660 Electromagnetism

General Review of Electric Fields

Law of Electrostatics - like charges repel, unlike charges attract
Charge q units Coulomb C

18
1C = 6.25 × 10 electrons
−19
one electron has charge −1.60 × 10 C

−19
one proton is 1.60 × 10 C

How objects become charged

1. FRICTION - electrons are rubbed onto or off the surface

2. CONTACT - electrons are distributed between objects, moving from the object with the most to that with the fewest so

that the excess is equally shared

3. INDUCTION - electrons are attracted to a positively charged object or repelled by a negatively charged object and

create charge imbalance in a body

The direction of an electric field at any point is defined as the direction of the force on a positive charge at that
point.

The strength of the electric field is defined as the magnitude of the force acting on a unit charge (1C ) at that point.

−1
Electric field strength symbol E unit N C

F = qE →

The strength of an electric field created by a charged particle or object is given by

→
E =
1
×
q

2
4πϵ r

Electrical Potential Energy

A charge experiencing a force in an electric field will accelerate & gain kinetic energy

Conservation of energy means that the charge must have lost an equivalent amount of potential energy

Electrical Potential Energy exists wherever charges can be made to move by an electric field.

A uniform electric field has the same magnitude and direction at all points. An example is the electric field between

two parallel and oppositely charged plates.

The gain or loss of PE as a charge moves between two points is known as potential difference/voltage

ΔU E
V =
q

In an appliance this is the energy released to do work. The voltage of an appliance is a measure of the energy it takes

from each charge that goes through it.

Voltage & Work

Voltage is related to work done. The work done (W = F d) on a charge by an electric field is equal to the change in

potential energy (ΔU )

→
E =
ΔV

Δd

d is the distance between plates or distance from the negative plate

E = qV = qEd
→

electric fields can be used to accelerate charged particles and manipulate their paths

in general the acceleration of a charged particle can be calculated using the formula

qE
a =
m
 changes in velocity can be calculated using the work done on the charge

1
2
W = ΔK = mΔv
2

Electron Gun
Electrons are accelerated across a gap by a voltage creating a stream of charged particles all travelling at the same

velocity. Such devices are used to create electron streams in synchrotrons and Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs). They

were also used in old tube TV sets.

Motion of a Charged Particle in an Electric Field

A charged particle travelling through a uniform electric field will have a force acting on it

As the field is of uniform strength and direction the force will be constant in terms of size (F = qE ) and direction

This is similar to a mass moving in a uniform gravitational field

Hence the path of the charged particle will be parabolic and can be analysed using standard projectile motion

techniques.

The component of velocity perpendicular to the electric field will be constant

The component of velocity parallel to the electric field will be accelerated by the force qE and therefore accelerate

with

qE
a =
m

General Review of Magnetic Fields

Law of Magnetic Attraction - Like poles repel, unlike poles attract
The direction of a magnetic field is defined as the direction of the force acting on a single north pole

A compass is a suspended magnet which rotates freely until it is aligned with the earth's magnetic field such that its north

pole points towards the Earth's north magnetic pole

(Hence the North Magnetic Pole is actually a SOUTH POLE)

Magnetic field & force B - unit Tesla (T )

Electromagnetism
Right hand grip rule - thumb points in CONVENTIONAL current (+ve to -ve)

B → magnetic field
Cross - into the page

Dot - out of the page

Solenoid - large number of loops of wire

clockwise - south pole

anti-clockwise - north pole

Strength of Magnetic Field

μ0 I
B =
2πr

−7
μ 0 = 4π × 10 - permeability of free space

Magnetic Field Inside Solenoid

μ 0 nI
B =
l

n = number of turns

l = length (m)

Flux
 ϕ = BA

Flux ϕ in Webers (W b)

Flux is 'lines' of magnetic force and is represented by the lines from N to S on magnetic field diagrams

Density of lines shown represents flux density (B measured in Tesla T )

Flux can be added & subtracted like vectors

for any objects creating a magnetic field, force exists from areas of high flux density to areas of low flux density

