval time for closing and trip‐ the savings often realized by preventing equipment damage
ping, and the contact bounce. The test provides information and business interruptions.
that can be used to detect problems such as weak accelerating
springs, defective shock absorbers, dashpots, buffers, and clos‐ 11.17.2.2 Infrared inspections are considered a useful tool to
ing mechanisms. evaluate previous repair work and proof test new electrical
installations and new equipment still under warranty.
11.16.4.2.5.2 The test is performed by a mechanical device
that is attached to the breaker. There are several types of devi‐ 11.17.2.3 Regularly scheduled infrared inspections often
ces available to perform this function. One device, a rotating require the readjustment of electrical maintenance priorities as
drum with a chart attached, is temporarily connected to the well as detect trends in equipment performance that require
chassis or tank of the breaker. A movable rod with a marking periodic observation.
device attached is installed on the lift rod portion of the
11.17.3 Disadvantages. There are some disadvantages to indi‐
breaker. As the breaker is opened or closed, the marking
vidual ownership of certain types of equipment. Scanning-type
device indicates the amount of contact travel on the chart as
thermal imaging devices can be costly to purchase outright.
the drum rotates at a known speed. With another available
Training is recommended for persons who operate scanning-
device, a transducer is attached to the movable rod, and the
type thermal imaging instruments.
breaker operation is recorded on an oscillograph.
11.17.3.1 Infrared inspections require special measures and
11.16.4.2.5.3 Compare travel and velocity values to manufac‐
analysis. Equipment enclosed for safety or reliability can be
turer’s published data and previous test data.
difficult to scan or to detect radiation from within. Special
11.16.4.2.6 Heaters. Verify operation of heaters. Heaters precautions, including the removal of access panels, might be
should be operational. necessary for satisfactory measurements. Weather can be a
factor in the conduct of a survey of electrical systems located
11.17 Infrared Inspection. outdoors, for example, overhead electric open lines and substa‐
11.17.1 Introduction. Infrared inspections of electrical tions. Rain and wind can produce abnormal cooling of defec‐
systems are beneficial to reduce the number of costly and cata‐ tive conductors and components. Because the reflection of sun
strophic equipment failures and unscheduled plant shutdowns. rays from bright surfaces can be misread as hot spots, infrared
work on outdoor equipment might have to be performed at
11.17.1.1 Infrared inspections should be performed by quali‐ night. That, in turn, presents a problem, because electrical
fied and trained personnel who have an understanding of loads usually are lower at night, and the faulty connections and
infrared technology, electrical equipment maintenance, and equipment might not overheat enough to enable detection.
the safety issues involved. Infrared inspections have uncovered

2019 Edition Shaded text = Revisions. Δ = Text deletions and figure/table revisions. • = Section deletions. N = New material.

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 TESTING AND TEST METHODS 70B-67

