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Programming C# 5.0

Ian Griffiths
Programming C# 5.0
by Ian Griffiths
Copyright © 2013 Ian Griffiths. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.

O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online editions are
also available for most titles (http://my.safaribooksonline.com). For more information, contact our corporate/
institutional sales department: 800-998-9938 or [email protected].
Editor: Rachel Roumeliotis Proofreader: Linley Dolby
Production Editor: Kristen Borg Indexer: Ellen Troutman
Copyeditor: Rachel Monaghan Cover Designer: Karen Montgomery
Interior Designer: David Futato
Illustrator: Rebecca Demarest

October 2012: First Edition

Revision History for the First Edition:

2012-10-10 First release

See http://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781449320416 for release details.

Nutshell Handbook, the Nutshell Handbook logo, and the O’Reilly logo are registered trademarks of O’Reilly
Media, Inc. Programming C# 5.0, the image of an African crowned crane, and related trade dress are trade
marks of O’Reilly Media, Inc.
Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as
trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and O’Reilly Media, Inc., was aware of a trade
mark claim, the designations have been printed in caps or initial caps.

While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no
responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained
herein.

ISBN: 978-1-449-32041-6
[LSI]
I dedicate this book to my excellent wife Deborah, and to my wonderful daughter, Hazel,
who arrived while this book was a work in progress.
 Table of Contents

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

1. Introducing C#. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why C#? 1
Why Not C#? 3
C#’s Defining Features 5
Managed Code and the CLR 7
Generality Trumps Specialization 9
Asynchronous Programming 10
Visual Studio 10
Anatomy of a Simple Program 13
Adding a Project to an Existing Solution 15
Referencing One Project from Another 15
Writing a Unit Test 17
Namespaces 20
Classes 24
Program Entry Point 25
Unit Tests 26
Summary 27

2. Basic Coding in C#. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Local Variables 30
Scope 35
Statements and Expressions 39
Statements 39
Expressions 40
Comments and Whitespace 46
Preprocessing Directives 48
Compilation Symbols 48
#error and #warning 49

v
 #line 50
#pragma 50
#region and #endregion 51
Intrinsic Data Types 51
Numeric Types 52
Booleans 61
Strings and Characters 62
Object 62
Operators 62
Flow Control 68
Boolean Decisions with if Statements 68
Multiple Choice with switch Statements 70
Loops: while and do 72
C-Style for Loops 73
Collection Iteration with foreach Loops 75
Summary 76

3. Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Classes 77
Static Members 80
Static Classes 82
Reference Types 83
Structs 89
When to Write a Value Type 93
Members 98
Fields 98
Constructors 100
Methods 108
Properties 114
Indexers 117
Operators 119
Events 122
Nested Types 122
Interfaces 124
Enums 126
Other Types 129
Anonymous Types 129
Partial Types and Methods 130
Summary 131

4. Generics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Generic Types 134

vi | Table of Contents
 Constraints 136
Type Constraints 137
Reference Type Constraints 139
Value Type Constraints 142
Multiple Constraints 142
Zero-Like Values 143
Generic Methods 144
Type Inference 145
Inside Generics 145
Summary 147

5. Collections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Arrays 149
Array Initialization 153
Variable Argument Count with the params Keyword 154
Searching and Sorting 155
Multidimensional Arrays 162
Copying and Resizing 166
List<T> 167
List and Sequence Interfaces 170
Implementing Lists and Sequences 174
Iterators 175
Collection<T> 179
ReadOnlyCollection<T> 180
Dictionaries 181
Sorted Dictionaries 184
Sets 185
Queues and Stacks 186
Linked Lists 187
Concurrent Collections 188
Tuples 189
Summary 190

6. Inheritance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Inheritance and Conversions 192
Interface Inheritance 194
Generics 195
Covariance and Contravariance 196
System.Object 202
The Ubiquitous Methods of object 202
Accessibility and Inheritance 203
Virtual Methods 204

Table of Contents | vii

 Abstract Methods 206
Sealed Methods and Classes 213
Accessing Base Members 214
Inheritance and Construction 215
Special Base Types 220
Summary 221

7. Object Lifetime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Garbage Collection 224
Determining Reachability 225
Accidentally Defeating the Garbage Collector 227
Weak References 230
Reclaiming Memory 234
Garbage Collector Modes 240
Accidentally Defeating Compaction 242
Forcing Garbage Collections 245
Destructors and Finalization 246
Critical Finalizers 250
IDisposable 250
Optional Disposal 257
Boxing 257
Boxing Nullable<T> 262
Summary 263

8. Exceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Exception Sources 267
Exceptions from APIs 268
Exceptions from Your Code 270
Failures Detected by the Runtime 271
Handling Exceptions 272
Exception Objects 273
Multiple catch Blocks 274
Nested try Blocks 275
finally Blocks 277
Throwing Exceptions 278
Rethrowing Exceptions 279
Failing Fast 282
Exception Types 283
Custom Exceptions 285
Unhandled Exceptions 288
Debugging and Exceptions 290
Asynchronous Exceptions 292

viii | Table of Contents

 Summary 294

9. Delegates, Lambdas, and Events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Delegate Types 296
Creating a Delegate 297
Multicast Delegates 301
Invoking a Delegate 302
Common Delegate Types 305
Type Compatibility 306
Behind the Syntax 310
Inline Methods 313
Captured Variables 316
Lambdas and Expression Trees 323
Events 324
Standard Event Delegate Pattern 326
Custom Add and Remove Methods 327
Events and the Garbage Collector 330
Events Versus Delegates 332
Delegates Versus Interfaces 333
Summary 333

10. LINQ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Query Expressions 336
How Query Expressions Expand 339
Supporting Query Expressions 341
Deferred Evaluation 345
LINQ, Generics, and IQueryable<T> 348
Standard LINQ Operators 350
Filtering 352
Select 354
SelectMany 357
Ordering 360
Containment Tests 362
Specific Items and Subranges 364
Aggregation 368
Set Operations 372
Whole-Sequence, Order-Preserving Operations 373
Grouping 374
Joins 379
Conversion 381
Sequence Generation 386
Other LINQ Implementations 386

Table of Contents | ix
 Entity Framework 387
LINQ to SQL 387
WCF Data Services Client 388
Parallel LINQ (PLINQ) 388
LINQ to XML 388
Reactive Extensions 388
Summary 389

11. Reactive Extensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Rx and .NET Versions 393
Fundamental Interfaces 395
IObserver<T> 396
IObservable<T> 397
Publishing and Subscribing with Delegates 404
Creating an Observable Source with Delegates 404
Subscribing to an Observable Source with Delegates 407
Sequence Builders 409
Empty 409
Never 409
Return 409
Throw 410
Range 410
Repeat 410
Generate 410
LINQ Queries 411
Grouping Operators 414
Join Operators 415
SelectMany Operator 420
Aggregation and Other Single-Value Operators 420
Concat Operator 422
Rx Query Operators 422
Merge 423
Windowing Operators 424
The Scan Operator 431
The Amb Operator 432
DistinctUntilChanged 433
Schedulers 434
Specifying Schedulers 434
Built-in Schedulers 437
Subjects 438
Subject<T> 438
BehaviorSubject<T> 440

x | Table of Contents
 ReplaySubject<T> 440
AsyncSubject<T> 441
Adaptation 441
IEnumerable<T> 441
.NET Events 443
Asynchronous APIs 445
Timed Operations 447
Interval 447
Timer 449
Timestamp 449
TimeInterval 450
Throttle 451
Sample 451
Timeout 451
Windowing Operators 451
Delay 452
DelaySubscription 453
Summary 453

12. Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

Visual Studio and Assemblies 455
Anatomy of an Assembly 456
.NET Metadata 457
Resources 457
Multifile Assemblies 457
Other PE Features 458
Type Identity 460
Loading Assemblies 462
Explicit Loading 465
The Global Assembly Cache 466
Assembly Names 468
Strong Names 468
Version 471
Culture 476
Processor Architecture 479
Portable Class Libraries 480
Packaged Deployment 482
Windows 8 UI–Style Apps 482
ClickOnce and XBAP 483
Silverlight and Windows Phone Apps 484
Protection 485

Table of Contents | xi
 Summary 486

13. Reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

Reflection Types 488
Assembly 490
Module 494
MemberInfo 495
Type and TypeInfo 498
MethodBase, ConstructorInfo, and MethodInfo 502
ParameterInfo 504
FieldInfo 505
PropertyInfo 505
EventInfo 505
Reflection Contexts 506
Summary 508

14. Dynamic Typing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

The dynamic Type 511
dynamic and Interoperability 513
Silverlight and Scriptable Objects 516
Dynamic .NET Languages 517
Inside Dynamic 518
Restrictions on the dynamic Type 518
Custom Dynamic Objects 520
ExpandoObject 523
Limitations of dynamic 523
Summary 526

15. Attributes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Applying Attributes 527
Attribute Targets 530
Compiler-Handled Attributes 531
CLR-Handled Attributes 536
Defining and Consuming Custom Attributes 543
Attribute Type 544
Retrieving Attributes 546
Summary 548

16. Files and Streams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

The Stream Class 552
Position and Seeking 554
Flushing 555

xii | Table of Contents

 Copying 556
Length 556
Disposal 558
Asynchronous Operation 559
Concrete Stream Types 559
Windows 8 and IRandomAccessStream 560
Text-Oriented Types 563
TextReader and TextWriter 564
Concrete Reader and Writer Types 566
Encoding 568
Files and Directories 572
FileStream Class 573
File Class 576
Directory Class 579
Path Class 580
FileInfo, DirectoryInfo, and FileSystemInfo 582
Known Folders 583
Serialization 584
BinaryReader and BinaryWriter 585
CLR Serialization 585
Data Contract Serialization 589
XmlSerializer 592
Summary 593

17. Multithreading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

Threads 595
Threads, Variables, and Shared State 597
The Thread Class 603
The Thread Pool 605
Thread Affinity and SynchronizationContext 610
Synchronization 614
Monitors and the lock Keyword 615
SpinLock 621
Reader/Writer Locks 623
Event Objects 624
Barrier 627
CountdownEvent 628
Semaphores 628
Mutex 629
Interlocked 629
Lazy Initialization 632
Other Class Library Concurrency Support 634

Table of Contents | xiii

 Tasks 635
The Task and Task<T> Classes 635
Continuations 639
Schedulers 641
Error Handling 642
Custom Threadless Tasks 643
Parent/Child Relationships 645
Composite Tasks 645
Other Asynchronous Patterns 646
Cancellation 647
Parallelism 648
The Parallel Class 648
Parallel LINQ 649
TPL Dataflow 650
Summary 650

18. Asynchronous Language Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651

Asynchronous Keywords: async and await 652
Execution and Synchronization Contexts 656
Multiple Operations and Loops 657
Returning a Task 660
Applying async to Nested Methods 662
The await Pattern 662
Error Handling 667
Validating Arguments 669
Singular and Multiple Exceptions 670
Concurrent Operations and Missed Exceptions 672
Summary 673

19. XAML. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675

XAML-Based Frameworks 676
WPF 677
Silverlight 678
Windows Phone 7 680
Windows Runtime and Windows 8 UI–Style Apps 680
XAML Basics 682
XAML and XML Namespaces 683
Generated Classes and Codebehind 684
Child Elements 686
Property Elements 687
Event Handling 688
Threading 689

xiv | Table of Contents

 Layout 690
Properties 691
Panels 697
ScrollViewer 707
Layout Events 707
Controls 709
Content Controls 709
Slider and ScrollBar Controls 713
Progress Controls 713
List Controls 715
Control Templates 716
UserControls 720
Text 720
Displaying Text 721
Editing Text 723
Data Binding 724
Data Templates 728
Graphics 731
Shapes 731
Bitmaps 732
Media 733
Styles 734
Summary 735

20. ASP.NET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737

Razor 738
Expressions 739
Flow Control 741
Code Blocks 742
Explicitly Indicated Content 743
Page Classes and Objects 744
Using Other Components 745
Layout Pages 746
Start Pages 747
Web Forms 748
Server-Side Controls 748
Expressions 754
Code Blocks 754
Standard Page Objects 755
Page Classes and Objects 756
Using Other Components 756
Master Pages 757

Table of Contents | xv
 MVC 759
Typical MVC Project Layout 759
Writing Models 766
Writing Views 768
Writing Controllers 770
Handling Additional Input 772
Generating Action Links 775
Routing 775
Summary 780

21. Interoperability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781

Calling Native Code 781
Marshaling 782
32-bit and 64-bit 790
Safe Handles 791
Security 793
Platform Invoke 793
Calling Convention 794
Text Handling 795
Entry Point Name 795
COM-Style Return Values 796
Win32 Error Handling 800
COM 800
RCW Lifetime 801
Metadata 803
Scripting 809
Windows Runtime 813
Metadata 813
Windows Runtime Types 813
Buffers 814
Unsafe Code 816
C++/CLI and the Component Extensions 818
Summary 818

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821

xvi | Table of Contents

 Preface

C# is now well into its second decade. It has grown steadily in both power and size, but
Microsoft has always kept the essential characteristics intact—C# still feels like the same
language as was first unveiled back in 2000. Each new capability is designed to integrate
cleanly with the rest, enhancing the language without turning it into an incoherent bag
of miscellaneous features. This philosophy is evident in the most important new addi
tion to C#—its support for asynchronous programming. It has always been possible to
use asynchronous APIs in C#, but in the past, this tended to involve convoluted code.
In C# 5.0, you can write asynchronous code that looks almost exactly like normal code,
so instead of adding weight to the language, this new asynchronous programming sup
port makes things simpler.
Even though C# continues to be a fairly straightforward language at its heart, there is a
great deal more to say about it now than in its first incarnation. Successive editions of
this book have responded to the language’s progress with ever-increasing page counts,
but this latest edition does not merely try to cram in yet more details. It expects a some
what higher level of technical ability from its readers than before.

Who This Book Is For

I have written this book for experienced developers—I’ve been programming for years,
and I’ve set out to make this the book I would want to read if that experience had been
in other languages, and I were learning C# today. Whereas previous editions explained
some basic concepts such as classes, polymorphism, and collections, I am assuming that
readers will already know what these are. The early chapters still describe how C#

xvii
presents these common ideas, but the focus is on the details specific to C#, rather than
the broad concepts. So if you have read previous editions of this book, you will find that
this one spends less time on these basic concepts, and goes into rather more detail on
everything else.

Conventions Used in This Book

The following typographical conventions are used in this book:
Italic
Indicates new terms, URLs, email addresses, filenames, and file extensions.
Constant width
Used for program listings, as well as within paragraphs to refer to program elements
such as variable or function names, databases, data types, environment variables,
statements, and keywords.
Constant width bold
Shows commands or other text that should be typed literally by the user.
Constant width italic
Shows text that should be replaced with user-supplied values or by values deter
mined by context.

This icon signifies a tip, suggestion, or general note.

This icon indicates a warning or caution.