Motion of a charged particle in magnetic field

a charged particle that is moving creates a magnetic field

field has the same shape as that produced by a current carrying wire in which the wire is replaced by the velocity

vector of the charged particle

for the right hand rule the thumb points in the direction of the movement of positive charge
hence for a moving negative charge, the thumb points in the direction opposite to that of the velocity vector.

if charged particle is moving through a magnetic field, the two magnetic fields interact and create a force on the

particle

can be seen by considering the addition of the flux vectors of the two fields

The direction of the force is towards the area of lower flux density. This can be determined using the right hand push

rule

thumb in the direction of positive charge movement

fingers in the direction of the magnetic field the charge is moving through

palm faces in the direction of the force acting

The direction of the force is always at right angles to the velocity vector of the charged particle so the path is always

CIRCULAR
If the charge is moving parallel to the field the magnetic field of the charge is directed perpendicular to the field

the flux density of neither field is affected by the other so no force acts

hence it is only the velocity vector of the charged particle perpendicular to the field that creates the force
the size of the force acting is given by

F = qv ⊥ B

The Motor Effect

A current flowing in a wire produces a magnetic field. This is because current is moving charge (electrons).

The effect of a magnetic field - if the wire is located in a magnetic field, the two magnetic fields interact creating a force

on the wire (and the magnet but assume the magnet is fixed).

F = qv ⊥ B = lI ⊥ B

Forces Between Parallel Conductors

The magnetic fields surrounding two current carrying wires will interact (as long as there is a finite distance between the

two wires) and create forces on the wires.

By using the right hand push rule it is possible to determine the direction of the force experienced by a current carrying
wire due to another parallel current carrying wire.
When currents are travelling in the SAME direction - wires ATTRACT
When currents are travelling in OPPOSITE directions - wires REPEL

Alternate explanation

The direction of the field at any point surrounding the wire is such that any parallel wire will be perpendicular to the field

Therefore the force on a parallel wire carrying a current I in that field is

F μ0 I1 I2
=
l 2π r

l is the 'shared' length of the two wires

r is the perpendicular distance between the wires

Note that the same magnitude force will act on both wires but in opposite directions. (Newton's 3rd law)

Definition of the Ampere

Ampere: The current required to be flowing in two straight parallel conductors of negligible circular cross section placed
−7
1m apart in a vacuum such that the force produced on each wire is 2 × 10 N per metre length.

DC Motors
Parts of a DC Motor

An electric motor transforms electrical energy into (rotational) kinetic energy.

Stator - the stationary parts of the motor. In small mototors generally it is the magnets that do not move. The magnets may
also be in the form of electromagnets.

Coils - wires that carry the current through the magnetic field. They form, or are attached to, an
Armature - rotating structure (including an axle) that holds the coils. (Note: often includes the coils)
Commutator - connects the coils to the main circuit. In a DC motor the commutator is a split ring that reverses the
direction of the current in the rods every 180° rotation. The commutator rotates with the armature and coils.

Brushes - low friction conductors that connect the commutator to the main circuit wiring (static).
Rotor - the moving (rotating) part of the motor, usually the armature/coils.

Operation of DC Motors
An electric motor transforms electrical energy into rotational kinetic energy
By using the force generated on a current carrying wire on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field (the motor effect), a

wire coil is made to rotate

Note - the direction of the wire acting on a wire in the field is constant. This creates a problem if a coil of wires is required

to rotate.

Torque on a Coil in a DC Motor

Torque - Turning ability of a force

τ = F⊥ r

where τ is torque in N m and r is distance from fulcrum and F is the component of the force in the direction of rotation
i.e. perpendicular to the lever

within a wheel or lever, the same torque applies. The force applied changes with r
along a connecting chain the same force applies. The torque changes with r
In a motor, F acts vertically
 Note - wires 1 and 2 are always oriented at 90° to the magnetic field. The normal to the armature itself is angled at θ

to the field lines

τ = nI AB sin θ

n - turns

I - current

A - area of coil

B - magnetic field strength

to increase torque of a DC motor:

increase n/I /A/B

use curved magnets so that θ is kept as close to 90° as possible for as long as possible

Faraday & Electromagnetic Induction

After Oersted's discovery, Faraday was one of a number of scientists who experimented in order to produce electric

currents using magnetism. He attempted to induce a current in a coil of wire wound with another, current carrying, coil

around a block of wood. He failed to detect a current because the galvanometers he used were not sensitive enough. He

magnetised needles by placing them in glass tubes wrapped in coils of wire. He discovered that reversing the direction of

current reversed the polarity of the magnetism in the needles.

