Unit 1: Introduction to Psychology

Part 2:
HISTORY AND
PERSPECTIVES
 PART IV: NEO F R E U D I S M
D 2 0 T H C E N T U R Y )
(EARLY TO MI

CARL JUNG ALFRED ADLER ERIK ERIKSON KAREN HORNEY

Analytical Psychology Individual Psychology Psychosocial Stages of Feminine Psychology
Development
 Neo-Freudian psychologists were thinkers who
u d i s m agreed with many of the fundamental tenets of
e o f r e
N Freud's psychoanalytic theory but changed and
adapted the approach to incorporate their own
beliefs, ideas, and opinions.

Most thinkers agreed with Freud’s ideas of the

“unconscious mind” but disagreed on or rejected
other aspects of his theories.

This disagreement led to them coming up with their

own ideas on cognition and personality.
 m The neo-Freudian school of
e u d i s
Ne o f r psychiatrists and psychologists was a
group of loosely linked American
theorists/writers of the mid-20th
century "who attempted to restate
Freudian theory in sociological terms
and eliminate its connections with
biology.
 MAIN FOCUS ON SEXUAL URGES OR DESIRES AS
THE PRIMARY MOTIVATOR
LACK OF EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
N TS OF
N PO I
MAI EN TS
AND CULTURE IN PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

AG RE EM
DIS LIMITED VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
LACK OF FOCUS ON SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
FREUD’S VIEW ON WOMEN AND FEMALE
SEXUALITY
 AS PSYCHOANALYSIS CONTINUED TO FLOURISH AND
F R EU D
AF TE R FREUD’S WRITINGS GAINED REPUTATION, HE

E LO PE D
DEV L YS IS
ATTRACTED SEVERAL FOLLOWERS.

H O A N A
PS YC
19 0 0S )
(EA R LY HE STARTED LOOKING FOR SOMEONE WHO COULD
BECOME HIS SUCCESSOR; SOMEONE HE FELT WOULD
TAKE HIS IDEAS FORWARD, MAKE HIS PSYCHOANALYSIS
TO BE AS POPULAR AS POSSIBLE, AND THUS, BECOME
HIS INTELLECTUAL HEIR.
 HE WAS ALSO KEEN TO HAVE DISCUSSIONS AND
T A R T E D
U D S
FRE FURTHER SPREAD PSYCHOANALYSIS. THIS LED

VIEN N A FREUD TO START THE VIENNA PSYCHOANALYTIC

A LY T IC
C H OA N
PS Y ) SOCIETY.
( 19 0 2
IE T Y
SOC
A SMALL GROUP OF PEOPLE THAT FREUD
INVITED TO DISCUSS PSYCHOLOGY AND
NEUROPATHOLOGY.
 “First, one of the members would present a paper. Then,
T A R T E D
U D S black coffee and cakes were served; cigars and cigarettes
FRE
VIEN N A were on the table and were consumed in great quantities.
A LY T IC
C H OA N After a social quarter of an hour, the discussion would
PS Y )
( 19 0 2
IE T Y begin. The last and the decisive word was always spoken by
SOC Freud himself. There was an atmosphere of the foundation
of a religion in that room. Freud himself was its new prophet
who made the heretofore prevailing methods of
psychological investigation appear superficial.”
 One of the first members of the Vienna
T A R T E D
U D S Psychoanalytic Society was the psychiatrist
FRE
VIEN N A Alfred Adler.
A LY T IC
C H OA N
PS Y )
( 19 0 2
IE T Y
SOC
 Founded Individual Psychology (1912)
Adler was a socialist and many of his ideas
in psychology were driven by his political
beliefs.
His strong awareness of social problems
was a principal motivation in his work.
He was one of the first followers of
Alfred Adler
(1870-1937) Sigmund Freud.
In 1902, he was appointed as the first president of the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society.
After being with Freud for quite some time, Adler started developing
his own ideas, which were at variance with Freud and the other
members of the Society.
He later, began to criticize Freud openly, especially about Freud’s
emphasis on sexuality.
In 1911, Adler was fervently criticized by the members of the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society, which led him to resign as the president of
the society.

