Unit Three

3.Natural resource and Conflicts over Resources

INTRODUCTION
This unit presents the importance of land as a natural resource, its functions, and use as well
as management strategies. It appreciates the classification of resources as renewable and non-
renewable. Common pool resources under immense human pressure will be identified; their
Depletion and consequences will be described.
Trans-boundary Rivers shared by two or more countries and regional cooperation on the
sustainable use of the waters of the mentioned rivers will receive due focus. This unit
likewise appreciates the water resource potential and use of Ethiopia in comparison to
neighboring countries like Egypt and Sudan. This unit finally winds up by giving a brief
explanation of conflicts arising over the use of natural resources.

3.1 THE FUNCTIONS AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND

3.1.1. The importance of land as a natural resource

The land is a very broad concept and has a wider range of meanings. It may be examined
from many different viewpoints or perspectives. For instance, it can be viewed as a resource,
an environment, a legal object, an economic asset, and/or cultural wealth.

The land is the ultimate resource and foundation of all forms of human activity for without it,
life on Earth cannot be sustained. It is the source of all wealth; both a physical commodity
and an abstract concept that the rights to own or use it are as much a part of the land as the
object rooted in the soil. From the land, we obtain food, shelter, space to work, and room to
relax. Land again represents fundamental components of the ecosystem. Land as a resource,
therefore, incorporates the natural resources (often referred to as land resources) and is
viewed also as an environment.
Land resources are useable materials that are often occurring naturally in the environment.
They are derived from the Earth: from Lithosphere, Biosphere, Atmosphere, or Hydrosphere.
 They are classified into different groups based on different parameters. For instance,
based on:
 Regeneration: renewable and non-renewable resources,
 Origin: biotic and abiotic resources,
 Current use and future availability: stock and flow resources,
 Distribution and volume: ubiquitous, unique, common, and rare resources,
 Stage of development: potential, actual and conditional resources.
Renewable resources such as plants and animals are often regenerative and replaceable after
use. These resources go on replacing themselves as far as the rate of use is less than the rate
of regeneration and as long as their environments are well kept. Renewable resources can be
replenished or reproduced easily. They are resources that grow again and again or come back
again after use. The rate of regeneration differs from resource to resource. For instance, crops
take a short time to regenerate. Resources like soil on the other hand may take a relatively
long time to renew. Forest resources can take a longer time compared to others. Nevertheless,
many renewable resources can be depleted through excessive use. Being classified as a
renewable resource does always mean not depleting at all. If excessively used, they can be

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easily depleted (exhausted). Sustainable (wise) use of such resources is thus the basic
requirement for preserving land resources for the benefit of humankind. Some of the
renewable resources are inexhaustible–exist as flow chattels (e.g. sunlight, oxygen in the
atmosphere, wind, etc.).

Non-renewable resources exist in a finite supply and do not replace themselves after use.
They diminish in size and quality with excessive use. These resources do not come back after
use or would take a very long time to regenerate. Minerals and fossil fuels are the best
examples of these resource groups. The rate of formation of these resources is very slow;
hence, they cannot be replenished soon once they get depleted. As it is difficult to get back
these resources, recycling and reusing are among the recommended management options.

Reuse involves using a resource over and over again in the same form or after recycling it.
Nonetheless, resources like coal and petroleum cannot be recycled like metallic minerals.
Therefore, it is essential to carefully manage the use of non-renewable resources because
their unmanaged use may lead to rapid exhaustion which finally restricts the benefit of
coming generations

Land as an environment refers to the ecological aspects of the Earth such as soil quality or
biodiversity and its functions within the ecosystem. From an ecological perspective, land
plays
a vital role in the breeding and survival of living organisms. Land as an environmental
resource again serves as a sink for waste.