THE IRON RING EXPERIMENT

Faraday hit upon the idea of winding coils of wire around a soft iron core, which he had shaped into a ring.

When the switch was closed the galvanometer deflected substantially, indicating the magnetic field produced by one coil

had induced a current in the other. The current was only induced momentarily when the switch was opened or closed.
Faraday concluded that the current was only produced when the magnetic field was changing

reversing the polarity of the magnet reverses the direction of the current

reversing the direction of the magnet's motion reversed the direction of the current

increasing the speed of the magnet's motion increased the magnitude of the current

Induction
Flux - the amount of magnetic field passing through a given area
 ϕ = BA

Flux ϕ in Webers (W b)

Magnetic field strength B in Tesla (T ) - a measure of flux density

Area A perpendicular to field

Flux reduces if the defined area is not perpendicular to the magnetic field lines.

ϕ = N BA cos θ

Where θ is the angle between the field lines and the normal to the area

Faraday's Law of Induction

The induced emf in a circuit is equal in magnitude to the rate at which the magnetic flux through the circuit is changing

with time

Definition of emf - Electromotive force: a force that acts on charge due to relative motion to a magnetic field

In a conducting circuit it acts on the electrons

If the circuit is complete and the electrons can move it will create current

Thus emf can be considered to be equivalent to potential difference and is measured in volts
Faraday's Law can be stated as

Δϕ
ϵ = −N
Δt

where

ϵ is emf in volts V

N is number of turns in armature/coil

Δϕ is change in flux in W b

Δt is time taken for flux to change in seconds

The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced emf and therefore current in the conductor is such that it

opposes the change in flux

If flux directed in a certain direction is increasing, the current will act to create a magnetic field in the opposite

direction

ΔBA cos θ
ϵ = −N ( )
Δt

Therefore three ways in which to induce emf

Change magnetic field

Change area of conductor

Change angle of the conductor to the field (i.e. rotate the coils)

Generally emf is induced by changing magnetic field (e.g. in a transformer AC current is used to produce a constantly

changing magnetic field) OR by changing the angle between the field and conductor (e.g. in a generator a coil of

wire is rotated within a magnetic field of constant direction)

Note - emf is equivalent to potential difference but is not the same

Potential difference is a force that acts on charge due to position in an electric field

Potential difference between any two points A and B is the same no matter what path the charge takes

However emf between two points A and B depends on the magnetic field, the flux in the area enclosed by the

path between the two points hence there can be different emfs between the same points

Generators
A generator transforms rotational kinetic energy into electrical energy.

The kinetic energy is used to turn a coil of wire in a magnetic field.

The change of flux through the coil induces an emf which causes a current to flow in a circuit.

Consider a coil rotating in a magnetic field.

The maximum flux occurs when the coil is perpendicular to the field.

The minimum flux occurs when the coil is parallel to the field.

Δϕ
ϵ = −
Δt

Direction of Current
The direction of the current produced by a generator is determined by the Left Hand Push Rule;
Palm shows direction of applied force

Fingers show direction of the magnetic field

Thumb shows direction of current

The direction of the current can also be determined by considering Lenz’s Law

Structure of Generators
The structure of generators is similar, often identical, to that of motors

There are coils of wire attached to an armature aligned so that they rotate within a magnetic field

The armature is rotated using some form of kinetic energy.

