Discover Applied Sciences

Review

Internet of Artificial Intelligence (IoAI): the emergence

Received: 10 December 2023 / Accepted: 8 February 2024

© The Author(s) 2024  OPEN

Abstract
Undoubtedly, artificial intelligence (AI) is the most technological revolution in the industry so that it has transformed
people’s daily lives. Applying AI technology to the Internet of Things (IoT) has empowered their interactions with people,
increased the quality of services, and enhanced efficiency and throughput. Hence, the concept of artificial intelligence of
things (AIoT—autonomous IoT in different literature), as an AI-enabled IoT, emerged to provide more efficient and intel-
ligent service to users in recent years. However, despite the use of AI, AIoT’s decisions and outputs are made based on
owners’ demands. This study proposes a new concept called the Internet of Artificial Intelligence (IoAI) which autonomy
is defined as the main feature which applies error-free AI. The IoAI provides many benefits for all spectrums of people so
that it can be known as the best friend for humans and the most compatible collaborator for the industry. In this regard,
this work addresses several important achievements of the IoAI, such as autonomous industry, environment compat-
ibility, and assistance in improving people’s daily lives. Finally, critical challenges and opportunities of the IoAI will be
discussed. As a suggestion, this study offers to develop the IoAI community over smart cities with human control as
the first generation, and then this study suggests developing the IoAI concept in an independent location for the next
generation to be a fully autonomous and human-disconnected community.

Article Highlights

• The IoAI is an excellent human-disconnected community in solving its problems.

Keywords Autonomous city · Environment compatibility · Expert systems · Robot-based community

* Saeed Banaeian Far, [email protected]; Azadeh Imani Rad, [email protected] | 1Blockchain and Metaverse research
lab (BMRL), IR, Iran.

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1 Introduction

The evolution of AI spans decades, characterized by significant milestones marking the progress of this interdisci-
plinary field [1]. From the inception of AI as a theoretical concept in the 1950s to the emergence of neural networks
and deep learning in recent years, the historical trajectory of AI reflects the continuous pursuit of developing intel-
ligent systems capable of simulating human cognition. Delving into the history of AI illuminates the evolution of
foundational concepts, algorithms, and breakthroughs that have paved the way for contemporary AI applications,
influencing diverse domains ranging from healthcare and finance to robotics and autonomous systems [2, 3].
Nowadays, the pervasive adoption of AI technologies has permeated various facets of daily life, revolutionizing the
way individuals interact with technology and enhancing the quality of life [4–7]. From personalized recommendation
systems in entertainment and e-commerce to AI-powered virtual assistants streamlining productivity and time man-
agement, the applications of AI have profoundly impacted people’s routines. AI in people’s daily life applications tries
to provide the transformative potential of AI in improving lifestyle, ranging from healthcare advancements through
predictive diagnostics to personalized smart home automation, emphasizing the pivotal role of AI in augmenting
convenience, efficiency, and personalization in everyday experiences.
The IoT represents a network of interconnected devices and sensors/actuators that facilitate data exchange and
automation, reshaping how both physical and virtual objects interact and communicate [8–10]. Within this ecosys-
tem, the integration of AI technologies offers unprecedented capabilities in extracting insights, enabling predictive
analytics, and optimizing operational efficiencies [11–13]. In fact, the combination of IoT and AI provides a high-
performance and user-friendly IoT, highlighting its architectural components and pervasive applications, while delv-
ing into the symbiotic relationship between AI and IoT, especially in the realm of the Internet of Everything (IoE),
showcasing the potential for AI to drive autonomous decision-making and adaptive behaviours within a connected
environment.
The convergence of AI with the IoT has engendered a paradigm shift, propelling the emergence of AIoT systems
characterized by self-learning, decision-making, and adaptability [11, 14]. As the foundation for autonomous opera-
tions, AIoT empowers IoT ecosystems with cognitive capabilities, leading to predictive maintenance, anomaly detec-
tion, and contextual intelligence [15]. Actually, the concept of IoT since a decade is already attached to the concept of
Autonomy [16]. The power of this dissects the mechanisms through which AI fosters autonomy within IoT, shedding
light on the current stage of AIoT and its strategic implications for industrial automation, smart cities, and cognitive
edge computing, envisioning a future steeped in intelligent, self-regulating IoT landscapes [15, 17, 18].
The integration of AIoT has ushered in a new era of industrial and workplace transformations, leveraging advanced
data analytics, machine learning, and autonomous decision-making frameworks to drive operational efficiencies and
innovation. There are many applications of AIoT, spanning predictive maintenance in industrial machinery, smart
energy management, and personalized customer experiences [15, 17, 18]. However, AIoT faces several primary chal-
lenges such as security vulnerabilities in interconnected systems, data integration complexities, and ensuring real-
time adaptability in dynamic environments [19–21].
Addressing the intricate challenges embedded within AIoT deployments necessitates a multi-faceted approach
encompassing robust cybersecurity measures, streamlined data orchestration protocols, and agile, adaptive algo-
rithms [19–21]. Therefore, many studies have delved into a spectrum of solutions tailored to fortify AIoT systems
against security threats [22], encompassing blockchain-based data provenance [20, 23], anomaly detection mecha-
nisms for early threat identification [24], and adaptive machine learning models capable of dynamic recalibration in
response to evolving environmental dynamics [25, 26]. By synthesizing these solutions, organizations, and industries
can effectively navigate the complexities of AIoT deployments while safeguarding critical infrastructure and ensuring
the resilience of interconnected ecosystems.
The proliferation of AIoT solutions stands poised to instigate sweeping transformations across global socio-
economic landscapes, industrial ecosystems, and individual daily experiences [27–29]. By embedding autonomous
decision-making, adaptive learning, and context-aware functionalities, AIoT engenders disruptive shifts in industrial
process optimization, personalized healthcare delivery, and sustainable urban development [15, 17, 18]. In this regard,
many researchers and companies have elucidated the profound impact of AIoT on industrial automation, precision
agriculture, and personalized healthcare, underscoring the potential for enhanced efficiency, resource optimiza-
tion, and improved quality of life, thereby heralding a future where autonomous IoT systems orchestrate an era of
unprecedented innovation and empowerment.