The land comprises both biophysical and socioeconomic resources. Due to this, it can be
defined differently by different people. But land as an environment can never have one single
definition. Land as an environment is considered as an area of the Earth’s surface embracing
all aspects of the biotic and abiotic components existing on, above, and below the surface of
the Earth. Plants and animals of the biosphere, gases of the atmosphere, the underlying
geology and soils as well as the hydrology, plus the results of past and present activities of
human beings are attributes of land or considered to be part of the land.

3.1.2 The functions of land

Land as a useable material serves several purposes and tends to provide many functions,
including:
Production function: serve as means of production,
Waste disposal function: serve as a sink of wastes,
Economic asset: can be converted into a capital resource,
Cultural asset: serve as host of traditional and religious sacred amenities.

3.1.3 Land management

Land management refers to the proper use and protection of land resources to provide optimal
benefit to growing populations and uphold sustained ecosystem services. For that land should
be managed to provide a wide range of services including the making of food and fiber. It has
to deliver distinctive landscape opportunities for outdoor public recreation as well as pivotal
ecological functions. The management of land has essentially to encompass the protection of
wider landscapes and resources (mountains, hills, rivers, depressions, water, air, vegetation,
wildlife, etc.) to retain sustained public benefits and ecosystem services. It thus has to reflect
the principles of sustainable resource use and development. For that, it has to build upon

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national, regional, and local needs and aspirations. The prime objective of land management
is to control land degradation to balance resource exploitation and regeneration.

As land management is materialized through the protection of its resources, it has to base
itself on the management of soil, water, natural vegetation, and air. For instance, proper
farming practices, tree planting (afforestation and reforestation), controlled grazing, terracing,
and check-damming can be used to protect soils, water, and forests. Adaptation of fuel-
saving technologies in vehicles; use of renewable power sources (e.g. hydropower) for
industrial and home energy requirements help to reduce environmental pollution. Besides
these, land management should consider cultural, economic, and political settings. It has
better rely on the indigenous culture, and local knowledge, and on awaking and educating the
immediate beneficiaries of the area under consideration.

3.2 RESOURCES UNDER PRESSURE

This section refers to the identification of resources that are seriously affected by human use
and those fall under intense pressure.

There are several resources provided by the environment for human use and ecosystem
services.
All are of course affected by excessive human use. But from all renewable resources, soils,
water, and forests are the most influenced by humans and placed under increased pressure.
Large parts of these resources are available as common-pool wealth in many areas and face
greater pressure (the tragedy of the commons). They are repeatedly misused, mismanaged,
and degraded (see e.g. Figure 3.1) through unwise and careless uses. They face the prime
impact of rapid population growth and increased rural-urban migration. This topic thus
focuses on the discussion of the pressure exerted over these resources.

3.2.1 Soil resources

Soils are essential agricultural resources. But they are frequently losing their intrinsic quality
due to erosion or excessive utilization. Nearly 33% of the world’s arable land and soils have
been destroyed by soil erosion (e.g. see Figure 3.2). The main causes of the depletion are the
loss of essential soil nutrients; reduction of the biological components; removal of the top
soil; crusting and compaction; plus pollution and soil salinity. The main forms of soil
degradation (depletion) are:
 Physical (crusting, compaction, depth reduction),
 Chemical(salinization, alkalinisation, acidification), and
 Biological (loss of soil biota, decline of soil organic carbon).

Yet, the depletion of soils reduces their productive capacity and environmental quality. Soil
depletion likewise annihilates the essential ecosystem functions in the soil system. But still,
the mentioned problems have solutions. They can be managed through proper utilization; by
the adoption of erosion control structures; and through the addition of manure and natural
fertilizers.

3.2.2. Water resources

Water is one of the basic life necessities for the survival of human beings as well as animals.
It is essential for the generation and growth of plants. It forms also the major components of
soil formation, rock weathering, organic matter decomposition, and rainfall formation. Water

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(mainly freshwater) forms the essential portion of the environment and serves as a habitat for
diverse life forms. In addition, its service for the production of power is so great.

