The Natural Topography:

Pakistan can be divided into six major natural topographical areas: the Northern Mountains and
North-Western Mountains; the Western Mountains; the Balochistan Plateau; Potwar Plateau
and Salt Range; the Indus Plain; and the Desert Areas.

Pakistan can be divided into six major natural topographical areas: the Northern Mountains and
North-Western Mountains; the Western Mountains; the Balochistan Plateau; Potwar Plateau
and Salt Range; the Indus Plain; and the Desert Areas.

The Northern Mountains and North-Western Mountains To the north, north-east and north-
west of Pakistan are three mountain ranges: a) The Karakoram Range b) The Himalayas i. The
Siwaliks ii. the lesser or outer himalayas iii. Cental Himalayas c) The Hindu Kush : The clash of
these three great ranges makes for an interesting and complex geology in northern Pakistan. a)
The Karakoram Range

(Average altitude about 6000 m)

The Karakoram, meaning ‘black gravel’, is a mass of rock and ice, extending for more than 400
km from Hunza to the Shyok River. The western end of this range lies in Pakistan. The range runs
east-west, with deep, narrow valleys and sharp peaks forming a rugged landscape. The average
height of the mountains is about 6000 metres. K-2, the second-highest peak in the world (8611
metres) is located here. Precipitation is mainly in the form ofsnow because of the altitude. In
the upper regions ofthese valleys there are glaciers instead ofrivers. The severe climate makes
the Karakorams extremely inhospitable, so the

population density is very low. The mountain passes are open only in summer. A nomadic or
seminomadic way of life is common. Agriculture is practised in those valleys where water is
plentiful. Apples, barley and millet are the main crops Cattle breeding is also common The
Karakorams have always attracted scientists and mountaineers from all over the world because
of their challenging geography and scenic beauty The construction ofthe Karakoram Highway to
China opened a new era in the cultural and economic progress of the region

b) The Himalayas (Average altitude about 4000 m): The Himalayas are to the south of the
Karakoram range; they run east to west for about 2500 km. They comprise the Siwaliks, the
Lesser or Lower Himalayas and the Central Himalayas. The Siwaliks are low- altitude (600-1200
metres) hills near Attock. The Lesser, or Lower Himalayas, are of medium altitude (1800-4500
metres), and are represented by the Pir Panjal range. They are popular with tourists, with
hill stations such as Murree, Nathia Gali and Ghora Gali located there Moving north, the height
of the mountains increases The mountain range which is located between the Pir Panjal Range
and the Karakoram Range is called ‘The Central Himalayas’. This part of the Himalayas
mostly lies in Kashmir. The natural topography ofthis area is characterised by steep, snow-
capped peaks, huge glaciers causing deep erosion, and rich natural vegetation in the valleys. The
highest peak of this range, Nanga Parbat (about 8126 metres), lies in the Northern Area.

c) The Hindu Kush (Average altitude about 5000 m) The Hindu Kush Range lies where the
borders of Afghanistan and China meet on Pakistan’s nort and north-west borders. This range
runs in a north- south direction. With mountains such as Tirich Mir (7690 metres) and large
glaciers, it resembles the

Karakoram Range valley. The steep valley sides and the fast-flowing river which occupies most of
the narrow valley floor, are typical of the relief and drainage in the Hindu Kush and other parts
of the Northern Mountains Through the centuries, the passes across the Hindu Kush have been
of immense historic and military significance Invaders, such as Alexander the Great, Mahmud
of Ghazni, the Ghauris, Tamerlane and the Mughal king Babar crossed the Hindu Kush through
these passes . Passes are still important today the Shandur Pass connects Gilgit and Chitral. the
Shangla Pass links the Swat Valley to the upper part of the Indus Valley, and the Lawarai Pass
connects Chitral to the Swat Valley and the Vale of Peshawar. Generally the mountains are bare
of vegetation, though some rich forests are found in the extreme south-east as well as in the
hills of Swat, Kohistan, the Panjkora Valley and Dir District Rice is cultivated on terraced fields in
areas of Swat, Chitral and Dir.

The Mountain Valleys:

In the mountainous north, a number of valleys attract

many domestic and foreign visitors. The larger, more

Popular ones are:

*• Swat (Hindu Kush)

Chitral (Hindu Kush)

Dir (Hindu Kush)

Gilgit (Karakoram)

Hunza (Karakoram)
Baltistan (Karakoram)

Murree & Gallies (Himalayas)

Kaghan (Himalayas)

Importance of Northern Mountains:

The Northern Mountains hold immense importance because of a number of economic and
physical factors given in Figure 1.8.
Snow capped peaks melt during summer to drain water into River Indus and its tributaries
which irrigate vast Indus Plains.
Historical passes connect Pakistan to China and Afghanistan.
A natural border to China and Central Asian Republics. A land route through Karakoram Highway
has been opened to carry out trade.

Mountain peaks provide protection to Pakistan against the cold winds from Central Asia. The
temperature does not go below freezing point over the upper Indus Plain and climate remains
tolerable throughout the year.

A source of valuable minerals, timber and fruits. Provides raw material to several

industries e.g. furniture, paper, chipboard industry, chemical industry, etc.

Scenic beauty promotes tourist resorts which are a source of income to local people during
summer.

Do you know the difference between a Landslide and an Avalanche? Landslides are the
movements of rocks and soil down the mountain slopes. Avalanches are huge masses of snow
that move down the slopes.

People and Economy in the Northern Mountains:

The population, settlement, and economic activities within the Northern Mountains have been
greatly influenced by the variations in topography, which impose harsh living conditions and
tend to restrict movement and communications.
The economy in the Northern Mountains has developed on traditional lines. Much of the
Northern Mountains area is characterised by a very low economic growth rate combined with a
high rate of population growth, which prevents growth in the already low level of per capita
income (average income per person).