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Fig. 1  A general presentation of three-layer architectures of IoE [9, 10], AIoT [11, 14], and MoE [30, 31] concepts

1.1 Motivation and contribution

The idea of full autonomy based on AI’s potential motivates us to propose the IoAI concept which connects only AI-
enabled devices to generate an autonomous and massive expert system in an area as big as a city. The IoAI, as an
autonomous community, can meet its all needs, such as energy, raw materials, construction equipment, etc. Hence, it is
a generative and compatible-to-all-environments community. As the completion of the proposal of the IoAI concept, this
study identifies critical challenges (e.g., initial setup cost and acceptability by governments) and important opportunities
(e.g., autonomous industry, collaborating with humans, and cost-efficient energy) and addresses several future horizons
and aspects of this newly-emerged paradigm.

1.2 Outlines

The remainder of this work is organized as follows. Section 2 addresses important similar-to-IoAI paradigms and provides
a rapid overview of several recent studies. Section 3 identifies the detailed definition of IoAI and addresses related issues,
including its background technologies, general architecture, the main achievements of an IoAI community and its chal-
lenges and opportunities in three aspects (for industry, in relation to governments, and assisting to humans). Section 4
provides a final discussion and suggests future horizons for the IoAI. Finally, Sect. 5 concludes this study.

2 Related works and similar concepts

Some several concepts and paradigms seem similar to IoAI, but they are inherently different from the IoAI concept and
its goals. This section briefly provides an overview of three important of them. The general architecture of the three
concepts, including IoE [9, 10], AIoT [11, 14], and Metaverse of Everything (MoE) [30, 31] is illustrated in Fig. 1.

1. IoE, a traditional and well-known concept, is more comprehensive than IoT as it encompasses not just things, but also
data, processes, and people (see Fig. 1—Part a). However, in traditional IoE connections, everything works based on
specific algorithms for achieving certain goals. Moreover, they cannot change decisions/outputs since AI algorithms
are generally not considered for them.
2. The AIoT is internet-connected and AI-enabled things [14]; This technology intelligent edge-based processing is
provided efficiently without a link to a server. Smartwatches, driverless vehicles, and AI-enabled drones are the most
well-known examples of AIoT components [11, 15]. The general architecture of AIoT is depicted in Fig. 1—Part b (for
comparison with the IoAIs’ architecture, you can find the proposed architecture of IoAI in Fig. 3). Focusing on data
storage problems, channel delay, and congestion in the networks, Osuwa et al. [17] proposed an idea to integrate
sensors into microcontroller. In their offered idea, AI has been assumed as the solution for mining, managing, and
controlling congestion in the network. In detail, they applied fuzzy logic and neural networks and used assistance
from Alexa for a case study. In 2018, concerns about the huge volume of data generated with the low-power sensors
increased. In this regard, as a review study, Ghosh et al. [11] addressed the aspect of applying AI in IoT applications.
They believed conjugating data science and IoT-generated data may cause the next smart revolution, and addressed
most aspects of using AI in processing sensed data to categorise them and make the most intelligent decision to