Using Code Examples

This book is here to help you get your job done. In general, you may use the code in this
book in your programs and documentation. You do not need to contact us for permis
sion unless you’re reproducing a significant portion of the code. For example, writing a
program that uses several chunks of code from this book does not require permission.
Selling or distributing a CD-ROM of examples from O’Reilly books does require per
mission. Answering a question by citing this book and quoting example code does not
require permission. Incorporating a significant amount of example code from this book
into your product’s documentation does require permission.

xviii | Preface
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian
Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. ——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2 — 4
— 4 4 — 4

The Sittidæ, or Nuthatches, are another small family of tree-creeping

birds, whose distribution is very similar to that of the Certhiidæ, but
with a more uniform range over the Oriental region, and extending
to New Zealand and Madagascar. The genera are as follows:—

Sitta (17 sp.), Palæarctic and Nearctic regions to South India and
Mexico; Dendrophila (2 sp.), Ceylon and India to Burmah and
Malaya; Hypherpes (1 sp.), Madagascar; Sittella (6 sp.), Australia and
New Guinea. Acanthisitta (1 sp.) and Xenicus (4 sp.), New Zealand,
are placed with some doubt in this family.

Family 10.—PARIDÆ. (14 Genera, 92 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——3 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3 1. 2. 3. —2—4
— 4 4 — 4

The Paridæ, or Tits, are very abundant in the Nearctic and Palæarctic
regions; many fine species are found in the Himalayas, but they are
sparingly scattered through the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian
regions. The genera usually admitted into this family are the
following, but the position of some of them, especially of the
Australian forms, is doubtful.

(864—867 870) Parus (46 sp.), North America, from Mexico,

Palæarctic, and Oriental regions, Tropical and South Africa; (868 869)
Lophophanes (10 sp.), Europe, the Higher Himalayas to Sikhim,
North America to Mexico; Acredula = Orites (6 sp.), Palæarctic
region; Melanochlora (2 sp.), Nepal to Sumatra; Psaltria (1 sp.), Java;
Psaltriparus (3 sp.), Guatemala to California, and Rocky Mountains;
Auriparus (1 sp.), Rio Grande; (881 882) Parisoma (5 sp.), Tropical
and South Africa; (883 884) Ægithalus (6 sp.), South-east Europe to
South Africa; (885 889) Ægithaliscus (6 sp.), Afghanistan and
Himalayas to Amoy; Cephalopyrus (1 sp.), North-west Himalayas;
Sylviparus (1 sp.), Himalayas and Central India; Certhiparus (2 sp.),
New Zealand; (879 880) Sphenostoma (2 sp.), East and South
Australia.

Family 11.—LIOTRICHIDÆ. (11 Genera, 35 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— ——— ——— — — 3. ———

— — — — 4 —

The Liotrichidæ, or Hill-Tits, are small, active, delicately-coloured

birds, almost confined to the Himalayas and their extension eastward
to China. They are now generally admitted to form a distinct family.
The genera are distributed as follows:
(1146) Liothrix (3 sp.), Himalayas to China; Siva (3 sp.), Himalayas;
Minla (4 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; Proparus (7 sp.), Nepal to
East Thibet and Aracan; (1153) Pteruthius (6 sp.), Himalayas to Java
and West China; (1155) Cutia (2 sp.), Nepal; (1019) Yuhina (3 sp.),
High Himalayas and Moupin; (1020) Ixulus (3 sp.), Himalayas to
Tenasserim; (1021) Myzornis (1 sp.), Darjeeling.

Family 12.—PHYLLORNITHIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— ——— ——— 1. 2. 3. ———

— — — — 4 —

The Phyllornithidæ, or "Green Bulbuls," are a small group of fruit-

eating birds, strictly confined to the Oriental region, and ranging over
the whole of it, with the one exception of the Philippine Islands. The
genera are:—

(1022) Phyllornis (12 sp.), India to Java, Ceylon, and Hainan; (1166)
Iora (4 sp.), the whole Oriental region; (1163) Erpornis (2 sp.),
Borneo, Himalayas, Hainan, and Formosa.

Family 13.—PYCNONOTIDÆ. (9 Genera, 139 Species.)

General Distribution.
 Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian
Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— —2—4 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1——

— — 4 4 —

The Pycnonotidæ, Bulbuls, or fruit-thrushes, are highly characteristic

of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound; less
plentiful in the Ethiopian region, and extending to Palestine and
Japan in the Palæarctic, and to the Moluccas in the Australian region,
but absent from the intervening island of Celebes. The genera are:—

Microscelis (6 sp.), Burmah, the Indo-Malay Islands, and Japan;

Pycnonotus (52 sp., in many sub-genera), Palestine to South Africa,
the whole Oriental region, China and Japan; Alcurus (1 sp.),
Himalayas; Hemixus (2 sp.), Nepal, Bootan, Hainan; Phyllastrephus
(4 sp.), West and South Africa; Hypsipetes (20 sp.), the whole
Oriental region, Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands; Tylas (1
sp.), Madagascar; Criniger (30 sp.), the whole Oriental region
(excluding Philippines), West and South Africa, Moluccas; Ixonotus (7
sp.), West Africa; (1015 1017) Setornis (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and
Borneo; Iole (4 sp.), Aracan and Malaya; Andropadus (9 sp.), Tropical
Africa; (1157) Lioptilus (1 sp.), South Africa.

Family 14.—ORIOLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 40 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.
 ——— ——— 1. 2 — 4 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2 —
— — 4 4 —

The Orioles, or Golden Thrushes, are a small group characteristic of

the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, migrating into the western
Palæarctic region, and with some of the less typical forms in
Australia. The genera are:—

Oriolus (24 sp.), Central Europe, throughout Africa, and the whole
Oriental region, northward to Pekin, and eastward to Flores; (1073)
Analcipus (3 sp.), Himalayas, Formosa, Java and Borneo; Mimeta (9
sp.), the Moluccas and Australia; Sphecotheres (3 sp.), Timor and
Australia. Artamia (1 sp.), Madagascar,—perhaps belongs to the next
family or to Laniidæ.

Family 15.—CAMPEPHAGIDÆ (3 Genera, 100 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— ——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3

— — — 4 4 —

The Campephagidæ, or Cuckoo Shrikes, (Campephaginæ of the

Hand List, with the addition of Cochoa) are most abundant in the
Australian region (especially in the Austro-Malay sub-region), less so
in the Oriental, and still less in the Ethiopian region. The genera, for
the most part as adopted by Dr. Hartlaub, are as follows:—
Pericrocotus (22 sp.), the whole Oriental region, extending north to
Pekin, and east to Lombok; (1242—1244) Lanicterus (4 sp.), West and
South Africa; (1245 1246) Graucalus (25 sp.), the whole Oriental
region, and eastward to Austro-Malaya, the New Hebrides, and
Tasmania; Artamides (1 sp.), Celebes; Pteropodocys (1 sp.),
Australia; (1248 1250 1257 1258) Campephaga (16 sp.), Austro-Malaya,
and New Caledonia, Philippines, the Ethiopian region; Volvocivora (8
sp.) the Oriental region (excluding Philippines); Lalage (18 sp.), the
whole Malay Archipelago to New Caledonia and Australia;
Symmorphus (1 sp.), Australia; Oxynotus (2 sp.), Mauritius and
Bourbon; (1204) Cochoa (3 sp.), Himalayas, Java. The position of this
last genus is doubtful. Jerdon puts it in the Liotrichidæ; Sundeval in
the Sturnidæ; Bonaparte in the Dicruridæ; Professor Newton
suggests the Pycnonotidæ; but it seems on the whole best placed
here.