This causes the coils to rotate in the magnetic field inducing an emf

Brushes and commutators connect the coils to a circuit and the emf thus causes a current to flow in the circuit

An AC generator has slip ring commutators

They connect directly to each arm of the coil so that the current induced in the circuit changes direction every

half turn as does the emf induced in the coil

A DC generator has a split ring commutator

The direction of induced emf in the coil changes every half turn so the split ring commutator ensures the current

in the circuit travels in one direction only

Increasing the Efficiency of Generators

Generators require a change in flux to occur. Maximum change in flux occurs when the magnetic field is directed
parallel to the plane of the coil. So curved stators increase the efficiency of a generator

An increased number of coils increases the emf induced and resulting current
 Commutators and brushes decrease efficiency as some electrical energy is lost. To avoid the use of commutators and

brushes in AC generators the magnet can be made to rotate within stator coils. Often the magnet will be an
electromagnet so that the strength of the magnetic field can be varied and increased to levels unattainable using

large, heavy magnets

In DC generators multiple coils set at angles will induce many currents, “flattening out” the overall output current

In AC generators, multiple coils set at angles produces an output current that has multiple “phases”

In Australia the AC power supply is single phase, 50Hz, 230V and 3 phase, 50Hz, 415V

Root Mean Square

The emf output of a generator varies sinusoidally. Hence the current produced will also vary sinusoidally. When referring

to the emf output, the values that can be referred to are;

Peak – i.e. the maximum emf/current (“amplitude” of output)

Peak to Peak – the emf/current measured from maximum positive to maximum negative (double the “amplitude”)
Period – the time for one complete cycle (peak to peak)
Frequency – f = 1

Root Mean Square (rms) – This is an “average” value that can be applied to find the heating effect or power of a given
emf/current. The average value for emf over time is zero.

2
However, power is proportional to the square of emf. The graph of emf is also sinusoidal but is always positive. The

2
average value for emf from this graph is given by

2
ϵ
2 peak
ϵ =
2

Hence the average emf is

ϵ peak
ϵ RM S =
√2

Similarly

I peak
I RM S =
√2

Generating Current Prac

Single Bar Magnet from 10cm North End Down

1. graph shows voltage changes sinusoidally from +ve to -ve

positive when magnet enters

negative when magnet exits

emf is induced in direction of flux change

1. max emf greater on exit than on entry → ϵ =

−Δϕ

Δt
, as magnet accelerates while falling, that means Δt is smaller while

it exits the solenoid → larger ϵ

2. period for emf on entry longer than exits (as magnet is accelerating)

3. reason emf is generated is because falling magnet creates a change in flux throughout the solenoid

Single Bar Magnet from 10cm South End Down

graph is reverse of North End Down as direction of flux change is reversed

Single Bar Magnet from 20cm North End Down

1. max emfs are greater than from 10cm as magnet falling faster → ϵ =
−Δϕ

Δt
and Δt is smaller

2. period of each change in emf is shorter as magnet falling faster

Double Bar Magnet from 10cm North End Down

AC Generator Slow
3. AC generator has slip ring commutators → it produces +ve and -ve emf (i.e. AC)
4. small 'bump' at the point where max emf should occur → Lenz's Law
the force required at max emf is a maximum making it difficult to maintain a smooth application of force
 AC Generator Fast
−Δϕ
1. higher emf, ϵ = and Δt is smaller
Δt

2. T is smaller

3. 'bumps' are a bit smoother

DC Generator

DC generator has a split ring commutator. So the output is only +ve emf

Transformers
Transformers are devices that alter the voltage of a power supply

Reasons for using transformers

Different appliances require different voltages to run efficiently e.g. TV 20 000V, radio 9V. It is impracticable to

supply different voltages

the transmission of electricity is most efficient at very high voltage

Basic operating principles

A transformer essentially replicates Faraday’s iron ring experiment
An emf is applied to a coil of wire

A current flows and a magnetic field forms

As the flux extends through a second coil, an emf is produced and a current flows in any connected circuit
This is known as flux linkage. There is no electrical connection between the coils, the emf in the second coil being

created by the change in flux

In order to create the maximum flux linkage the coils can be either

- Placed one inside the other so that all the flux produced by one coil passes through the other, or

- Connected by a ferromagnetic core, a lump of magnetic material (usually soft iron) that carries the flux from one coil

to the other

If the supply current is AC, the magnetic field produced by the primary coil will constantly form and collapse. This
produces a continually changing flux through the secondary coil inducing another AC current in any connected circuit