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action. In 2020, two appreciated works were proposed to identify the state-of-the-art applications of AI in IoT net-
works [14, 18]. Lei et al., in [14], focused on Autonomous Control Systems (ACS) which perform control functions
on the physical systems without external intervention over an extended period of time. In the aspect of their study,
the integration of IoT and ACS was assumed as the concept of AIoT. Hence, the sensors collected information on
the system status, based on which the intelligent agents in the IoT devices as well as the edge, fog, or cloud servers
made control of decisions for the actuators to react. In [18], authors focused on AI applications in smart homes. They
suggested enabling AI for geographic information systems (GIS). The main finding of their research is to identify a
considerable gap in merging AI with IoT and the use of geospatial data in smart home development in addition to
energy efficiency and aged care system development. Their work would provide significant help in designing fully
automated assistive systems to improve quality of life and decrease energy consumption. Regarding the proven suc-
cesses of AI-based tools and technologies, especially deep learning, in IoT applications, including computer vision,
speech recognition, and natural language processing, Zhang and Tao presented an in-depth into AIoT in 2022 [15].
They believed that the IoT heralds the era of AIoT and addressed a comprehensive survey on AIoT to show how AI
can empower the IoT to make it faster, smarter, greener, and safer. Specifically, their study briefly presented the AIoT
architecture in the context of cloud computing, fog computing, and edge computing four aspects including (1) per-
ceiving, (2) learning, (3) reasoning, and (4) behaving. Relying on blockchain worldwide development and its novel
properties, Li et al. [23] presented a discussion of smart energy management strategies in 2023. They anticipated
that AI models make excellent forecasting in energy usage and load profiles as well as schedule resources to ensure
reliable performance and effective utilization of energy resources. Additionally, utilizing big data systems and data
mining enables the discovery of new functions and relationships, which determines the performance of AI. Based on
these facts, they proposed smart energy management using digital technologies like AI-enabled IoT and blockchain.
In their idea, IoT platforms assisted in connecting AI to other hardware and software devices and systems. Hence,
their efficiently transmitted and stored data improved access and availability to stakeholders for data mining. The
result of their research showed that providing an efficient and seamless integration of AI, big data, and advanced
digital technologies will be an important factor in the emerging transition of the energy sector to a lower-carbon
system. Regarding the similarity of the two paradigms AIoT (an exciting and emerging concept) and IoAI (the focus
of this study), it is required to provide a brief description of their difference. The AIoT is an empowered IoT network
by AI technology in which it is an IoT network with AI-enabled things which are able to learn and react intelligently.
On another hand, in this study, the IoAI concept will be defined as a non-human and autonomous community whose
components are connected through the Internet. The major number of components of the IoAI community are AI-
based robots and intelligence algorithms.
3. Blockchain-based systems and smart-contract-based applications are the most practical autonomous systems; Decen-
tralized autonomous organizations (DAO) [32] and Metaverse-based environments [33, 34] are famous examples of
these types of communities (it is highlighted that, for acceptability by governments and following privacy policies,
developers and owners generally provide trapdoors or condition to get direct access [35, 36]—this fact makes men-
tioned communities to be semi-autonomous in the real applications). Hence, a large number of autonomous entities
in DAOs and Metaverse-based communities have been empowered using AI. They can learn much knowledge from
their environments, react to events, and respond to queries based on their around conditions. The result of merging
the mentioned technologies caused to launch of the concept of MoE [31]. The concept of MoE is the digital twin of IoE
defined in the virtual world which involves AI-enabled virtual things, Metaversian and their avatars (people in the IoE
concept), generated data by decentralized applications (DApps) and smart contracts, and Web3-based components
(see Fig. 1—Part c). In 2022, several proposals were made around DAO-based systems which provided autonomous
methods and protocols for these types of autonomous communities. Authors in [35], identified blockchain-based
reporting protocols as a method for monitoring and controlling DAOs. Their proposal addressed several crypto-
graphic tools to provide security and privacy for reporters, such as ring signature schemes and the use of one-time
pseudonyms. As another work, Far et al. [36] proposed a reputation transfer protocol for retail markets developed
on DAO-based communities. Retail owners in the offered protocol can transfer their ownership right to another one
through a non-interactive zero-knowledge (NIZK)-based manner. These two studies could be known as proposals
that addressed ways to provide security and privacy for users in autonomous communities but they did not consider
AI. Initially, the concept of the Metaverse of Things (MoT) was proposed in 2022 by Maksymyuk et al. [30]. In the MoT
concept, a novel framework for future metaverse applications was composed of multiple synchronized data flows
from multiple operators. Moreover, their proposed model was designed based on dynamic fine-grained data flow
allocation and service selection using non-fungible tokens, which can be traded over the blockchain among users

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Fig. 2  The relation between

and operators in a decentralized mobile network environment. Recently, Banaeian Far et al. [31] proposed a compre-
hensive perspective to the digital twin of IoE in the virtual worlds and named it MoE. The MoE concept is known as
the most comprehensive and autonomous community in which many AI-enabled things exist to react and respond
to human-in-the-background (HitB) and machine-based queries, and generate virtual products. The main difference
between MoE [31] and IoAI (the proposal of this study) is their implementation location, where MoE is virtual and
IoAI is inherently physical (but IoAI enable to generate virtual environments, products, and content). The aforemen-
tioned concepts and paradigms, including MoT, MoE, and AI-enabled virtual things, could be assumed as excellent
examples of a virtual version or a digital twin of an IoAI community appearing in the near future. In fact, analyzing the
behaviour of AI-enabled virtual things in the MoE networks enables futurologists to make a good prediction of IoAI
communities’ behaviours. Hence, we believe that these concepts are considered the most important and accurate
simulation of the IoAI.

All in all, it is clear that the main difference between the three mentioned concepts (IoE, AIoT, and MoE) and IoAI
is human dominance in procedures and policies. However, it is believed that IoAI should be fully autonomous and
generative so that can grow itself in addition to assisting humans.
We highlight that preparing infrastructure for emerging a fully autonomous and human-disconnected community
is not acceptable (and may not applicable) to governments for at least in next few years, and this study only addresses
one of the future horizons of AI technology.

3 Internet of Artificial Intelligence (IoAI)

This section proposes the concept of IoAI, as a human-disconnected technology, in detail. The proposal involves
main background technologies, prohibited items, highlighted achievements, and challenges and opportunities of
the IoAI technology.

3.1 Background technologies

There are many technologies in the IoAI’s background. This section addresses several important of them and refers
to their relation with the proposal of this study. The relation between critical technologies powered IoAI is depicted
in Fig. 2.

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3.1.1 Internet of Things

The IoT refers to a network of interconnected physical objects or “things”equipped with embedded sensors, actuators,
and communication interfaces, enabling the seamless exchange of data and the integration of the physical world with
the digital realm [10]. This interconnected web of devices encompasses a spectrum of domains, from industrial machinery
and smart infrastructure to consumer electronics, health monitoring systems, and environmental sensors, exemplifying
the pervasive nature of IoT in enabling context-aware, data-driven decision-making and automation.
The application of IoT has woven an intricate tapestry of interconnected technologies, revolutionizing people’s daily
lives through myriad of smart applications [37, 38]. Its impact extends to enhancing efficiency, convenience, and respon-
siveness, empowering individuals with real-time insights into their surroundings, personalized experiences, and seamless
connectivity, thereby redefining the paradigm of modern living.
The enhancement of autonomous IoT capabilities hinges on the convergence of advanced machine learning algo-
rithms [39], edge computing infrastructures [40], and adaptive sensor technologies, fostering self-optimizing, self-healing,
and context-aware decision-making frameworks. By imbuing IoT with autonomous intelligence, it can preemptively
identify anomalies, dynamically reconfigure operational parameters, and proactively respond to evolving environmental
dynamics. Thus amplifying resilience, adaptability, and orchestration of complex interconnected systems.
Many IT-based companies provide practical applications for IoT to enhance people’s lifestyles and make them semi-
autonomous. The following addresses several important of them.