Family 16.—DICRURIDÆ. (6 Genera, 58 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— ——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2 —

— — — 4 4 —

The Dicruridæ, or Drongo Shrikes (Dicruridæ of the Hand List,

omitting the genus Melænornis), have nearly the same distribution
as the last family, with which they are sometimes united. They are,
however, most abundant and varied in the Oriental region, much less
so both in the Australian and Ethiopian regions. The distribution of
the genera is as follows:—
Dicrurus (46 sp., in several sub-genera), has the range of the whole
family, extending east to New Ireland, and one species in Australia;
Chætorhynchus (1 sp.), New Guinea; Bhringa (2 sp.), Himalayas to
Borneo (Plate IX. vol. i. p. 339); Chibia (2 sp.), Himalayas eastward
to North China; Chaptia (3 sp.), all India to Malacca and Formosa;
Irena (4 sp.), Central India, Assam, and Burmah to Borneo and the
Philippine Islands. This last genus is placed by Jerdon among the
Pycnonotidæ, but seems to come most naturally here or in the last
family.

Family 17.—MUSCICAPIDÆ. (44 Genera, 283 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3.
— — 4 4 4 4

The Muscicapidæ, or Flycatchers (Muscicapinæ and Myiagrinæ of the

Hand List, omitting Cochoa and including Pogonocichla) form an
extensive family of usually small-sized and often bright-coloured
birds, very abundant in the warmer regions of the Old World and
Australia, but becoming scarce as we approach the temperate and
colder regions. They are wholly absent from North and South
America. The genera, many of which are not well defined, are
distributed as follows:—

Peltops (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; Monarcha (28 sp.), Moluccas to the

Carolines and Marquesas Islands, Australia and Tasmania;
Leucophantes (1 sp.), New Guinea; Butalis (4 sp.), Ethiopian and
Palæarctic regions, Moluccas and Formosa; Muscicapa (12 sp.),
Europe and Africa; Muscicapula (6 sp.), India to Western China;
Alseonax (1 sp.), South Africa; Erythrosterna (7 sp.), Europe to China
and Java; Newtonia (1 sp.), Madagascar; Xanthopygia (2 sp.), Japan,
China, Malacca; Hemipus (1 sp.), India and Ceylon; Pycnophrys (1
sp.), Java; Hyliota (2 sp.), West Africa; Erythrocercus (2 sp.), West
Africa and Zambesi; Micræca (6 sp.), Australia, Timor, and Papuan
Islands; Artomyias (2 sp.), West Africa; Pseudobias (1 sp.),
Madagascar; Hemichelidon (3 sp.), the Oriental region and North
China; Smithornis (2 sp.), West and South Africa; Megabias (1 sp.),
West Africa; Cassinia (2 sp.), West Africa; Bias, (1 sp.), Tropical
Africa; Niltava (3 sp.), Himalayas to West China; Cyornis (16 sp.), the
whole Oriental region; Cyanoptila (1 sp.), Japan, China, Hainan;
Eumyias (7 sp.), India to South China, Ceylon, and Sumatra; (1213
and 1216) Siphia (8 sp.), North India, Formosa, Timor; Anthipes (1
sp.), Nepal; Seisura (5 sp.), Australia and Austro-Malaya (excluding
Celebes); Myiagra (16 sp.), Australia and Moluccas to Caroline and
Samoa Islands; Hypothymis (2 sp.), Oriental region and Celebes;
Elminia (2 sp.), Tropical Africa; Muscitodus (2 sp.), Fiji Islands;
Machærirhynchus (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia;
Platystira (12 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Rhipidura (45 sp.), the
Oriental and Australian regions to the Samoa Islands and Tasmania;
Chelidorynx (1 sp.), North India; Myialestes (2 sp.), India to Ceylon,
China, Java and Celebes; Tchitrea (26 sp.), the entire Ethiopian and
Oriental regions, and to North China and Japan; Philentoma (4 sp.),
Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippine Islands; Todopsis (6 sp.),
Papuan Islands; (836) Pogonocichla (1 sp.), South Africa; (1061—1063)
Bradyornis (7 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1460) Chasiempis (2
sp.), Sandwich Islands.

Family 18.—PACHYCEPHALIDÆ. (5 Genera, 62 Species.)

General Distribution.
 Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian
Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— ——— ——— — — 3. 1. 2. 3

— — — 4 4 —

The Pachycephalidæ, or Thick-headed Shrikes (Pachycephalinæ of

the Hand List omitting Colluricincla, Cracticus, and Pardalotus) are
almost confined to the Australian region, a single species extending
to Java and Aracan, and another (?) to Madagascar. The family has
generally been united with the Laniidæ, but most modern
ornithologists consider it to be distinct. The distribution of the genera
is as follows:—

Oreœca (1 sp.), Australia; Falcunculus (2 sp.), Australia;

Pachycephala (44 sp.), Sula Islands (east of Celebes) to the Fiji
Islands, and Australia; Hylocharis (4 sp.), Timor, Celebes, Indo-
Malaya, and Aracan; Calicalicus (1 sp.), Madagascar; Eopsaltria (14
sp.), Australia, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides; Artamia (4
sp.), Madagascar,—may belong to this family, or to Laniidæ,
Oriolidæ, or Artamidæ, according to different authors.

Family 19.—LANIIDÆ. (19 Genera, 145 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3
— 4 4 4 4 —
The Laniidæ, or Shrikes (Laniinæ and Malaconotinæ of the Hand List,
and including Colluricincla), are most abundant and varied in Africa,
less plentiful in the Oriental, Australian, and Palæarctic regions, with
a few species in the Nearctic region as far as Mexico. The
constitution of the family is, however, somewhat uncertain. The
genera here admitted are:—

Colluricincla (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Rectes (18 sp.), Papuan

Islands, North Australia, to Pelew and Fiji Islands; (1462—1464 1466
1470 1471—1473) Lanius (50 sp.), the whole Nearctic, Palæarctic,
Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, one species reaching Timor, none in
Madagascar; Laniellus (1 sp.), Java; Hypocolius (1 sp.), Abyssinia and
Upper Nile; Corvinella (1 sp.), South and West Africa; Urolestes (1
sp.), South and East Africa; Tephrodornis (4 sp.), Oriental region to
Hainan and Java; Hypodes (1 sp.), West Africa; Fraseria (2 sp.), West
Africa; Cuphopterus (1 sp.), Princes' Island; Nilaus (1 sp.), South and
West Africa; Prionops (9 sp.), Tropical Africa; Eurocephalus (2 sp.),
North, East, and South Africa, and Abyssinia; Chaunonotus (1 sp.),
West Africa; Vanga (4 sp.), Madagascar (Plate VI. vol. i. p. 278);
Laniarius (36 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region; Telephonus (10 sp.),
all Africa and South Europe; Meristes (2 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa; Nicator (1 sp.), East Africa.

Family 20.—CORVIDÆ. (24 Genera, 190 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3
4 4 4 4 4 —
The Corvidæ, or Crows, Jays, &c., form an extensive and somewhat
heterogeneous group, some members of which inhabit almost every
part of the globe, although none of the genera are cosmopolitan.
The true crows are found everywhere but in South America; the
magpies, choughs, and nutcrackers are characteristic of the
Palæarctic region; the jays are Palæarctic, Oriental, and American;
while the piping crows are peculiarly Australian. The more detailed
distribution of the genera is as follows:—

Sub-family I. Gymnorhininæ (Piping Crows).—Strepera (4 sp.), and

Gymnorhina (3 sp.), are Australian only; Cracticus (9 sp.), ranges
from New Guinea to Tasmania (this is usually put with the Shrikes,
but it has more affinity with the preceding genera); Pityriasis (1 sp.),
Borneo (an extraordinary bird of very doubtful affinities); Grallina (1
sp.), Australia, is put here by Sundevall,—among Motacillidæ, by
Gould.