Nonetheless, it is enclosed by a far greater number of constraints than ever before. With the
commencement of the 21st century, the world’s freshwater resources fall under great pressure
from more different directions than ever before in the Earth’s history.

Freshwater stands by now among the land resources that suffer a lot from excessive human
pressure. Rivers and lakes are among those extremely threatened by domestic and industrial
wastes. Particularly those found closer to urban areas are polluted by plastic bags, and exotic
water plants like the water hyacinth. Oil spills (leakages) from steamships/boats plus
chemicals released from industries entering the lakes, seas, and rivers cause excessive
accumulation of nutrients and toxicity over the animals inhabiting those hydrologic
ecosystems.

Due to the spectacular rising populations, water scarcities and effluence of the sources are
resulting in turbulence. The scarcity of water is currently distressing in many arid and
semiarid areas of the world where population pressure is somewhat extensive including parts
of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia.

The world population is likely to approach 10 billion by 2050 which might cause more
demand for water to satisfy the expanded needs of agriculture and industry. The amplified
population again may pose natural disasters like flooding, droughts, and pollution of surface
and ground waters. The pollution would probably reduce the available quality of freshwater.

Climate change may likely upset the features of the hydrological cycle in many delicate
areas.
With that water would likely emerge as a source of contention and skirmish between nations
sharing river basins (international rivers) coupled with the diminishing base of resources.

The risks posed by water may impact also human health, livelihoods, socio-economy,
political stability, culture, and society, for water arrives essentially into all human activity.
Water is equally imperative at spatial, personal to global scales and from seconds to hundred-
year time scales and far beyond. Owing to the widespread hunger and mounting overall food
demands across the globe, sustainable use of water and land ecosystems is imperative.
Nevertheless, freshwater appears to deplete by competing and unwise uses. Managing water
resources has thus now become mandatory.

The following measures can be taken to address the competing uses and sustain the health of
freshwater resources:
 developing safe waste disposal sewerage systems, particularly in urban areas
to avoid contamination of stream and lake waters from domestic effluents,
 adopting laws restricting withdrawal of wastes to river and lake systems,
 locating industries far from rivers and lakes,
 desalination of sea water to minimize stress on streams and lakes,
 recycling of waste water through careful treatment,
 using porous pavements to avoid the drain of wastewater into watercourses
from impervious surfaces in urban areas, and
 Watershed management.

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3.2.3 Forest resources
Forests are making up significant portions of the land area of the world. Throughout the
history of humankind, forests have been essential for the well-being of people and presently
donate much to the livelihoods of billions of populations worldwide. They particularly
provide subsistence items, income, and agricultural inputs to the livelihoods of many
households.

Forest ecosystems in addition donate a wide range of services like climate stabilization, flood
control, waste filtration, and soil erosion control at local, regional, and global scales. They
also uptake and store the world’s carbon stocks and serve as heat and waste sequestration.
Forest resources again serve as a habitat for the Earth’s known terrestrial species.
Nevertheless, deforestation (excessive tree cutting), encroachment of farming into the
communal forest areas, and mismanagement largely reduce their services despite the
enormous benefits that they provide.
About 13 million ha of forested lands have been annually converted into other land uses due
to natural causes at the global level over the past few decades. Forest clearance for large-scale
plantation agriculture and livestock ranching in the tropics (e.g. in the Amazon basin)
resulted in the loss of rainforest ecosystems. Increasing demand for bio fuels, mining, rapid
urbanization, climate change, changes in consumption patterns, and human values and ethics
due to the rapid increase of world population and world trade (globalization) have been
creating additional pressure on the status of world forests.

As you might recall, forests constitute the largest terrestrial ecosystems on the Earth and
provide a wide range of ecosystem services. Nevertheless, their provision is threatened by
excessive human use and over exploitation. If this continues, the security of wildlife and
livelihood of the people of the world; primarily those of the poor developing countries will be
endangered soon. Remedial measures are mandatory to conserve these endangered resources.