• Google (Alphabet Inc.)1 A pioneer in IoT and AI technologies, Google’s platforms span from the popular smart home
solution "Google Nest" to extensive cloud-based IoT services, facilitating large-scale data management and analytics
for diverse applications, including smart cities, industrial automation, and precision agriculture.
• Amazon 2 Leveraging its AWS IoT platform and Echo devices, Amazon has catalyzed the widespread adoption of smart
home products and voice-activated IoT services, while also advancing the development of AI-driven logistics and
supply chain optimization tools under Amazon Web Services.
• General Electric (GE)3 Renowned for its leadership in industrial IoT and autonomous systems, GE’s Predix platform
offers industrial IoT solutions for predictive maintenance, asset performance management, and smart grid analytics,
empowering industrial enterprises to optimize operational efficiency and enhance asset reliability.
• Siemens AG 4 A trailblazer in industrial IoT and autonomous technologies, Siemens provides IoT-enabled solutions
for smart manufacturing, energy management, and transportation, revolutionizing industrial processes through its
MindSphere industrial IoT platform and digital twins technology.
• Microsoft 5 Through its Azure IoT platform and comprehensive suite of cloud services, Microsoft is driving innova-
tion in IoT applications across diverse verticals, from connected healthcare solutions to intelligent edge computing,
empowering organizations to harness the full potential of IoT and autonomous systems.

3.1.2 Ad hoc networks and peer‑to‑peer connections

Ad hoc networks represent decentralized communication systems where wireless nodes dynamically form temporary
networks without requiring a pre-existing infrastructure [41, 42]. Peer-to-peer connections, a subset of ad hoc networks,
enable direct interaction and data sharing among networked devices without the need for central coordination, often
leveraging distributed protocols for resource discovery and communication [43, 44].
Ad hoc networks and peer-to-peer connections have redefined the landscape of distributed computer networks,
fostering flexible, resilient communication infrastructures in scenarios where centralized architectures are impractical
[23, 45–47]. Their impact ranges from enabling cooperative file sharing and real-time communication to enhancing fault
tolerance and scalability in distributed environments, catalyzing the evolution of robust and adaptive networked systems.
Ad hoc networks and peer-to-peer connections exhibit inherent benefits over centralized systems, particularly in IoT
applications, by facilitating seamless device interconnectivity, reducing reliance on a single point of failure, enhancing

1
http://​abc.​xyz/.
2
https://​aws.​amazon.​com/​iot/.
3
https://​www.​ge.​com/​digit​al/​iiot-​platf​orm.
4
https://​www.​sieme​ns.​com/​global/​en/​produ​cts/​autom​ation/​topic-​areas/​it-​ot-​conve​rgence/​sieme​ns-​iiot.​html.
5
https://​azure.​micro​soft.​com/​en-​us/​solut​ions/​iot.

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fault tolerance, and supporting dynamic network reconfiguration [48–51]. These decentralized architectures empower
IoT applications to operate autonomously, exhibit resilience to network disruptions, and ensure responsive, resource-
efficient communication in dynamic, heterogeneous environments.
Companies with experts in computer networks provide their products and services all around the world. Five famous
of them are now listed below.

• Cisco Systems 6 Cisco’s mesh networking solutions leverage ad hoc architectures to create self-organizing, resilient
wireless networks, enhancing industrial connectivity and IoT deployments.
• Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE)7 HPE’s Aruba Networks division offers peer-to-peer Wi-Fi Direct solutions for seamless
device-to-device communication, facilitating peer discovery and direct data exchange, particularly in Industrial IoT
(IIoT) and smart manufacturing environments.
• Sierra Wireless8 Renowned for its robust ad hoc and mesh networking solutions, Sierra Wireless enables real-time
communication and edge computing capabilities in industrial IoT, supporting mission-critical applications within
smart utilities, asset tracking, and industrial monitoring.
• Juniper Networks9 Juniper’s Contrail Edge Cloud solution leverages ad hoc networking principles to enable distributed
computing, edge connectivity, and secure peer-to-peer data exchange, crucial for dynamic IoT environments and
edge computing deployments.
• Toshiba Corporation10 Through its wireless and IoT portfolio, Toshiba provides ad hoc networking solutions for indus-
trial environments, empowering smart manufacturing and asset management applications through resilient, decen-
tralized communication architectures.

3.1.3 Artificial intelligence

AI refers to the development of intelligent systems that can perform tasks requiring human-like cognitive abilities, encom-
passing machine learning, natural language processing, and autonomous decision-making algorithms [1]. In scientific
contexts, AI represents the convergence of advanced computational methods, statistical modelling, and cognitive sci-
ences, with the aim of creating systems capable of perceiving, reasoning, and acting in complex, dynamic environments.
AI has permeated various aspects of daily life, underpinning transformative experiences such as personalized content
recommendations, virtual assistants, and autonomous vehicles, driving efficiencies, personalized experiences, and data-
driven decision-making [4–7]. Moreover, in Industry 4.0, AI enables predictive maintenance, quality control, and process
optimization, fostering adaptive production, smart logistics, and human-robot collaboration, thereby revolutionizing
industrial automation and intelligent manufacturing.
AI enhances IoT by augmenting data analytics, predictive insights, and autonomous decision-making, powering real-
time anomaly detection, adaptive resource allocation, and cognitive processing, thus streamlining operational efficien-
cies, enhancing fault tolerance, and enabling context-aware IoT applications [12, 13]. The benefits of applying AI in IoT
encompass proactive maintenance, predictive analytics, and personalized user experiences, contributing to scalable,
resilient IoT ecosystems with adaptable, self-optimizing capabilities.
As with the previous, this subsection also addresses five great companies developing AI systems and providing AI-
based applications. They now are listed below.