Sub-family II. Garrulinæ (Jays).—Platylophus = Lophocitta (4 sp.),

Malaya; Garrulus (12 sp.), Palæarctic region, China and Himalayas;
Perisoreus (2 sp.), North of Palæarctic and Nearctic regions;
Cyanurus (22 sp.), American, from Bolivia to Canada, most abundant
in Central America, but absent from the Antilles; Cyanocorax (15
sp.), La Plata to Mexico; Calocitta (2 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico;
Psilorhinus (3 sp.), Costa Rica to Texas; Urocissa (6 sp.), Western
Himalayas to China and Formosa; Cissa (3 sp.), South-eastern
Himalayas to Tenasserim, Ceylon, Sumatra, and Java.

Sub-family III. Dendrocittinæ (Tree Crows).—Temnurus (3 sp.),

Cochin China, Malacca to Borneo (not Java); Dendrocitta (9 sp.), the
Oriental region to Sumatra, Hainan, and Formosa; Crypsirhina (3
sp.), Pegu, Siam, and Java; Ptilostomus (2 sp.), West, East, and
South Africa.
Sub-family IV. Corvinæ (Crows and Magpies).—Nucifraga (4 sp.),
Palæarctic region to the Himalayas and North China; Picicorvus (1
sp.), the Rocky Mountains and California; Gymnokitta (1 sp.), Rocky
Mountains and Arizona (Plate XVIII., Vol. II., p. 128); Pica (9 sp.),
Palæarctic region, Arctic America, and California; Cyanopica (3 sp.),
Spain, North-east Asia, Japan; Streptocitta (2 sp.), Celebes;
Charitornis (1 sp.), Sula Islands; Corvus (55 sp.), universally
distributed except South America and New Zealand, but found in
Guatemala and the Antilles to Porto Rico; reaches the extreme north
of Europe and Asia; Gymnocorvus (2 sp.), Papuan Islands;
Picathartes (1 sp.), West Africa; Corvultur (2 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa.

Sub-family V. Fregilinæ (Choughs).—Fregilus (3 sp.), mountains and

cliffs of Palæarctic region from West Europe to the Himalayas and
North China, Abyssinia (Plate I., Vol. I., p. 195); Corcorax (1 sp.),
Australia.

Family 21.—PARADISEIDÆ. (19 Genera, 34 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— ——— ——— ——— 1. 2 —

— — — — — —

The Paradiseidæ, or "Birds of Paradise," form one of the most

remarkable families of birds, unsurpassed alike for the singularity and
the beauty of their plumage. Till recently the family was restricted to
about eight species of the more typical Paradise birds, but in his
splendid monograph of the group, Mr. Elliot has combined together a
number of allied forms which had been doubtfully placed in several
adjacent families. The various species of true Paradise birds, having
ornamental plumes developed from different parts of the body, are
almost wholly confined to New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan
Islands, one species only being found in the Moluccas and one in
North Australia; while the less typical Bower-birds, having no such
developments of plumage, are most characteristic of the north and
east of Australia, with a few species in New Guinea. The distribution
of the genera according to Mr. Elliot's monograph is as follows:—

Sub-family I. Paradiseinæ.—Paradisea (4 sp.), Papuan Islands;

Manucodia (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia; Astrapia (1
sp.), New Guinea; Parotia (1 sp.), New Guinea; Lophorhina (1 sp.),
New Guinea; Diphyllodes (3 sp.), Papuan Islands; Xanthomelus (1
sp.), New Guinea; Cicinnurus (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; Paradigalla (1
sp.), New Guinea; Semioptera (1 sp.), Gilolo and Batchian.

Sub-family II. Epimachinæ.—Epimachus (1 sp.), New Guinea;

Drepanornis (1 sp.), New Guinea; Seleucides (1 sp.), New Guinea
(Plate X., Vol. I., p. 414); Ptilorhis (4 sp.), New Guinea and North
Australia.

Sub-family III. Tectonarchinæ (Bower-birds).—Sericulus (1 sp.),

Eastern Australia; Ptilonorhynchus (1 sp.), Eastern Australia;
Chlamydodera (4 sp.), North and East Australia; Ælurædus (3 sp.),
Papuan Islands and East Australia; Amblyornis (1 sp.), New Guinea.

Family 22.—MELIPHAGIDÆ. (23 Genera, 190 Species.)

General Distribution.
 Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian
Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— ——— ——— ——— 1. 2. 3.

— — — — — 4

(As in the Hand List, but omitting Zosterops, and slightly altering
the arrangement.)

The extensive group of the Meliphagidæ, or Honey-suckers, is wholly

Australian, for the genus Zosterops, which extends into the Oriental
and Ethiopian regions, does not naturally belong to it. Several of the
genera are confined to Australia, others to New Zealand, while a few
range over the whole Australian region. The genera are distributed
as follows:—

Myzomela (18 sp.), has the widest range, extending from Celebes to
the Samoa Islands, and to Timor and Eastern Australia; Entomophila
(4 sp.), Australia and New Guinea; Gliciphila (10 sp.), Australia,
Timor, New Guinea, and New Caledonia; Acanthorhynchus (2 sp.),
Australia and Tasmania; Meliphaga (1 sp.), Australia; Ptilotis (40 sp.),
Gilolo and Lombok to Australia and Tasmania, and to the Samoa and
Tonga Islands; Meliornis (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania;
Prosthemadera (1 sp.), Pogonornis (1 sp.), New Zealand; Anthornis
(4 sp.), New Zealand and Chatham Islands; Anthochæra (4 sp.),
Australia and Tasmania; Xanthotis (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and
Australia; Leptornis (2 sp.), Samoa Islands and New Caledonia;
Philemon = Tropidorhyncus (18 sp.), Moluccas and Lombok to New
Guinea, Australia, Tasmania and New Caledonia; Entomiza (2 sp.),
Australia; Manorhina (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Euthyrhynchus
(3 sp.), New Guinea; Melirrhophetes (2 sp.), New Guinea; Melidectes
(1 sp.), New Guinea; Melipotes (1 sp.), New Guinea; Melithreptus (8
sp.), New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania; (397) Moho (3 sp.),
Sandwich Islands; Chætoptila (1 sp.), Sandwich Islands.
 Family 23.—NECTARINIIDÆ. (11 Genera, 122 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— —2— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2 —

— — — 4 4 —

The Nectariniidæ, or Sun-birds, form a rather extensive group of

insectivorous honey-suckers, often adorned with brilliant metallic
plumage, and bearing a superficial resemblance to the American
humming-birds, although not in any way related to them. They
abound in the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, as far east
as New Ireland, and south to Queensland, while one species inhabits
the hot Jordan Valley in the Palæarctic region. For the Eastern
genera I follow Lord Walden's classification (Ibis, 1870); the African
species not having been so carefully studied are mostly placed in one
genus. The genera adopted are as follows:—

Promerops (1 sp.), South Africa; Nectarinia (60 sp.), the whole

Ethiopian region; Cinnyricinclus (5 sp.), West Africa; Neodrepanis (1
sp.), Madagascar; Arachnecthra (13 sp.), Palestine, all India to
Hainan, the Papuan Islands, and North-east Australia; Æthopyga (15
sp.), Himalayas and Central India to West China, Hainan, Java, and
Northern Celebes; Nectarophila (5 sp.), Central India and Ceylon,
Assam and Aracan to Java, Celebes and the Philippines; Chalcostetha
(6 sp.), Malay Peninsula to New Guinea; Anthreptes (1 sp.), Siam,
Malay Peninsula to Sula Islands, and Flores; Cosmeteira (1 sp.),
Papuan Islands; Arachnothera (15 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding
Philippines) Celebes, Lombok, and Papuan Islands.
 Family 24.—DICÆIDÆ. (5 Genera, 107 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— ——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3.