After a few months, he terminated his association with Freud and

Freudian psychoanalysis. Adler then developed his own psychoanalytic
model, which he called individual psychology.
 Adler gave importance to social urges rather than
sexual urges.
Individual He was adamant that to fully understand a person, a
Psychology psychologist must also consider other internal and
external factors.
(also known as
Adlerian Psychology) Individual Psychology emphasises an individual’s need
for self-unity, perfection and specifically designed
It comes from the Latin
goals.
word “individuum” which It posits that humans are primarily motivated by
means indivisible. social connectedness and a striving for superiority or
success.
 Adler believed that individuals are indivisible
wholes, which is why he named his theory
‘indivisible psychology’.
Individual
Individuals are motivated primarily by social
Psychology interests and a striving for superiority or
(also known as self-improvement.
Adlerian Psychology)
He used “superiority” as a defense
mechanism that people use to cope with
feelings of inferiority.
 Childhood experiences, especially feelings of
inferiority, drive this striving, but in a
healthy individual, it manifests as a desire to
Individual contribute to the welfare of others.

Psychology Maladaptive behaviors arise when this striving

(also known as becomes self-centered or when inferiority
Adlerian Psychology) feelings are overwhelming.

Adler emphasized the uniqueness of the

individual and the role of social connections
in shaping behavior.
 The superiority complex occurs when a person needs to

IO RITY prove that he is more superior than he truly is.

SU PER
M PL EX
CO A superiority complex means that a person has an
exaggerated opinion of their abilities and accomplishments.
They may behave in ways that suggest they believe they are
better than other people.

However, a person with a superiority complex may actually

be trying to mask, hide, or overcompensate for feelings of
inferiority.
 Adler believed that a superiority complex may begin in

IO R IT Y childhood.
SU P ER
E X A N D He theorized that a person’s upbringing could lay the
C OM PL
IO R IT Y groundwork for feelings of inferiority.
INF E R This could cause them to feel the need to overcompensate
M P LE X
C O when they reached school age, thus creating a superiority
complex.
While a person with a superiority complex may appear to
have a boastful attitude, they are simply trying to cover up
their feelings of inferiority.
 This striving for superiority may be frustrated by feelings

IO R IT Y of inferiority, inadequacy, or incompleteness arising from

SU P ER
E X A N D physical defects, low social status, pampering or neglect
C OM PL
IO R IT Y during childhood, or other causes encountered in the course
INF E R of life.
M P LE X
C O
Individuals can compensate for their feelings of inferiority
by developing their skills and abilities, or, less healthily,
they may develop an inferiority complex that comes to
dominate their behaviour.
 The term inferiority complex has lost much of its

IO RITY significance through imprecise popular misuse—for example,

INF ER
M PL EX as an inappropriately facile explanation of any show of
C O ambition by a person of less-than-average height.

An inferiority complex is a psychological sense of inferiority

that is wholly or partly unconscious.

Adler held the belief that many neurotic symptoms could be

traced to overcompensation for this feeling.
 The striving for superiority coexists with another innate urge:

IO R IT Y to cooperate and work with other people for the common good,

SU P ER a drive that Adler termed the social interest.

PL E X /
COM
IO R IT Y The Adlerian psychotherapist directs the patient’s attention to
INF E R
P LE X - the unsuccessful, neurotic character of his attempts to cope

CO M with feelings of inferiority.

T M E NT
TRE A
Once the patient has become aware of these, the therapist
builds up his self-esteem, helps him adopt more realistic goals,
and encourages more useful behaviour and a stronger social
interest.
 Adler did not believe in personality types. He
believed this practice could lead to neglecting
Personality each individual’s uniqueness.

Typology, However, he did recognize patterns that often

formed in childhood and could be useful in
according to treating patients who fit into them. He called
Adler (or, these patterns styles of life.