Figure 1.10 shows that life is hard in the Northern Mountains due to lack of infrastructure such
as bridges and roads.
Most of the population is dependent on agriculture, primarily subsistence agriculture and cattle
breeding. Wheat, rice, barley, maize and vegetables are grown in small terraced fields on the
steep hillsides.

In winter, many people work in cottage and small scale industries. They make carpets,
embroidered material, rugs and other handicraft items for sale to the domestic and foreign
tourists who visit, mainly during the summer season. Major industries include processing food
grains and fruit, making vegetable oil and refining sugar. Figure 1.11 shows an apricot drying
unit in Baltistan.

There are a few modern industries but mineral resources have not been explored as yet. The
Northern Mountains have major hydroelectric potential, but the development of hydroelectric
resources requires huge capital investment, which is not available. The skilled labour needed to
organise and manage the development of natural resources is also limited, due to low literacy
rates. Safe drinking water is scarce and poor health is common. Moreover, food production in
the Northern Mountains has not kept up with population growth, so people also face
malnutrition.

Some towns in the Northern Areas, such as Mingora, Murree, Kaghan and Gilgit, trade by road
with cities like Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Peshawar and Abbotabad. However, due to difficult
terrain and limited transport facilities, it is hard to carry out regional trade on a large scale.
Tourism is popular in the Northern Mountains, but has had an adverse impact on regions where
tourist numbers exceed the facilities available.

During recent years some developments have taken place in road transport to northern areas.
Such developments will not only promote tourism but also help to explore and exploit the
untapped resources of the Northern Mountains However, the infrastructure in Northern
Pakistan was badly devastated during the October, 2005 earthquake Reconstruction of towns
like Balakot has been completed

Environmental issues:

Economic changes and population growth are threatening the ecology of the Northern
Mountains. In recent years:

• deforestation in the foothills and overgrazing on the high pastures have led to soil erosion,

• deforestation has increased due to high demand for firewood and extensive trimming of trees
in order to feed livestock.
• the construction of roads in the border regions has increased the rate of deforestation and the
number of landslides Although roads bring economic benefits, they also threaten the
environment

• rapid population growth has increased pollution, and streams that were once clear are now
polluted with refuse and sewage

• hill people who use the water tor drinking suffer from dysentery, cholera and typhoid
Other epidemics are also common due to unhygienic conditions.

Topographical I Relief Features of the Northern Mountains

• Parallel ranges run mainly from West to East

• Height of ranges increases from South to North

• High altitude peaks nse to 8475 m

• High passes such as Khunjerao Pass Lawarai

Pass and Shandur Pass

• Snowfields / glaciers

• Snow-capped peaks ■ steep slopes

Glaciers:

Many of the world's glaciers lie in the mountains of Pakistan. A glacier is a tongue-shaped mass
of ice moving slowly down a valley Important glaciers include: Baltoro: 58 km long Batura: 58
km long. Siachen: 78 km long. All three are in the Karakoram Range.

How glaciers change the landscape Like rivers, when glaciers move downhill, they

do three things: a) erosion (abrasion and plucking) of soil and rocks - these form their load b)
transportation of their load c) deposition of their load
Glaciers can be very large, e.g. the Siachen Glacier is 78 km long. A glacier may be very deep,
filling most of a valley. Its rough surface carries on it fragments of rock that fall from the
mountainsides above. Some of the features of glaciation formed

in high-altitude mountainous regions are mentioned below:

Snowfield is a plain area covered with perpetual snow above the snowline in high altitude
mountains. There must be very heavy snowfall which allows the snow to accumulate in compact
layers to form a snowfield. Serrated landscape - elevated mountain zone used for agriculture.
Bare rocks in high-altitude areas above the snowline (rocks without vegetation due to
accumulation of snow) • Scree - a slope consisting of accumulated loose rock debris. It is
formed when water in the cracks of the rock freezes, expands and exerts great pressure within
the rock. The rock breaks up and the fragments that collect at the foot of the slopes are called
scree. • Deep V-shaped valleys / gorges (steep-sided deep river valleys). • U-shaped valleys
formed by movement of glaciers Deeply dissected landscape due to movement of glaciers. •
Cirque / corrie - a steep-walled basin formed by frost and glacial action, which may contain a
small lake

Natural drainage means the natural run-off of water from an area in rivers and streams.

The River Indus and its tributaries dominate the drainage pattern of the Northern Mountains.
The Indus starts its journey when it leaves Manasarovar Lake in the Karakoram Range. While
passing through the Hindu Kush to the north-west, at Attock the River Kabul joins the River
Indus, which has already been joined by the River Swat. After forming deeply dissected valleys
and gorges, the Indus takes a southern turn at Kalabagh and enters an area of plains. During its
journey the huge glaciers ofthe Karakorams and Hindu Kush feed the river.

The eastern tributaries ofthe Indus (Ravi, Jhelum, Chenab, Sutlej, Beas) also originate in the
Himalayas and, after passing through Kashmir, enter into the plain area where they join the
Indus.

While crossing the high altitude mountain ranges, the River Indus and its tributaries form the
features which

are normally associated with river action in all high altitude areas such as:

• gorges when the river erodes the land and flows downhill, the less resistant rocks are
eroded. leaving behind vertical hard rocks called gorges (Figure 1.24)

• waterfalls a steep fall of river water from a hard rock that resists erosion

• rapids a series of very short and fast waterfalls

• streams and springs when snow melts from the mountains, water flows down in the form
ofstreams and springs which flow out ofthe valley side.