— — 4 4 4 4

The Dicæidæ, or Flower-peckers, consist of very small, gaily-

coloured birds, rather abundant over the whole Oriental and much of
the Australian regions, and one genus extending over the Ethiopian
region. The genera here adopted are the following:—

(622) Zosterops (68 sp.), the whole Ethiopian, Oriental, and

Australian regions, as far east as the Fiji Islands, and north to Pekin
and Japan; (400—403) Dicæum (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region,
except China, with the Australian region as far as the Solomon
Islands; (404) Pachyglossa (2 sp. 1437 1442), Nepal and Northern
Celebes; (405) Piprisoma (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon and Timor;
(1450) Pardalotus (10 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (407—409)
Prionochilus (5 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and Papuan Islands.

Family 25.—DREPANIDIDÆ. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.
 ——— ——— ——— ——— ——— ——3
— — — — — —

The Drepanididæ are confined to the Sandwich Islands, and I follow

Mr. Sclater's suggestion in bringing together the following genera to
form this family:—

Drepanis (3 sp.); Hemignathus (3 sp.); Loxops (1 sp.); Psittirostra (1

sp.). If these are correctly associated, the great differences in the bill
indicate that they are the remains of a larger and more varied family,
once inhabiting more extensive land surfaces in the Pacific.

Family 26.—CŒREBIDÆ. (11 Genera, 55 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

— 2. 3. ——3 ——— ——— ——— ———

4 — — — — —

(According to the arrangement of Messrs. Sclater and Salvin.)

The Cœrebidæ, or Sugar-birds, are delicate little birds allied to the

preceding families, but with extensile honey-sucking tongues. They
are almost wholly confined to the tropical parts of America, only one
species of Certhiola ranging so far north as Florida. The following is
the distribution of the genera:—
Diglossa (14 sp.), Peru and Bolivia to Guiana and Mexico; Diglossopis
(1 sp.), Ecuador to Venezuela; Oreomanes (1 sp.), Ecuador;
Conirostrum (6 sp.), Bolivia to Ecuador and Columbia; Hemidacnis (1
sp.), Upper Amazon and Columbia; Dacnis (13 sp.), Brazil to Ecuador
and Costa Rica; Certhidea (2 sp.), Galapagos Islands; Chlorophanes
(2 sp.), Brazil to Central America and Cuba; Cœreba (4 sp.), Brazil to
Mexico; Certhiola (10 sp.), Amazon to Mexico, West Indies, and
Florida; Glossoptila (1 sp.), Jamaica.

Family 27.—MNIOTILTIDÆ. (18 Genera, 115 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

— 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. ——— ——— ——— ———

4 4 — — — —

(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical,

Baird and Allen for the Nearctic region.)

The Mniotiltidæ, or Wood-warblers, are an interesting group of small

and elegant birds, allied to the preceding family and to the greenlets,
and perhaps also to the warblers and tits of Europe. They range over
all North America from Panama to the Arctic regions, but do not
extend far beyond the tropic in Southern America. They are almost
as abundant in the Nearctic as in the Neotropical region; and
considering the favourable conditions of existence in Tropical
America, this fact, in connection with their absence from the South
Temperate zone would lead us to suppose that they originated in
North Temperate America, and subsequently spread southward into
the tropics. This supposition is strengthened by the fact that their
metropolis, in the breeding season, is to the north of the United
States. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are as
follows:—

(918) Siurus (4 sp.), Venezuela and West Indies to Eastern States and
Canada; Mniotilta (1 sp.), Venezuela, Mexico, and Antilles to the
Eastern States; Parula (5 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and the Eastern
States, and Canada; Protonotaria (1 sp.), Antilles to Ohio;
Helminthophaga (8 sp.), Columbia to Arctic America; Helmintherus (2
sp.), Central America to Eastern States; Perissoglossa (1 sp.), Antilles
and Eastern States; Dendrœca (33 sp.), Amazon to Antilles, and
Arctic America, and south to Chili; Oporornis (2 sp.), Guatemala to
Eastern States; Geothlypis (11 sp.), all North America and Brazil;
Myiodioctes (5 sp.), all North America and Columbia; Basileuterus (22
sp.), Bolivia and Brazil to Mexico; Setophaga (15 sp.), Brazil to
Canada; Ergaticus (2 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; Cardellina (1 sp.),
Guatemala and Mexico; (1440) Granatellus (3 sp.), Amazon to
Mexico; (1441) Teretristis (2 sp.), Cuba; (1439) Icteria (2 sp.), Costa
Rica and United States to Canada.

Family 28.—VIREONIDÆ. (7 Genera, 63 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

— 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. ——— ——— ——— ———

4 4 — — — —
(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical genera;
Professor Baird and Mr. Allen for those of the Nearctic region.)

The Vireonidæ, or Greenlets, are a family of small fly-catching birds

wholly restricted to the American continent, where they range from
Paraguay to Canada. They are allied to the Mniotiltidæ and perhaps
also to the Australian Pachycephalidæ. Only two of the genera, with
about a dozen species, inhabit the Nearctic region. The distribution
of the genera is as follows:—

Vireosylvia (13 sp.), Venezuela to Mexico, the Antilles, the Eastern

States and Canada; Vireo (14 sp.), Central America and the Antilles
to Canada; Neochloe (1 sp.), Mexico; Hylophilus (20 sp.), Brazil to
Mexico; Laletes (1 sp.), Jamaica; Vireolanius (5 sp.), Amazonia to
Mexico; Cychlorhis (9 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico.

Family 29.—AMPELIDÆ. (4 Genera, 9 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

— — 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. ——— ——— ———

4 4 4 — — —

The Ampelidæ, represented in Europe by the waxwing, are a small

family, characteristic of the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, but
extending southward to Costa Rica and the West Indian islands. The
genera are distributed as follows:—
(1539) Ampelis (3 sp.), the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, and
southward to Guatemala; (1360) Ptilogonys (2 sp.), Central America;
(1442) Dulus (2 sp.), West Indian Islands; (1361) Phænopepla (1 sp.),
Mexico and the Gila Valley.

Family 30.—HIRUNDINIDÆ. (9 Genera, 91 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3.
4 4 4 4 4 4

The Hirundinidæ, or Swallows, are true cosmopolites. Although they

do not range quite so far north (except as stragglers) as a few of the
extreme polar birds, yet they pass beyond the Arctic Circle both in
America and Europe, Cotyle riparia having been observed in the
Parry Islands, while Hirundo rustica has been seen both in
Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. Cotyle riparia and Chelidon urbica
also breed in great numbers in northern Lapland, latitude 67° to 70°
north. Many of the species also, have an enormous range, the
common swallow (Hirundo rustica) inhabiting Europe, Asia and
Africa, from Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope and to the Moluccas.
The genera of swallows are not well determined, a number having
been established of which the value is uncertain. I admit the
following, referring by numbers to the Hand List:—

(215—221 226—228) Hirundo (40 sp.), the range of the entire family;
(222 223) Psalidoprogne (10 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (224)
Phedina (1 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands; (225)
Petrochelidon (5 sp.), North and South America and Cape of Good
Hope; (220—232 ?234) Atticora (8 sp.), the Neotropical region and ?
Australia; (235 237) Cotyle (11 sp.), Europe, India, Africa, North
America, Antilles and Ecuador; (236) Stelgidopteryx (5 sp.), La Plata
to United States; (238 and 239) Chelidon (6 sp.), Palæarctic region,
Nepal, Borneo; (240—242) Progne (5 sp.), all North and South
America.