Derivation of Transformer Equation

Effect of Flux - for a transformer to be effective, the majority of flux produced by the primary coil must thread the

secondary coil. This is achieved (as for Faraday) by winding both coils around a common iron core

if conservation of energy is to be achieved (ideal transformer), all the flux produced by the primary coil threads the
secondary coil. So,

Δϕ p = Δϕ s

As this occurs over the same time span,

Δϕ p Δϕ s
=
Δt Δt

Vp Np
=
Vs Ns

A step up transformer increases the voltage. Thus N s > N p

A step down transformer decreases the voltage. This N s < N p

Conservation of Energy in Transformers
If a transformer is 100% efficient, the power input in to the primary coil must be equal to the power output by the

secondary coil.

P = V I ∴ Vp Ip = Vs Is

Ip Ns Vs
= =
Is Np Vp

as V goes up, I goes down

Eddy Currents in Transformers

Eddy currents are currents induced within 2 or 3 dimensional pieces of metal (i.e. plates or blocks - a wire is considered 1

dimensional in terms of charge flow) due to a changing magnetic field.

the main loss of energy in a transformer is through heat loss

eddy currents form in the soft iron core and cause it to heat up due to resistance
to reduce this effect, most transformers have laminated iron cores
they are made up of several insulated layers set perpendicular to the coils so they are magnetic to the magnetic field

and therefore perpendicular to the eddy currents

the eddy currents in a laminated core are smaller resulting in less heat and less energy loss

it is also possible to construct cores out of materials known as ferrites. They have low electrical conductivity but are
highly magnetic reducing the eddy currents without reducing the strength of the induced magnetic field

Energy loss also occurs due to

wires heating up due to resistance

the parts can vibrate slightly causing sound

as the wires heat up their resistance increases further exacerbating the effect

To avoid wires heating up, many transformers have cooling strategies

oil bath around the operating paths

baffles and vents

Transformers can also lose efficiency due to incomplete flux linkage, i.e. the magnetic field through the secondary coil

is not equal to the magnetic field produced by the primary coil

Applications of Transformers
There are 2 main applications of transformers that make widespread electricity usage practical in the modern age.

Transforming voltages for appliances

There are a multitude of electrical appliances that have been devised to help make modern life easier and improve

standards of living.

Without transformers, devices would need to run from a common voltage making most of them inefficient or unusable, OR
numerous voltage supplies would need to be available making the distribution of electricity inefficient and unwieldy.

mobile phones recharge at 12V

old TV's need 10kV - 29kV to work

Transforming voltages for distribution

wires have resistance

as such a voltage drop, and subsequent loss of electrical energy, will occur in any wire that a current is passed through

the power loss is given by (NOT ON REF SHEET)

2
P loss = I R

for a wire of given resistance the power loss is proportional to the current squared

in order to reduce the loss of power in transmission lines, transformers are used to increase the voltage of the supply to

the highest possible value thus reducing the current to the lowest possible value

the voltage is transformed down to safer levels closer to the consumer

in NSW electricity is generated at 23 000V, transformed to 330 000V or 500 000V for transporting over long distances

then transformed down to 66 000V at terminal stations, 11 000V at local substations and 240V at power pole
 transformers in each street

Lenz's Law
Lenz's Law comes about due to the principle of Conservation of Energy and is a method for determining the direction of an

induced emf and thus the flow of an induced current

because we create electrical energy through a current, the kinetic energy must decrease

An induced emf always gives rise to a current that creates a magnetic field that opposes the original change
in flux through the circuit

1. change in flux

2. induced emf

3. current will flow if circuit connected

4. magnetic field created that opposes the original change in flux

- the B fields will interact to create a force that opposes relative motion → conservation of energy
When a force causes a conductor to move in relation to a magnetic field, the current in the conductor creates a

magnetic field and subsequent force that opposes the force

Consider a straight wire falling past a magnet.