The following measures could be taken to safeguard the security of forest resources at any
place in addition to other measures adopted by residents:
 initiating afforestation and reforestation programs like the ‘Green Legacy’ practiced
in Ethiopia,
 integrating forest management with Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) programs,
 Looking for alternative energy sources from other renewable resources (hydropower,
solar power, wind power, etc.),
 adopting restrictive laws on unwise use of common-pool forests (e.g. using bylaws),
 encouraging participatory forest management (e.g. engaging users in decision
making),
 education and awareness creation (educating and awaking forest users), and
 Watershed management (protecting the watersheds).

NB
From the non-renewable resources, Fossil fuels (natural oil. & coal); precious minerals (Gold
& Diamonds) are among those facing intense pressure. The exploitation of these resources
has been frequently causing conflict among ethnic groups and even between countries.
Examples are the Middle East, Central Africa, and West Africa.

3.3 LAND RESOURCE DEPLETION AND DEGRADATION

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After studying this topic you will be able to appreciate the concepts, causes, and impacts of
resource depletion and the management measures. You will first define what land
degradation means and continue discussing the causes, impacts, and management measures.

3.3.1 Concepts of resource degradation and their causes

Resource degradation is the overall loss (decline) of the quality and quantity of land resources
such as soils, water, and biological mass (e.g. see Figure 3.4). It is often initiated by human
activity and sometimes by natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, land-
sliding, and flooding.
Example of land resource degradation in different part of the World
Degraded land in the Atsbi-Womberta area, Tigray, Ethiopia. (Gebremedhin et al.,
2010)
Eroded wasteland in Rajasthan, India https:// archive.unu.edu/env/plec/l-degrade/D-
Ch_2.pdf
c) Erosion on cotton plantation farm in Ghana
Eroded 'badlands' over sodic soils in Bolivia

The degradation of land resources happens at a wider scale all over the world. Yet, its
impacts are much worse in developing countries like those in Africa. The devastating
damages of resource degradation are more evident from loss of soil productivity, water and
air pollution, and contraction of vegetation cover over an area. It is commonly connected with
other environmental and socioeconomic hazards such as climate change and widespread
poverty.
The sources of land resource degradation can be categorized as underlying and proximate
causes. The underlying sources are major causes that promote proximate issues to happen.
The proximate causes are secondary issues that are initiated by the primary (underlying)
agents. Please refer to Table 3.1 for more understanding.
Table 3.1 Causes and consequences of resource degradation
Major causes Consequences Proximate Consequences
Rapid population Increased demand Intensive use of land Farmland fragmentation,
growth for food & farmland repeated tillage,
depletion
of soil fertility
Increased demand Deforestation Forest cover contraction;
for biomass energy soil erosion; minimized
& timber local climate
stabilization

More demand for Overstocking & Uprooting & removal of

pasture & livestock overgrazing vegetation
feed

Climate change Decreasing rainfalls, Desertification Contraction of vegetation

increasing temperatures cover; decreasing crop
harvest; poverty
Sudden, unprecedented Flooding Soil & biodiversity
& torrential losses;
rainfalls health problems;
sedimentation
& siltation of
dams (reservoirs)
Rough topography Steep slopes Fast flowing streams Soil removal from upper
catchments

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 Depressions Water lodging Soil acidity; cultivation
Difficulties

Improper land Poor farming methods Ploughing up & Soil removal from
use practices down slopes farmlands

Poor land management Less use of fallowing, Loss of soil nutrients &
crop rotation, animal depletion of soil fertility;
manure & excessive salinization
irrigation
Government Poor tenure policy Tenure insecurity Resource depletion
Policy (lack of proper use)

3.3.2 Consequences and controlling measures of resource degradation

Rapid population growth and technological advances over the past 50 years have initiated
worldwide land-use changes. Forest covers have significantly decreased whilst cultivated
lands have increased.
The sizes of rain-fed areas expanded; irrigated areas have doubled and permanent meadows
and pastures increased. A significant proportion of the world’s arable land was destroyed also
by soil erosion. Similarly, the per capita farmland needed to adequately feed people had
declined. Future improvement of rural livelihoods and income levels would thus be possible
largely through the rational use of available resources and increased application of
agricultural technologies.