Family 31.—ICTERIDÆ. (24 Genera, 110 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. ——— ——— ——— ———

4 4 — — — —

The Icteridæ, or American hang-nests, range over the whole

continent, from Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the Arctic
Circle. Only about 20 species inhabit the Nearctic region, while, as
usual with exclusively American families, the larger proportion of the
genera and species are found in the tropical parts of South America.
The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are the
following:—

Clypeicterus (1 sp.), Upper Amazon; Ocycalus (2 sp.), Upper Amazon

to Mexico; Ostinops (8 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico; Cassiculus
(1 sp.), Mexico; Cassicus (10 sp.), South Brazil and Bolivia to Costa
Rica; Icterus (34 sp.), La Plata to the Antilles and United States;
Dolichonyx (1 sp.), Paraguay to Canada; Molothrus (8 sp.), La Plata
to Northern United States; Agelæus (7 sp.), La Plata and Chili to
Northern United States; Xanthocephalus (1 sp.), Mexico to California
and Canada; Xanthosomus (4 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela;
Amblyrhamphus (1 sp.), La Plata and Bolivia; Gymnomystax (1 sp.),
Amazonia and Guiana; Pseudoleistes (2 sp.), La Plata and Brazil;
Leistes (3 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela; Sturnella (5 sp.), Patagonia
and Falkland Islands to Middle United States; Curæus (1 sp.), Chili;
Nesopsar (1 sp.), Jamaica; Scolecophgaus (2 sp.), Mexico to Arctic
Circle; Lampropsar (4 sp.), Amazonia and Ecuador to Mexico;
Quiscalus (10 sp.), Venezuela and Columbia to South and Central
United States; Hypopyrrhus (1 sp.), Columbia; Aphobus (1 sp.), Brazil
and Bolivia; Cassidix (2 sp.), Brazil to Mexico and Cuba.

Family 32.—TANAGRIDÆ. (43 Genera, 304 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

1. 2. 3. — 2. 3 ——— ——— ——— ———

4 — — — — —

The Tanagers are an extensive family of varied and beautiful fruit-

eating birds, almost peculiar to the Neotropical region, only four
species of a single genus (Pyranga) extending into the Eastern
United States and Rocky Mountains. Southward they range to La
Plata. They are especially abundant in the forest regions of South
America east of the Andes, where no less than 40 out of the 43
genera occur; 23 of the genera are peculiar to this sub-region, while
only 1 (Phlogothraupis) is peculiar to Central America and Mexico,
and 2 (Spindalis and Phænicophilus) to the West Indian islands. The
genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin with their distribution
will be found at Vol. II., p. 99, in our account of Neotropical Zoology.

Family 33.—FRINGILLIDÆ. (74 Genera, 509 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. ———
4 4 4 4 4 —

The great family of the Fringillidæ, or finches, is in a very unsettled

state as regards their division into genera, the most divergent views
being held by ornithologists as to the constitution and affinities of
many of the groups. All the Australian finch-like birds appear to
belong to the Ploceidæ, so that the finches, as here constituted, are
found in every region and sub-region, except the Australian region
from which they are entirely absent—a peculiar distribution hardly to
be found in any other family of birds.

Many European ornithologists separate the Emberizidæ, or buntings,

as a distinct family, but as the American genera have not been so
divided I am obliged to keep them together; but the genera usually
classed as "buntings" are placed last, as a sub-family. In the
following arrangement of the genera, I have done what I could to
harmonize the views of the best modern writers. For convenience of
reference the succession of the genera is that of the Hand List, and
the numbers of the sub-genera are given whenever practicable:—
(1793 1795) Fringilla (6 sp.), the whole Palæarctic region, including
the Atlantic Islands; (1794) Acanthis (3 sp.), Europe to Siberia, Persia,
and North-West Himalayas; (1796) Procarduelis (1 sp.), High
Himalayas and East Thibet; (1797—1803) Chrysomitris (18 sp.),
Neotropical and Nearctic regions, Europe, and Siberia; (1804)
Metoponia (1 sp.), East Europe to North West Himalayas; (1805 and
1809) Chlorospiza (9 sp.), Palæarctic region and Africa to the Cape of

Good Hope; (1806—1809) Dryospiza (14 sp.), South Europe, Palestine,

Canaries, and all Africa; (1810) Sycalis (18 sp.), the whole Neotropical
region; (1811—1813 1816—1819) Pyrgita (34 sp.), Palæarctic and
Oriental regions, and all Africa; (1814) Montifringilla (4 sp.),
Palæarctic region; (1815) Fringillauda (2 sp.), North-West Himalayas
to East Thibet; (1820—1822) Coccothraustes (6 sp.), Palæarctic region
and Nepal, Nearctic region to Mexico; (1823) Eophona (2 sp.), China
and Japan; (1824) Mycerobas (2 sp.), Central Asia to Persia, High
Himalayas, and East Thibet; (1825) Chaunoproctus (1 sp.), Bonin
Islands, south-east of Japan, (probably Palæarctic); (1826) Geospiza
(7 sp.), Galapagos Islands; (1827) Camarhynchus (5 sp.), Galapagos
Islands; (1828) Cactornis (4 sp.), Galapagos Islands; (1830—1832)
Phrygilus (10 sp.), Columbia to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands;
(1833) Xenospingus (1 sp.), Peru; (1834) Diuca (3 sp.), Peru to Chili
and Patagonia; (1835 and 1837) Emberizoides (3 sp.), Venezuela to
Paraguay; (1836) Donacospiza (1 sp.), South Brazil and La Plata;
(1839) Chamæospiza (1 sp.), Mexico; (1838 and 1840) Embernagra (9
sp.), Arizona to La Plata; (1841) Hæmophila (6 sp.), Mexico to Costa
Rica; (1842) Atlapetes (1 sp.), Mexico; (1843) Pyrgisoma (5 sp.).
Mexico to Costa Rica; (1844 and 1845) Pipilo (12 sp.), all North America
to Guatemala; (1846) Junco (6 sp.), all the United States to
Guatemala; (1847) Zonotrichia (9 sp.), the whole Nearctic and
Neotropical regions; (1848 1849) Melospiza (7 sp.), Sitka and United
States to Guatemala; (1850) Spizella (7 sp.), Canada to Guatemala;
(1851) Passerella (4 sp.), the Nearctic region and Northern Asia;
(1852) Passerculus (6 sp.), Nearctic region and to Guatemala; (1853)
Poœcetes (1 sp.), all United States and Mexico; (1854) Ammodromus
(4 sp.), all United States to Guatemala; (1855) Coturniculus (6 sp.),
north and east of North America to Jamaica and Bolivia; (1856)
Peucæa (6 sp.), South Atlantic States and California to Mexico; (1857)
Tiaris (1 sp.), Brazil; (1858) Volatinia (1 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and
Bolivia; (1859) Cyanospiza (5 sp.), Canada to Guatemala; (1860 1861)
Paroaria (6 sp.), Tropical South America, east of the Andes; (1862)
Coryphospingus (4 sp.), Tropical South America; (1863) Haplospiza (2
sp.), Mexico and Brazil; (1864 1891) Phonipara (8 sp.), Mexico to
Columbia, the greater Antilles; (1865) Poospiza (13 sp.), California
and South Central States to Bolivia and La Plata; (424) Spodiornis (1
sp.), Andes of Quito; (1866 1867) Pyrrhula (9 sp.), the whole
Palæarctic region to the Azores and High Himalayas; (1868) Crithagra
(17 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Mauritius, Syria; (1869) Ligurnus
(2 sp.), West Africa; (1870 1871) Carpodacus (18 sp.), Nearctic and
Palæarctic regions to Mexico and Central India; (1872—1874)
Erythrospiza (6 sp.), Southern parts of Palæarctic region; (1875)
Uragus (2 sp.), Siberia and Japan; (1876) Cardinalis (2 sp.), South
and Central States to Venezuela; (1877) Pyrrhuloxia (1 sp.), Texas
and Rio Grande; (1878 1879) Guiraca (6 sp.), Southern United States
to La Plata; (1880) Amaurospiza (2 sp.), Costa Rica and Brazil; (1881)
Hedymeles (2 sp.), all United States to Columbia; (1882) Pheucticus
(5 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia; (1883) Oryzoborus (6 sp.), Mexico
to Ecuador and South Brazil; (1884) Melopyrrha (1 sp.), Cuba; (1885)
Loxigilla (4 sp.), Antilles; (1886 1887) Spermophila (44 sp.), Texas to
Bolivia and Uruguay; (1888) Catamenia (4 sp.), Columbia to Bolivia;
(1889) Neorhynchus (3 sp.), West Peru; (1892) Catamblyrhyncus (1
sp.), Columbia; (1893) Loxia (7 sp.), Europe to North-west India and
Japan, Arctic America to Pennsylvania, Mexico; (1894) Pinicola (3 sp.),
Arctic America, North-east Europe to the Amoor, Camaroons
Mountains West Africa; (1895) Propyrrhula (1 sp.), Darjeeling in the
winter,? Thibet; (1896) Pyrrhospiza (1 sp.), Snowy Himalayas; (1897)
Hæmatospiza (1 sp.), South-east Himalayas, 5,000-10,000 feet;
(1898 1899) Linota (12 sp.), Europe to Central Asia, north and east of
North America; (1900) Leucosticte (7 sp.), Siberia and Thibet to
Kamschatka, and from Alaska to Utah.