The emf and current created will act to oppose the force of gravity,

causes the magnetic flux density above the wire to DECREASE,

the magnetic field is directed to the LEFT above the wire,

the current flows OUT of the page.

Consider a solenoid

The emf and current created will act to oppose the motion of the magnet,

cause the end of the solenoid closest to the magnet to become a NORTH pole,

the current flows ANTICLOCKWISE as viewed from that end and is directed left to right through the galvanometer.

Change in flux method

1. what is Δϕ in terms of increasing/decreasing dots or crosses

2. what Δϕ induced will oppose that

3. what current produces Δϕ induced

Back emf in Motors
When an electric motor is made to rotate it is effectively a coil of wire moving in a magnetic field.

So it becomes a “de facto” generator.

An emf will be created that will oppose the supply voltage. (Lenz's Law)
This is known as back emf.
The effects of back emf;

The effective voltage acting on the motor is reduced when it is operating.

As the motor’s resistance remains unchanged, the current flowing through the motor when it is operating decreases

V = I R.

Motors require a larger current when starting than when operating (at least there is 0 back emf therefore voltage &

current is high).

If a load is applied to the motor, slowing it down, the back emf reduces and therefore current increases (if current is

too high the wires can heat up and melt causing the motor to "burn out").

e.g. An electric motor has an overall resistance of 30Ω and is connected to a 240V power supply. When operating, the

current through the motor is 1A.

a) Determine the current the motor draws on start.

V 240
I = = = 8A
R 30

b) Determine the back emf of the motor when it is operating.

V = I R = 1 × 30 = 30V

ϵ back = 240 − 230 = 210V

c) If a load was applied so that the motor slowed down and the back emf decreased by a third, determine the

current that would then flow through the motor.

2
ϵ back = × 210 = 140
3

V = 240 − 140 = 100

V 100 1
I = = = 3 A
R 30 3

Eddy Currents
Eddy currents are currents induced within 2 or 3 dimensional pieces of metal (i.e. plates or blocks – a wire is

considered 1 dimensional in terms of charge flow) due to a changing magnetic field.

As with currents induced in a wire, the direction of the current can be determined using Lenz’s Law, i.e. the induced

current will create a magnetic field that will oppose the direction of motion/force/Δϕ.

The size of the eddy current determines the strength of the opposing force or energy loss.
Eddy currents can be a problem in electrical motors, generators and transformers as they cause bulk metal parts (e.g.

soft iron cores, armatures, permanent magnets) to heat up and energy is lost.

Applications of Lenz's Law & Eddy Currents

Magnet falling through a conducting pipe

Electromagnetic Braking

The effect of the size of eddy current

AC Induction Motors
General principles of operation –

A moving magnetic field induces an emf, and therefore a current, in a wire attached to a rotating armature.
Due to Lenz’s Law, the current will create a magnetic field that opposes the relative movement.
This creates a force on the wire that makes it want to “chase” the moving magnetic field.

Power Supply,

Induction motors usually use multiphase AC power to produce a rotating magnetic field, e.g. 3 phase electrical
power,

Each phase is connected to a pair of magnets

 As AC comes through the strength of each electromagnet changes sinusoidally creating the effect of a rotating
magnetic field

General Structure – The rotor consists of a number of conducting wires or rods attached to conducting end rings to
give an effect that is known as a “squirrel cage rotor”.
The “squirrel cage” is encased in a laminated (to reduce eddy currents) soft iron casing that intensifies the magnetic
field through the conducting wires/rods.

Slip – Note that if the rotor rotated at the same speed as the magnetic fields, there would be no change in flux, no
current and no force. The rotor of an induction motor always rotates at a speed slower than the field. The difference in
speed is known as the “slip” (or “slip speed”) of the induction motor.
Effect of applied load – AC induction motors will also slow down whenever a load is applied. However, this has the effect

of increasing the rate of change of flux, increasing the emf and increasing the induced current in the conducting
rods and therefore increasing the torque, making AC induction motors self regulating in terms of RPM.
Advantages of AC induction motors over other electric motors:

no commutators or brushes - a big cause of energy loss in motors that have them

there are fewer moving parts so they are cheaper to manufacture and maintain