Styles of Life Adler and his followers analyze a person’s style

of life by comparing it to “the socially adjusted
human being”
 Adler believed that birth order can have a
ER AND
H OR D significant impact in a child’s personality.
BIRT
CH IL D’S
A Y
O N AL IT
PE RS
 ER AND
H OR D Adler maintained that the order in which children are
BIRT born into a family influences their development and
CH IL D’S
A Y
O N AL IT shapes their individuality.
PE RS Each position in the birth order is believed to carry
distinct characteristics and traits.
He believed that a person's perception of their birth
order and the experiences derived from it influence
their sense of self and their interaction with others.
 ADLER
E ON
MOR “It would not be easy to find another
author from which so much has been
borrowed from all sides without
acknowledgement than Adler.”
- Ellen-berger (1970)
 DL E R -
E O N A Adler said, “My psychology belongs to
MOR
O W H IS everyone”. He believed that whether he was
H O IN T
A LIS T P
SO C I D known in psychology was not important.
S H A P E
OF V IE W What mattered for him that his positive
LE R IA N
TH E A D
H E R A PY approach to child development, parenting,
Y C H O T
PS and education were widely accepted.
 If Adler is or was so important in the actual
ADLER
E ON
MOR Psychotherapy, why he is so little known or
recognized? The answer is obvious: because of
his political generosity. This led him to say that
his psychology was like a basket of fruits,
meaning anyone could take the one he liked the
most and make his own without recognizing the
place from where it was taken.
 Adler’s work was, in part, an educational
ADLER
E ON
MOR movement geared towards bringing people
together with its emphasis on the healing
power of connection.

He found that “false individualism” is at

the heart of neurosis and that society as a
whole suffers from this faulty ideal
 Lack of Empirical Evidence (relies on case
Individual studies and subjective interpretations)
Psychology - Lacks a Proper Developmental Model
Neglect of Unconscious Processes
Criticisms
Overemphasis on social factors
Potential Biases and Errors
The holistic model might also gloss over
the complexity of the human experience
After Adler developed
strong disagreements
with him and decided
to move away, Freud
was left to look for
someone else as his
intellectual heir, Carl
Jung.
In the year 1900, upon encountering Freud's *Interpretation of
Dreams* shortly after its unveiling, he found himself profoundly
captivated by Freud's profound insights.
 SIGMUND FREUD
(FRONT-LEFT) WITH
STANLEY HALL (FRONT-
CENTER) AND CARL
JUNG (FRONT-RIGHT),
AT CLARK UNIVERSITY
 Freud developed a deep sense of
Freud and Jung admiration and fondness for Jung. He
decided to make him his successor, what
he called “his crown prince.”
In 1910, Freud founded the International
Psychoanalytic Association and made
Jung its first president. Jung held this
position till 1914.
 Jung began to apply psychoanalytic insights to
Freud and Jung ancient myths and legends in a search for the
key to the nature of human psyche.
Such independent thinking did not meet with
Freud’s approval.
Freud felt that associating psychoanalysis
with ancient myths and legends will give it a
bad name and will thus, become an impediment
in spreading psychoanalysis.
 Jung differed with Freud’s emphasis on sexuality
Freud and Jung and Freud questioned Jung’s interest in
spirituality.
It is also said that Jung made a critical analysis of
Freud’s personal life that may have been another
reason for the tensions between them.
In early 1913, they ended their personal
relationship and a few months later their business
correspondence.
 In April 1914, Jung resigned from the post of the
Freud and Jung president of the International Psychoanalytic
Association, and in August 1914, he even withdrew
his name as a member.
After that Freud and Jung never saw each other
again.
But Jung continued to develop his own
interpretation of psychoanalysis and called his
theory “Analytical Psychology”
 Founded Analytical Psychology (1912)

He was deeply influenced by religion and

spirituality.

Jung agreed that a personal unconscious

exists, but he believed it plays a less
significant role in shaping personality than
Freud suggested.