Sub-family Emberizinæ.—(1995) Calamospiza (1 sp.), Arizona and

Texas to Mexico; (1906) Chondestes (2 sp.), Western, Central, and
Southern States to Mexico and Nicaragua; (1907—1910) Euspiza (9
sp.), Palæarctic region, India, Burmah, and South China, South-east
United States to Columbia; (1911—1920) Emberiza (28 sp.), the whole
Palæarctic region (continental), to Central India in winter; (1921)
Gubernatrix (1 sp.), Paraguay and La Plata, (according to Messrs.
Sclater and Salvin this comes next to Pipilo); (1922) Fringillaria (8
sp.), Africa and South Europe; (1923—1925) Plectrophanes (6 sp.),
Arctic Zone to Northern Europe and North China, Arctic America, and
east side of Rocky Mountains; (1926) Centronyx (1 sp.), Mouth of
Yellowstone River.

Family 34.—PLOCEIDÆ. (29 Genera, 252 species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.
 ——— ——— ——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3
— — — 4 4 —

The Ploceidæ, or Weaver-finches, are especially characteristic of the

Ethiopian region, where most of the genera and nearly four-fifths of
the species are found; the remainder being pretty equally divided
between the Oriental and Australian regions. Like the true finches
these have never been properly studied, and it is exceedingly difficult
to ascertain what genera are natural and how far those of Australia
and Africa are distinct. The following enumeration must therefore be
taken as altogether tentative and provisional. When the genera
adopted differ from those of the Hand List they will be referred to by
numbers.

Textor (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1650—1654 1657)

Hyphantornis (32 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1655 1656)
Symplectes (8 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Malimbus (9 sp.), West
Africa; (1659 1661) Ploceus (6 sp.), West and East Africa, the Oriental
region (excluding Philippines); (1660) Nelicurvius (1 sp.),
Madagascar; Foudia (12 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands,
Tropical Africa; (1663 1664) Sporopipes (2 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa; (1665—1667) Pyromelana (14 sp.), Tropical and South Africa,
Abyssinia to 10,500 feet; Philetærus (1 sp.), South Africa; Nigrita (7
sp.), West Africa to Upper Nile; Plocepasser (4 sp.), East and South
Africa; (1672—1674) Vidua (7 sp.), Tropical and South Africa (Plate V.,
Vol. I., p. 264); (1675—1677) Coliuspasser (9 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa; Chera (1 sp.), South Africa; Spermospiza (2 sp.), West Africa;
Pyrenestes (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1682—1687 1689 1692
1693 1698) Estrilda (26 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, India, Burmah,

and Java to Australia; (1688 1690 1691 1695 1696) Pytelia (24 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa; (1694) Hypargos (2 sp.), Mozambique and
Madagascar; (1697) Emblema (1 sp.), North-west Australia (1699 1712
—1717) Amadina (15 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Moluccas to

Australia and the Samoa Islands; (1700 1701 1710) Spermestes (8 sp.),
Tropical Africa and Madagascar; (1702) Amauresthes (1 sp.), East and
West Africa; (1703 1707—1709 1711) Munia (30 sp.), Oriental region to
Timor and New Guinea; (1704) Donacola (3 sp.), Australia; (1705 1706)
Poephila (6 sp.), Australia; (1718—1721) Erythrura (7 sp.), Sumatra to
Java, Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea, and Fiji Islands; (1722)
Hypochera (3 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.

Family 35.—STURNIDÆ. (29 Genera, 124 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1 — 3. 4
— — 4 4 4

The Sturnidæ or Starlings, are a highly characteristic Old-World

group, extending to every part of the great Eastern continent and its
islands, and over the Pacific Ocean to the Samoa Islands and New
Zealand, yet wholly absent from the mainland of Australia. The
family appears to be tolerably well-defined, and the following genera
are generally considered to belong to it: (1558 1559 1562) Eulabes (13
sp.), the Oriental region to South-west China, Hainan, and Java,—
and Flores, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands in the Australian
region; Ampeliceps (1 sp.), Tenasserim, Burmah, and Cochin China;
Gymnops (1 sp.), Philippine Islands; Basilornis (2 sp.), Celebes and
Ceram; Pastor (1 sp.), South-east Europe to India, Ceylon, and
Burmah; Acridotheres (7 sp.), the whole Oriental region and Celebes;
(1568 1569) Sturnia (12 sp.), the whole Oriental region, North China,
Japan, and Siberia, Celebes; Dilophus (1 sp.), South Africa; Sturnus
(6 sp.), Palæarctic region, to India and South China in winter;
Sturnopastor (4 sp.), India to Burmah and East Java; Creadion (2
sp.), New Zealand; Heterolocha (1 sp.), New Zealand; (1520) Callæas
(2 sp.), New Zealand; Buphaga (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa;
Euryceros (1 sp.), Madagascar (see Plate VI., Vol. I., p. 278.) This
genus and the last should perhaps form distinct families. (1577) Juida
(5 sp.), Central, West, and South Africa; (1578) Lamprocolius (20 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa; Cinnyricinclus (2 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa; Onychognathus (2 sp.), West Africa; (1581) Spreo (4 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa; (1582—1585) Amydrus (7 sp.), South and
East Africa, Palestine; Aplonis (9 sp.), New Caledonia to the Tonga
Islands; (1587—1589) Calornis (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago
and eastward to the Ladrone and Samoa Islands; (1590) Enodes (1
sp.), Celebes; Scissirostrum (1 sp.), Celebes; (1592) Saroglossa (1
sp.), Himalayas; (1593) Hartlaubius (1 sp), Madagascar; Fregilupus (1
sp.), Bourbon, but it has recently become extinct; (363) Falculia (1
sp)., Madagascar.

Family 36.—ARTAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 17 Species.)

General Distribution.

Neotropical Nearctic Palæarctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian

Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions.

——— ——— ——— ——— 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3

— — — —? 4 —
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