NB:
 Land resource degradation could finally result in: loss of biodiversity (reduction of
animal and plant populations),
 desertification of local environments,
 low level of agricultural yields and animal production,
 worsen the levels of hunger and poverty,
 food insecurity and migration, and
 Lessening the capacity of the land to function effectively within the ecological
system.

The depletion and degradation of natural resources can be checked through land management
practices (e.g. see Figure 3.5). The practices include:
afforestation: planting of trees on barren lands that were not under forest cover before,
reforestation: replanting trees in deforested areas,
area closures: closing deforested areas from livestock contact to restore the previous
status,
terracing: constructing bench terraces on steep lands to reduce the force of running
water and to trap down moving soil,
a check dam is a small or temporary dam or structure constructed across a waterway
to control erosion by reducing water flow velocity. It is important to conserve gullied
areas.
Mulching refers to the covering of soil with plant residue to let the soil regain some
nutrients as the residue decays. It is important to reduce water loss from evaporation.
shelterbelts: is the planting of trees along a line to break the speed of the blowing
wind and reduce its erosivity,

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 diversion canals: to divert upcoming floods on farmlands,
trenches: to trap down-moving water and soil,
Drainage channels (ditches): to remove excess water from depressed areas,
Legume-rotation: to replenish soil fertility,
Addition of animal manure: to replace lost nutrients,
Inter-cropping: to augment soil fertility,
Proper irrigation: to minimize soil salinity,
Addition of chemical fertilizer: to replace lost nutrients, using green-manure: to
uphold soil fertility.

For Example: Figure 3.5 Soil and water conservation structures see in your text book
 Stonebunds in May-Leiba catchment, Tigray, Ethiopia
 Terrace structures over the loess hill slopes of China
 Restored gully in Awzet, Farta, Ethiopia.
 Restored forest land in Nepal, Asia

3.4 TRANSBOUNDARY RIVERS

3.4.1 Distribution of trans-boundary watercourses

Trans-boundary Rivers are watercourses shared by two or more countries. Together with
lakes, inland waters, and aquifers, they are named ‘trans-boundary waters’. Oceans, territorial
seas, and coastal waters are not included in this category. Worldwide, more than 263
transnational river and lake channels plus numerous trans-state aquifers are currently known
to geographers.

These 263 transnational watercourses make up around 60% of the world’s freshwater flows
and nearly one-half of the Earth’s terrestrial surfaces. They pass across the terrains of 145
nations and support about 40% of the global population. About 60% of the space of Africa
and South America and nearly 40% of North and Central America falls under inter-state
Rivers.

Around 80% of the total area of 44 countries lies within international basins. Twenty of these
44 countries are found in Africa, 13 in Europe, seven in Asia, and four in Latin America. The
entire area of some 30 countries falls within the trans-state waters. Ground waters interlinked
with 300 trans-boundary aquifers also support nearly two million people around the world.

3.4.2 Prospects and impacts of trans-boundary watercourses

Internationally shared waters (basins) connect populations of diverse countries and then
support the revenues and livelihoods of millions of people across the world. Internationally
shared wetlands, lakes, and floodplains provide priceless ecosystem services to people as well
as to local ecological systems. The ecosystem services they provide include food, shelter for
aquatic life, and control of flooding and pollution. They also develop hydrological, social,
and economic integrations among people and countries. They can play a great role in
socioeconomic development and help to reduce poverty.

Internationally shared rivers and watercourses provide prospects for collaboration and
improvement of regional peace and security in addition to socioeconomic growth. Exhausted,

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despoiled, poorly developed and unmanaged freshwater courses resulting from rapid
population increase may impede sustainable development and hinder the need for partnership
between main water-use segments like ‘agriculture, industry, energy, navigation, water
supply, and sanitation’. Inter-state collaborations and partnerships are the best options to
address diverging interests over shared river basins. Nevertheless, shared watercourses appear
to be sources of conflict and dialogue among countries despite their implanting potential for
cooperation like that of Ethiopia and Egypt over the use of the Nile waters.