CARL JUNG He proposed that another layer of the

(Pronounced as Carl Young) unconscious exists: the collective
unconscious.
 IE W O F
NG ’S V
JU IO US
C ONS C
TH E U N
 The personal unconscious is a part of the
Personal unconscious mind that contains a person's
experiences, including repressed, forgotten,
Unconscious or subliminal material.
It's a reservoir of information that was once
conscious but has been suppressed or
forgotten.
It is the gateway to the collective
unconscious.
 Jung believed that the collective unconscious is a
segment of the deepest unconscious mind is genetically
Collective
inherited and not shaped by personal experience.
Unconscious It is responsible for a number of deep-seated beliefs
and instincts, such as spirituality, sexual behavior, and
life and death instincts
A collection of knowledge and imagery that every
person is born with and is shared by all human beings
due to ancestral experience..
 IEW OF
NG ’SV
JU
SYCHE
THE P
 IEW OF
NG ’SV
JU
SYCHE
THE P
 Jung believed that the collective unconscious is

Archetypes expressed through universal archetypes.

Archetypes are signs, symbols, or patterns of thinking

and/or behaving that are inherited from our ancestors.

According to Jung, these mythological images or cultural

symbols are not static or fixed.

Instead, many different archetypes may overlap or

combine at any given time.

Archetypes
 The persona represents all of the different social masks that we

1. Persona wear among various groups and situations.

The persona is how we It acts to shield the ego from negative images.
present ourselves to the
Throughout development, children learn that they must behave in
world. The word "persona"
is derived from a Latin certain ways to conform to society's expectations and norms.
word that literally means
"mask." The persona develops as a social mask to contain all of the

primitive urges, impulses, and emotions that are not considered

socially acceptable.
 The persona archetype
allows people to adapt to
the world around them and
fit in with the society in
which they live. However,
becoming too closely
identified with this
archetype can lead people
to lose sight of their true
selves.
 It is part of the unconscious mind and is composed of repressed

ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts, and shortcomings.

2. Shadow
The shadow is a Jungian The shadow forms out of our attempts to comply with cultural
archetype that consists of
norms and expectations.
sex and life instincts.
It contains all of the things that are unacceptable not only to

society but also to one's own personal morals and values.

It might include things such as envy, greed, prejudice, hate, and

aggression.
The shadow archetype is often
described as the darker side of
the psyche, representing
wildness, chaos, and the
unknown. These latent
dispositions are present in all
of us, Jung believed, although
people sometimes deny this
element of their own psyche
and instead project it on to
others.
 The feminine is characterized by empathy, trust, intuition, and
3. The Anima emotional connections with others.

or The masculine anima is related to logical thinking, problem-solving,

The Animus and emotional stability.

The anima is the feminine
According to Jung, the animus represents the masculine aspect
part of the male psyche,
and the animus is the male that is often suppressed in women while the anima represents the
part of the female psyche.
feminine aspect that is suppressed in men.
The combined anima and animus
is known as the syzygy or the
divine couple. The syzygy
represents completion,
unification, and wholeness.

Integrating both the feminine

and masculine aspects of our
personality into an authentic
unified whole is a healthy part
of human development.
 Creating the self occurs through a process known as
4. The Self
individuation, in which the various aspects of personality
The self is an archetype
that represents the unified
are integrated.
consciousness and
unconsciousness of an It is the self that lies at the centre of personality.
individual. Jung often
represented the self as a For Jung, the ultimate aim was for an individual to
circle, square, or mandala.
achieve a sense of cohesive self
JU N G’S
IO N O F
PL OR A T
EX A LIT Y
P ERS O N
TH E
 The initial concepts of introversion and extroversion can be

Carl Jung’s traced to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung (1923) and his classic

Introversion book Psychological Types.

and Jung identified extroverts as “directing an outward flow of

Extraversion personal energy to the social environment” and introverts

as “directing an inward flow of personal energy focused on

internal factors” (Walker, 2021, p. 160).

 Leans over to being mystical and
Analytical pseudoscientific.
Psychology - Lack of empirical evidence and
Criticisms standardized means to test objectivity.
Unfalsifiability
Adherence to traditional gender norms
and limited view of gender identity.
 Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who
developed one of the most popular and
influential theories of development in 1938.