• IBM 11 IBM’s Watson IoT platform integrates AI capabilities for predictive maintenance, cognitive analytics, and edge
computing, empowering organizations to harness IoT data for predictive insights and operational optimization across
diverse industrial verticals.
• Microsoft 12 Microsoft Azure IoT offers AI-driven solutions for remote monitoring, predictive maintenance, and intel-
ligent edge computing, enabling IoT applications in agriculture, healthcare, and smart cities to leverage advanced
analytics and cognitive services.
6
https://​commu​nity.​cisco.​com/​t5/​wirel​ess-​mobil​ity-​knowl​edge-​base/​what-​is-​ad-​hoc-​mode/​ta-p/​31321​65.
7
https://​commu​nity.​hpe.​com/​t5/​opera​ting-​system-​micro​soft/​peer-​to-​peer-​netwo​rk-​setup-​for-​hp-​print​ers/​td-p/​24178​73.
8
https://​www.​sierr​awire​less.​com/.
9
https://​www.​junip​er.​net/.
10
https://​www.​global.​toshi​ba/​ww/​top.​html.
11
https://​www.​ibm.​com/​artif​i cial-​intel​ligen​ce.
12
https://​www.​micro​soft.​com/​en-​us/​ai.

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• Google Cloud 13 Through Google Cloud IoT, the company provides AI-centric IoT solutions for smart manufacturing,
logistics optimization, and predictive analytics, leveraging machine learning and predictive modeling to foster data-
driven decision-making in IoT deployments.
• Intel Corporation 14 Intel’s IoT solutions integrate AI capabilities for intelligent edge computing, predictive analysis,
and autonomous systems, enabling scalable, secure IoT architectures with real-time data processing and adaptive
learning capabilities.
• Amazon Web Services (AWS)15 AWS IoT Core offers AI-powered services for device management, data analysis, and
machine learning integration, facilitating AI-driven predictive analytics and smart automation across IoT deployments
such as smart homes, industrial sensing, and environmental monitoring.

3.1.4 Machine vision

Machine vision entails the utilization of imaging systems, computational algorithms, and pattern recognition techniques
to enable machines to gain a visual understanding of the surrounding environment, encompassing processes such as
object detection, image analysis, and visual inference [52–54]. In a scientific context, machine vision represents the con-
fluence of computer vision, sensor technologies, and machine learning, with the aim of endowing automated systems
with perceptual capabilities akin to human vision, fostering advanced visual perception and interpretation.
Machine vision redefines the landscape of IoT and virtual worlds by enabling real-time visual recognition, object track-
ing, and spatial mapping, underpinning augmented reality experiences, smart surveillance, and autonomous navigation
within IoT environments [55, 56]. Its impact extends to facilitating augmented data visualization, predictive maintenance,
and contextual awareness, thereby driving enhanced user experiences, adaptive automation, and seamless integration
of physical and virtual realms in IoT and virtual reality applications [57, 58]. This technology assists IoT devices to be more
efficient and makes them more applicable in daily use.
Machine vision enhances IoT applications in people’s daily lives by enabling personalized healthcare monitoring, inter-
active smart environments, and visual assistance for the differently abled, fostering safer, more efficient living spaces, and
proactive health management [59, 60]. The benefits of applying machine vision in IoT encompass autonomous systems,
dynamic visual feedback, and adaptive decision-making, culminating in responsive, human-centric IoT applications with
enhanced safety, convenience, and accessibility.
Several high-tech companies that provide practical applications of machine vision are now addressed in the following.

• NVIDIA 16 NVIDIA’s Jetson platform offers machine vision capabilities for IoT devices, enabling real-time video analytics,
object detection, and spatial awareness, empowering edge devices with AI-driven vision computing and autonomous
decision-making.
• Intel Corporation 17 Intel’s RealSense technology integrates machine vision for IoT applications, facilitating spatial
mapping, object recognition, and gesture control, enabling immersive experiences in virtual worlds and advanced
visual perception in IoT devices.
• Cognex Corporation 18 Cognex provides machine vision solutions for IoT, enabling automated inspection, visual qual-
ity control, and object recognition in manufacturing and industrial IoT deployments, elevating operational efficiency
and product quality.
• Qualcomm Technologies, Inc.19 Qualcomm’s Spectra ISPs offer advanced machine vision capabilities for IoT edge
devices, supporting deep learning models, image processing, and contextual reasoning, empowering edge nodes
with responsive, vision-enabled IoT applications.

13
https://​cloud.​google.​com/​produ​cts/​ai.
14
https://​www.​intel.​com/​conte​nt/​www/​us/​en/​artif​i cial-​intel​ligen​ce/​overv​iew.​html.
15
https://​aws.​amazon.​com/​machi​ne-​learn​ing/​ai-​servi​ces/.
16
https://​www.​nvidia.​com/​en-​us/​gloss​ary/​data-​scien​ce/​compu​ter-​vision/.
17
https://​www.​intel.​com/​conte​nt/​www/​us/​en/​inter​net-​of-​things/​compu​ter-​vision/​vision-​produ​cts.​html.
18
https://​www.​cognex.​com/​produ​cts/​machi​ne-​vision.
19
https://​devel​oper.​qualc​omm.​com/​softw​are/​machi​ne-​vision-​sdk.