3.4.3 Features of shared river basins

As was mentioned earlier, there are 263 watercourses (rivers, lakes, and aquifers) in the
world shared by two or more countries. As these watercourses are too many to address in this
Grade 11 Geography, 15 major river basins shared by different world countries are presented
as a sample in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Sample Internationally shared River Basins

River Source Drainage Flow volume Destination No of countries Length

size (Billion Cubic riparian
(km2 Meter)
Nile Lake Victoria 3,030,700 84 BCM Mediterranean sea 11 6 671
Angola Okavango 43000 10 BCM Namibia 4 Namibia
1100
Zambezi Zambia 1,370,000 230 BCM Indian Ocean 8 3000
Congo C. Africa 3,690,000 1,250 BCM Atlantic Ocean 11 4,700
Indus Tibet(China) 226 226BCM Arabian Sea 4 897
Ganges Himalaya 1,080,000 382BCM Bay of Bengal 4 2,600
Mekong Tibet (China 795,000 475BMC Vietnam 6 4800
La Plata Eastern Andes 3,100,000 884km3/year Atlantic Ocean 5 3,500
Danube German 801,463 6,460 m/s Black Sea 19 2,850
Rhine Switzerland 200,000 2300 m3/s Netherlands(North 9 1,320
sea)
Colorado USA 632,000 17.14 BCM Gulf of California 2 2,334
Niger Guinea 2,230,000 30BCM Atlantic Ocean 11 4,100
Limpopo South Africa 414,800 - Indian Ocean 4 1,750
Amazon Andes Mts. 6,800,000 220,800m3/s Atlantic Ocean 9 6,400
Jordan M/t 18,103 540 million Dead Sea 5 360
Herman(b/n m3 per year
Syria
&Lebanon)

Dams and Economic projects over the Nile Basin:

 Roseires: Sudan
 Sennar: Second largest dam in the world (Egypt)
 Aswan High Dam: Egypt
 Owen Falls Dam: Uganda
 Tekeze HEP project: Ethiopia
 Tana Beles (Ethiopia)
 Tis Abay (Ethiopia)
 Fincha (Ethiopia)
 Koga irrigation (Ethiopia)
 GERD (Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam).

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NB
The world’s 263 international watercourses cover nearly half of the Earth’s land surface. A
total of 145 nations include territory within international basins, and 21 countries lie entirely
within the international basins. There are 13 basins worldwide that are shared between five
and eight riparian states. Five basins - the Congo, Niger, Nile, Rhine, and the Zambezi, are
shared between nine and 11 states. The river that flows through most nations is the Danube,
which travels within the territory of 19 nations.

3.5 REGIONAL COOPERATION FOR SUSTAINABLE USE OF SHARED RIVERS

As discussed during the previous lesson, trans-state watercourses provide both opportunities
and threats to riparian countries. Most nations are contending with each other during water
sharing actions. This demands mediating and/or coordinating institutions to bring
collaboration and negotiation among riparian states. This topic thus focuses on describing the
relevance of regional institutions and the role they play in resolving conflicts arising thereof.

Rivers and lakes frequently pass across numerous governmental and jurisdictional confines
that typically have diverse priorities, intentions, and interests. The issue becomes further
intricate when two or more countries are included. Due to political and/or institutional
complications, shared resources of a single basin cannot be managed rationally on a long-
term basis.
This implies that some form of organizing agreement must be considered between the
riparian states of the basin. In addition to this, some form of governing rule is required to
harmonize the relations between the riparian societies and organizations to achieve effective
water use and management over the shared watercourses to maximize human welfare and
safeguard the environment.