Shiny surfaces do not emit radiation energy efficiently and can 11.18 Fuses.
be hot while appearing cool in the infrared image.
11.18.1 Fuses can be tested with a continuity tester to verify
11.17.3.2 The handling of liquid nitrogen, argon, and other that the fuse is not open. Resistance readings can be taken
liquefied gases with their inherent hazards is a disadvantage of using a sensitive 4-wire instrument such as a Kelvin bridge or
some infrared testing equipment. micro-ohmmeter. Fuse resistance values should be compared
against values recommended by the manufacturer.
11.17.4 Desirable Operational Features. The equipment
display should be large and provide good resolution of hot 11.18.2 Where manufacturers’ data is not readily available,
spots. The equipment should provide color or black-and-white resistance deviations of more than 15 percent for identical
photographs to identify the exact location of the hot spot. The fuses in the same circuit should be investigated.
unit should be portable, easy to adjust, and approved for use in
the atmosphere in which it is to be used. It should also have a Δ 11.19 Insulating-Liquid Analysis. Regular semiannual tests
cone of vision that gives enough detail to accurately identify should be made on insulating oils and askarels. Samples should
the hot spot. be taken from the equipment in accordance with ASTM D923,
Standard Test Method for Sampling Electrical Insulating Liquids. The
11.17.4.1 The unit should be designed so that the operator maintenance tests most commonly performed on used insulat‐
knows the degree of accuracy in the display. There should be ing liquids, together with the appropriate ASTM test methods,
easily operated checks to verify the accuracy of the display. are shown in Table 11.19(a) through Table 11.19(g).
11.17.5 Inspection Frequency and Procedures. Routine infra‐ 11.19.1 Field Testing in General.
red inspections of energized electrical systems should be
performed annually prior to shutdown. More frequent infrared 11.19.1.1 The applicable industry field evaluation standards
inspections, for example, quarterly or semiannually, should be include the following:
performed where warranted by loss experience, installation of (1) ANSI/NETA ATS, Standard for Acceptance Testing Specifica‐
new electrical equipment, or changes in environmental, opera‐ tions for Electrical Power Distribution Equipment and Systems
tional, or load conditions. (2) ANSI/NETA MTS, Standard for Maintenance Testing Specifi‐
cations for Electrical Power Distribution Equipment and Systems
11.17.5.1 All critical electrical equipment as determined by
Section 6.3 should be included in the infrared inspection. 11.19.1.2 For further information on transformer liquid main‐
tenance and analysis, see 11.11.8.
11.17.5.2 Infrared surveys should be performed during peri‐
ods of maximum possible loading but not less than 40 percent 11.19.2 Types of Test.
of rated load of the electrical equipment being inspected. The
circuit-loading characteristics should be included as part of the 11.19.2.1 Dielectric Breakdown Test. This test measures the
documentation provided in 11.17.5.4. electrical stress an insulating liquid can withstand without fail‐
ure. It indicates if contaminants, particularly moisture and
11.17.5.3 Equipment enclosures should be opened for a conducting particulate matter are in the fluid The dielectric
direct view of components whenever possible. When opening breakdown voltage is expressed in kilovolts. Dielectric testing is
the enclosure is impossible, such as in some busway systems, performed by ASTM method D877 (disk electrodes) or D1816
internal temperatures can be higher than the surface tempera‐ (VDE cell).
tures. Plastic and glass covers in electrical enclosures are not
transparent to infrared radiation. 11.19.2.2 Acid Neutralization Number. Measuring acidity
provides a means of monitoring the progress of oxidation.
11.17.5.4 Infrared surveys should be documented as outlined Acidic compounds precede the formation of sludge in a trans‐
in 6.5.2 and Section 11.8. former which is the end product of oxidation. The acid
neutralization number is express in dynes/cm. Acid neutraliza‐
11.17.5.5 The electrical supervisor should be immediately tion number testing is performed by ANSI/ASTM method
notified of critical, impending faults so that corrective action D974 or D664.
can be taken before a failure occurs. Priorities should be estab‐
lished to correct other deficiencies. 11.19.2.3 Specific Gravity. Specific gravity of oil is the ratio of
the weights of equal volumes of oil and water at the same
11.17.5.6 Section 9 and Table 10.18 of the ANSI/NETA MTS, temperature. The specific gravity is not significant in determin‐
Standard for Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power ing the quality of oil but is applicable in determining suitability
Distribution Equipment and Systems, suggest temperature bench‐ for use in a specific situation. Specific gravity testing is
marks similar to those in the following list. The temperature performed by ANSI/ASTM method D1298.
differences in this list denote differences from the normal
referenced temperature. The normal referenced temperature 11.19.2.4 Interfacial Tension. Interfacial tension (IFT) deter‐
is determined by a qualified technician. mines the presence of polar contaminants in oil. Interfacial
(1) Temperature differences of 1°C to 3°C (1.8°F to 5.4°F) tension together with the acid neutralization number is an indi‐
indicate possible deficiency and warrant investigation. cator to monitor sludge development. Foreign substances such
(2) Temperature differences of 4°C to 15°C (7.2°F to 27°F) as dissolved varnishes and organic coating materials can also
indicate deficiency; repairs should be made as time affect the IFT. The interfacial tension is expressed in dynes per
permits. centimeter. Interfacial tension testing is performed by ANSI/
(3) Temperature differences of 16°C (28.8°F) and above indi‐ ASTM method D971 (ring method).
cate major deficiency; repairs should be made immedi‐
ately.

Shaded text = Revisions. Δ = Text deletions and figure/table revisions. • = Section deletions. N = New material. 2019 Edition

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