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• Sony Semiconductor Solutions Corporation20 Sony’s image sensor and machine vision technologies enable IoT devices
to capture high-quality visual data, supporting advanced photography, augmented reality, and visual intelligence in
IoT applications, underpinning immersive virtual worlds and responsive IoT environments.

It is highlighted that machine vision technology is generally assumed as a part of smart IoT systems, and it is essential,
but not critical in AI applications. Moreover, this technology provides no autonomy for IoT systems and AI-enabled things,
but intelligent things using machine vision technology work more safely and collect more data for ML applications.

3.2 Prohibited things/items in IoAI communities

Based on the hi-tech background technologies of the IoAI community, it is able to meet all its problems/requirements
individually, and there is no need for human-based assistance (but there is allowed to collaborate). In this regard, enter-
ing/using several categories of things/issues should be strongly prohibited by each IoAI community. Four important of
them are now listed in the following (these can be applied in the final generation IoAI, not in the first one since the first
generation of the IoAI paradigm should be dominated by humans/governments).

• AI-less things In a perfect IoAI community, all things will work based on their AI and predefined algorithms. Hence, no
HitB thing (e.g., initial materials, energy products, vehicles, or even virtual things) is considered valid to enter/connect
IoAI components. It is noted that humans/companies as customers or consumers of IoAI-generated products can use
them but they should not interfere in the affairs and processes.
• Human dominance All decisions are made based on AI, and no natural intelligence is allowed to make changes in deci-
sions and commit comments. Therefore, each IoAI community works fully autonomously without human dominance,
and all human orders to change processes should be aborted before submitting.
• Government intervention Government interventions and policies are located at the upper level of humans, and they
are able to change the general policies of communities. However, the IoAI community is assumed government-proof
and accepts no policies made by politicians or religious parties. Hence, the IoAI community decides, makes its futures,
and grows its generations based on its conditions in addition to ignoring all HitB-based decisions.
• Irrational orders and compulsory Each autonomous IoAI will be developed for one or more achievements, such as
assisting industry, cultivating agricultural products, mining, making IT products, and/or improving medicine. In this
regard, it works and develops due to the defined goal(s) and resists out-of-duties and irrational orders and compulsory,
and it goes ahead in development to achieve defined goals as fast as a perfect industry.

It is noticed that the above list seems unrealistic to be applied in the first generation of IoAI since with these restrictions,
the system should be fully isolated and can be launched in small areas where no humans are present (it is true for now).
Hence, applying all the mentioned aspects causes many challenges, such as AI errors and the inability to stop dangerous
projects, and makes the IoAI impractical in the first generation. Therefore, in the first generation of the IoAI, human plays
an influenceable role and should exist.

3.3 General architecture

As a general architecture of IoAI, we offer a three-layer architecture illustrated in Fig. 3 (Note: The Human layer is not
a part of the IoAI community, and this layer includes some who collaborate with the IoAI, not assisting the IoAI). It is
highlighted that the proposed architecture is similar to AIoT but the order of layers is assumed inverse. In the following,
the three layers of the IoAI concept are defined.

1. Infrastructure It is wondering but true that things provide infrastructures, and clouds and great companies are
assumed to be end users. In the IoAI community, AI-enabled things, including robots, driverless vehicles, drones,
etc., are connected in an area as big as a city and provide services for humans. This layer is the main layer of the IoAI

20
https://​www.​sony-​semic​on.​com/​en/​compa​ny/​vision/​index.​html.

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Fig. 3  The offered three-

community and no human nor government is allowed to force policies. The autonomy and human-disconnected
part of the IoAI appear in this layer. The connections of them are generally peer-to-peer wireless channels, and their
services involve all human requirements, such as farming, industry, manufacturing, mining, IT products, clothing,
etc. As with current cities and provinces, the IoAI can construct and build new buildings and manufactories, grow
itself, connect to other communities, and meet its required energy through green and/or renewable ways. As a
future horizon, this layer can be assumed as the best friend and collaborator for humans and a factor in increasing
the quality of humans’ lifestyles.
2. Interface Regarding the reverse architecture of IoAI, edges are assumed near the infrastructure (the AI-enabled things),
and Fog is considered the closest layer to the application layer (human and cloud). The connection ways could be
Internet-based (e.g., wireless channel), and traditional physical transportation systems (roads, sea, sky, etc.). In this
layer, as the connection layer, all types of things, such as AI-less things, HitB things, and AI-enabled things, exist in
the transportation system. All in all, this layer is a bridge between a robot-based community (IoAI) and humans.
3. Application This layer is not the main part of IoAI, and it is the closest layer to humans and can involve and connect
them. As with general network architectures, end users exist in the application layer but, in the IoAI concept, cloud
service providers, industry, and humans are in this layer. The connection between industries to the IoAI community
is the same business-to-business (B2B) connection, and the connection between humans to the IoAI community is
assumed as the same customer-to-business (C2B). However, for certain applications, C2C connections can be defined
so that each individual is able to connect to an AI-enabled thing in the IoAI community as a business or even a friend.

It is highlighted that the presented architecture in Fig. 3 is general, and for each application details of connections and
entity types and their abilities can be defined.

3.4 Achievements

The IoAI is not far from the AI’s achievements and can be known as an advanced application of AI. In this regard,
the remaining of this subsection addresses the specialized achievements of a general IoAI community on top of AI
applications.

3.4.1 Autonomy

Undoubtedly, autonomy is one of the best AI achievements reflected in expert systems as an excellent example. However,
an autonomous expert system as big as a city is unbelievable but it will be launched in the near future. As the greatest
achievement of the IoAI concept, this study introduces an autonomous city/community as the next generation of cur-
rent AI which can also meet all requirements of itself in addition to solving human needs. As mentioned previously, the
autonomous city can involve AI-based manufacturers, academies, farms, academies, worldwide leader companies, and
distinguished products.