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a

predetermined order through eight stages of
psychosocial development, from infancy to
adulthood.

While Freud believed that personality is shaped

only in childhood, Erikson proposed that
Erik Erikson personality development takes place all through
(1902-1994) the lifespan.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
There are eight stages of development
STAGES OF
The stages that make up his theory are as follows: DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18
months to three years)
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)
 Lack of empirical evidence
Psychosocial Overgeneralization of individual
Development - experiences
Criticisms Cultural biases
Overemphases on Crisis in each stage
Neglect of Biological Factors
Rigidity of Stages
 Activity: Let’s reflect on Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages by
creating our own lifeline map
Key Events Key Learnings

Lifeline
MAP
Childhood
experiences Points of Conflict

Good and Bad Behavior

Memories Formation
EXAMPLE OF A
LIFELINE MAP
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
Points for Discussion
STAGES OF
Link the psychosocial stages of development with various DEVELOPMENT
events in your lifeline map.

How do cultural factors influence the timing and expression

of Erikson's stages in your map?

If the theory reflected cultural biases being heavily based

on Western society, how would the stages be different in
South Asian society?
 A pioneer in Feminine Psychology
Her theories questioned some traditional
Freudian views.
She is credited with founding feminist
psychology in response to Freud's theory of
penis envy.
While Horney followed much of Sigmund
Karen Horney Freud's theory, she disagreed with his views
(1885-1952)
(Pronounced as Karen Horn-eye) on female psychology.
 Karen Horney transformed and expanded
the field of psychoanalysis by challenging
many prevailing masculine ideologies and is
widely considered to be a pioneer in the
field of psychoanalysis.

Karen Horney
(1885-1952)
(Pronounced as Karen Horn-eye)
 She argued instead that the source of much female
psychiatric disturbance is located in the very male-dominated
Womb Envy culture that had produced Freudian theory.

She introduced the concept of womb envy, suggesting that

Horney introduced ‘womb male envy of pregnancy, nursing, and motherhood—of
envy’ as a critique of women’s primary role in creating and sustaining life—led men
Freud’s concept of ‘penis to claim their superiority in other fields.
envy’ wherein he believed
women were envious of men
While Horney was the first to introduce the term “womb
because they lacked the
envy”, other theorists have also used it to oppose Freud’s
male genitalia.
penis envy.
WOMB ENVY
 Horney, also in contrast to Freud, believed that culture and
early experiences, rather than instinctual drives, largely led to
Theory of behavior and psychological characteristics, especially in

Neurotic Needs neurosis.

Horney created a new structure for neurosis. She believed that

neurosis stemmed from basic anxiety, which in turn stems from
family conditions that make a child feel unwanted.

Erikson’s ‘trust vs. mistrust’ was also inspired by Horney’s ideas

of basic anxiety.
 This basic anxiety causes people to feel helpless or

Theory of lost in the world, and they try to fulfill their need for
love and acceptance through four “neurotic trends”:
Neurotic Needs affection, submissiveness, power, or withdrawal
(Horney, 1937)
 1. The need for affection;
The Ten Neurotic 2. The need for a partner;
Needs (1942) 3. The need to restrict one’s life
Horney's neurotic needs can be 4. The need for power;
classified into three broad 5. The need for prestige;
categories:
Needs that move people 6. The need for personal admiration;
toward others 7. The need for personal achievement;
Needs that move people away
from others 8. The need for independence;
Needs that move people 9. The need to exploit others
against others
10. and, the need for perfection.
 According to Horney, as healthy people we can have two
Real Self, Ideal self views of our self:
and Despised Self the "real self" and the "ideal self".
The real self is who and what we actually are.
The ideal self is the type of person we feel we should
be.
However, a neurotic person vacillates between ideal
self and despised self
 Lack of empirical evidence (Based on
Karen Horney’s case studies and clinical observations)
ideas - Reducing womanhood to reproductive
Criticisms abilities.
Lack of clarity and consistency
Neglect of Biological Factors
THANK
YOU!