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3.4.2 Generative and human‑disconnected community

As aforementioned, autonomy could provide many achievements so generative AI is considered a state-of-the-art topic
in science and technology. Except for the infrastructure layer in the transportation systems, the IoAI community connec-
tion to humans is fully cut. Hence, it is able to create many products to grow itself, assist the HitB industries, and enhance
human life quality. Therefore, a perfect IoAI community is generative, in both inside and outside aspects, and it is an
excellent human-disconnected community in individually solving its problems and requirements.

3.4.3 Environment compatibility

The sustainability of robots in every environment condition is a critical feature that enables IoAI components to be com-
patible with many weathers. Hence, developing IoAI in locations where life is difficult for humans also increases Earth’s
efficiency by using green and renewable energies. The absence of the need for general life infrastructure for humans (e.g.,
water supply infrastructure, sewer network, food and supplies warehouse, electricity network, gas delivery, providing
other types of energy, etc.) in IoAI communities is another facilitating feature for the rapid development of this technol-
ogy in every environments/locations.

3.4.4 Improving people’s living standards

Despite the fact that the IoAI community is assumed human-disconnected, it can be considered the best friend and
collaborator for people, industry, academia, and scientific communities. Hence, IoAI assistance to humans through inno-
vative ideas, high-tech products, and energy-efficient tools could provide many other benefits for the improvement of
people’s living standards.

3.5 Challenges and opportunities

Every emerging technology and concept has several challenges in addition to its opportunities. In the following, the
essential items of the challenges and opportunities of the IoAI concept are identified in three aspects (for industry, in
relation to governments, and assisting to humans).

3.5.1 Challenges

Although most challenges of IoAI are common with AI technology [19–21], this section reviews three important chal-
lenging aspects of the existence of the IoAI as an ideal autonomous city (the ideal refers to a type of AI with no error).

• Initial setup (for industry) It is very clear that creating each new product (hardware, software, or algorithmic-based) faces
many problems, such as the absence of enough experts, weak background technologies, marketing, the absence of
a dedicated production line, acceptability by people, etc. As in AI, preparing an IoAI community in a big and far area
enforces massive initial costs to developers and supporting companies (or even governments). Moreover, creating
fully autonomous robots to transfer them to a far destination is a high-risk process that requires several venture capital
(VC) with strong financial support in the fields of computer sciences, technology, and IT.
• Non-acceptance by governments Generally, no government likes independent and autonomous communities, and non-
dependence on governments is dangerous and puts them at risk of bankruptcy [61, 62]. In this regard, governments
try to make communities dependent them on themselves for many reasons, such as for energy, strategic products,
transportation, protection, city services, etc. Hence, policies and decisions made by politicians stop/limit communi-
ties’ autonomy in many aspects.
• Revolution against humanity Some scientists and experts believe AI is the most important factor in the killing and
extinction of humans in the near future [63–65]. Hence, the high proceeding of AI and transforming to an autono-
mous community (this study called it IoAI community) to be a society superior to human societies is the main reason
to forbid the rapid development of AI technology. Therefore, deciding an excellent (or the best) trade-off between
fully and partially autonomous IoAI communities is challenging since the autonomous one is hazardous (it is a good
reason for governments to be against it), and the other requires connecting human control, monitoring, cost, energy,
etc.

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3.5.2 Opportunities

The IoAI community provides many benefits in addition to addressing challenges. Despite the fact that the oppor-
tunities of the existence of an IoAI community are similar to its achievements mentioned in Sect. 3.4, three exciting
opportunities are now identified in the following.

• Secondary efficiency (for industry) In addition to annoying problems and challenges, an IoAI community bring
many benefits after a desired development, such as energy efficiency by using green energies, no need for water
resources in several products, creating error-free products with no need for quality control, and being generative
and no need to human. These secondary efficiencies and benefits highly motivate the government, developers
and great companies to launch the first generation of the IoAI community to utilize the valuable achievements.
• Autonomous government This opportunity can be assumed a threat to acceptability by the governments since
the IoAI can remove any conflict of interest and make the most sound politicians who strive for the progress of
society. From a public perspective, it is a good feature of the IoAI community and is considered the best type of
government. Also, in the current time, there are several practical examples of AI-based managers, teachers, and
many other jobs replaced by AI in such a way that they are working properly and satisfiable.
• The best collaborators of humans As with the autonomous city and autonomous manufacturing and industry, the
IoAI community can be the best collaborator for industry and a new exciting destination for tourists. Full-time
work in IoAI-based manufacturing makes it the fastest business and industrial partner, and the fully robot-based
and smartest city attracts many tourists to visit.

4 Discussion and future horizon

The concept of IoAI, as an autonomous community operated by advanced AI, presents an intriguing vision of the
future. Such a community, if well-designed and responsibly managed by its participants (e.g., AI-based robots and
algorithms), could potentially offer numerous benefits as aforementioned. However, as with any advanced tech-
nology, there are important considerations, especially regarding compatibility, collaboration, and security. Several
important considerations in relation to IoAI are discussed below:

• Making a good relationship with humans To foster a positive relationship with an AI-enabled community, it’s crucial
to establish transparency, governance, and mutual understanding. Open dialogue and collaboration will be nec-
essary to ensure that both humans and AI systems work together in a harmonious and complementary manner.
Promoting education and awareness about AI, its capabilities, and its limitations will be vital to building trust and
cultivating a culture of collaboration.
• Ensuring compatibility To ensure compatibility with an autonomous AI-based community, it will be essential to
develop standardized communication protocols and interoperable systems. Human-centric design principles
should guide the development of interfaces, ensuring that humans can seamlessly interact with AI-enabled com-
ponents, leveraging intuitive controls and feedback mechanisms.
• Addressing security concerns Building a secure environment in the presence of highly advanced AI systems will
be a paramount concern. Robust cybersecurity measures, including encryption, authentication, and anomaly
detection, will be critical to protect against potential threats or unauthorized access. Additionally, establishing
fail-safe mechanisms, thorough auditing, and continuous monitoring will help maintain control and mitigate any
potential risks.
• Mitigating potential risks One of the key challenges will be to prevent AI-enabled robots from revolting against humans.
Safeguards such as ethics-driven programming, strict adherence to Asimov’s laws of robotics, and implementing ethi-
cal guidelines for AI development can help mitigate this risk. Continuous, transparent oversight and regular ethical
evaluations will also be necessary to prevent any potential negative outcomes.
• Cultivating a positive ethical framework In addition to security measures, an autonomous AI-based community should
operate within a framework that prioritizes ethical considerations and upholds human values. Establishing interdis-
ciplinary boards for AI ethics, fostering human-AI collaboration, and setting clear guidelines for AI decision-making
can help maintain an ethical and human-centric approach in the community’s operations.

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Based on above descussion, establishing a positive, collaborative, and secure relationship with an autonomous AI-based
community necessitates transparent governance, compatibility-focused design, robust security measures, and adher-
ence to ethical guidelines. By fostering understanding, collaboration, and a human-centric approach, it’s possible to
create a mutually beneficial relationship with such communities, unlocking the potential for sustainable, innovative,
and harmonious coexistence.
Regarding the previous section, this study believes that the IoAI will meet its goals in the second generation. Hence,
the following describes the evolution of this technology in three main generations.

1. First generation of IoAI In the first generation of IoAI, it is very challenging to establish it in a far area. Hence, it would
be better if the first generation of the autonomous community developed over smart cities under human considera-
tion and monitoring. Regarding this idea, IoAI’s practical efficiency, relation to humans, soundness of working, etc.
can be tested in a controllable environment. Additionally, in case of positive results, the IoAI-based community can
be accepted by governments and the general public more quickly.
2. Second generation On the success of the first generation, the second generation of the IoAI can be developed in an
uninhabitable place as big as a city (even a far location, e.g., a desert, cold region, waterless areas, and/or somewhere
that is uninhabitable for humans). Hence, the Earth’s energy efficiency is increased since all used energies by the
IoAI community are all renewable, green, and unlimited energies (e.g., solar and wind) used to generate people and
industry needs. Additionally, relying on the capabilities of AI, it is anticipated many innovative ideas will proposed
to enhance Earth’s energy efficiency.
3. Third and next generations According to the great potential of AI and the autonomy of the IoAI community, the goals
and horizons of the third generation of the IoAI will designed by IoAI participants, and they decide what will happen
for themselves. However, we forecast that the main difference between the second and third generations of the IoAI
is to use of a higher level of energy efficiency with no loss and the creation of the most high-tech products supported
with quality.

5 Conclusion

The absence of human assistance(s)/collaborators in hard-working conditions such as in bad environments, too warm/
cold temperatures inaccessibility of energy, full-time work and other types of heavy work caused a sense of requiring an
unlimited community in several aspects. The potential of AI-empowered robots as errorless assistants of humans moti-
vated this study to propose a new concept called IoAI. Autonomy was considered as the main feature of the IoAI concept.
However, the proposed concept can collaborate with humans, industrial men, academia, and people in a broad spectrum
field of science and technology in addition to working as an autonomous community as big as a city. Furthermore, by
relying on AI, the IoAI community can resolve its needs and grow itself.
On the other hand, launching a fully autonomous IoAI faces several challenges addressed in this work, such as the cost
of initial setup, regulatory policies made by governance, and the possibility of revolution against humans. Accordingly,
we offered to release the first generation of the IoAI concept over smart cities so that is controllable by governments,
and then allow to development of the second generation of IoAI, as a fully autonomous community driven by AI-based
robots and algorithms, to be able to develop industry, extract initial materials, and make high-tech products. However,
humans who are faced with IoAI suffer from two aspects of this technology; first, revolute against humans and the main
human killer factor, and second, it is the best friend of humans and the most important collaborator for industry. In this
regard, this study identified important opportunities for the emergence of IoAI such as efficiency and helping govern-
ance to implement their policies.
Future directions Although AI technology is not a new concept, it can be assumed a new tool to enhance many services
and propose new paradigms. The IoAI is one of the exciting paradigms that require much work for the future in several
fields we address some of them. The industry should generate and develop state-of-the-art and AI-based robots for the
future horizon so that they can work fully autonomously. Additionally, industrial men should be prepared to have cooper-
ated with a robot-based community. Governments should smooth policies for replacing AI-based robots with hard work
and making decisions by algorithms. The compatibility of governments and policies with robots is an essential thing for
future communities. Ultimately, we believe that academia and researchers play the most important role in creating an
intelligent future. Hence, designing conditional controllability for autonomous systems is a critical idea for the near future.

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In the end, we, as authors, hope the world’s future be a better place for humans, and that the proceeds of technologies
assist them to have excellent lifestyles.

Acknowledgements We, as authors, appreciate anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments to improve this work.

Funding The authors received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.

Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of
the authors.

Competing interests The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest in the publication of this article.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://c​ reati​ vecom
​ mons.o
​ rg/l​ icens​ es/b
​ y/4.0
​ /.

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