Some people argue that shared watercourses would be major sources of conflict and war
between world countries. But, for rational thinkers conflicts and wars will never benefit
riparian states. They rather can benefit more through inter-state formal cooperation. National,
regional, or international institutions (organizations) are thus considered basic components
for alleviation of potential disputes arising from the use of shared watercourses.

Research shows that there are nowadays plenty of institutions and treaties focusing on the
rights, responsibilities, and duties of countries sharing specific international watercourses.
There are many bilateral and multilateral examples of this in different parts of the world. Of
the 263 shared basins of the world, 176 (67%) had bilateral conventions. Nevertheless, 79%
of the covenants of the past were in watercourses crossing three or more riparian countries.

Most joint covenants from multilateral basins were also bilateral types (2:1). This indicates
that many of the agreements were intentionally excluding one or more riparian countries
within a given catchment. Examples of such institutions are provided in the coming
paragraphs.
The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI): was a pact created to coordinate Nile basin resource
management and socio-economic development in the riparian states. It was initiated in
December 1992 with the creation of a Technical Cooperation Committee for the Promotion
of Development and Environmental Protection of the Nile Basin (TECCONILE). It was first
initiated by six Nile River riparian states (Egypt, Sudan, Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania &
Zaire). Ethiopia, Kenya, Eritrea, and Burundi were observers at the initial time. Between
1997 and 2001, considerable progress was made in designing structures and institutions for a
new regime in the basin. Then the TECCONILE was replaced by the Nile Basin Initiative

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(NBI) in I999 at Waterbury in 2002; with Ethiopia joining as a full member. The NBI was
first signed by Ministers of Water Resources of riparian states on 22 February 1999 in Dar-
es-Salaam, Tanzania. The main objective of the multilateral pact was to promote:
 Sustainable socioeconomic development in the basin states,
 Equitable utilization and benefit of the basin resources,
 Recognition of the rights of all riparian states, and
 Nile Task – to prepare an inclusive legal Framework for equitable and sustainable
allocation of Nile waters and resources.
The Lesotho Highlands Development Authority (LHDA): This water-focused
organization was created by Lesotho and the RSA by signing the treaty in 1986. The project
aimed to undertake a project to transfer water from the head-reaches of the Orange River to
the key industrial areas of the RSA in the Pretoria-Witwatersrand Vereeniging region.

A Joint Permanent Technical Commission (JPTC) and two governmental bodies (the LHDA
in Lesotho and Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) in the RSA) were created to ensure
the implementation of the project in their respective areas.

The Zambezi River Authority (ZRA): was a bilateral River basin organization (RBO)
created between Zambia and Zimbabwe over the use of the Zambezi River which has many
riparian countries. The objectives were to: Operate and maintain the Kariba dam, Investigate
new projects, Collect data and link it with the national utilities.

The Kagera Basin Organization (KBO): was created in 1977 by Burundi, Rwanda and
Tanzania and later joined by Uganda in 1981. The treaty aimed to strengthen the cooperation
of member countries through joint planning and development of the sub-regional potentials in
numerous sectors.

SAPP: Southern African Power Pool was created in 1995 to take improvement of the supply
of power in the South African region. The 12-country region (Angola, Botswana, Democratic
Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland,
Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) has a large reserve of cheap hydroelectricity (HEP) in its
north region (principally the Inga Reservoir) as well as large deposits of low-cost coal in
RSA, and the Kariba Dam (on the Zambia/ Zimbabwe border) at the center of the regional
scheme that can play the “buffer” role.

SARCCUS: Southern African Regional Commission for the Conservation and Utilization of
the Soil: this was a regional organization established by South African countries sharing
trans-boundary Rivers. The objective was to coordinate the conservation of water and soils on
the shared River basins.

IJC: The US-Canada International Joint Commission (IJC) is an international institution

working on water management in the Great Lakes Region of North America. It was created
by Waters Treaty signed between the USA and Canada in 1909. The commission works not
only on water sharing but also on the Lake’s environmental management and pollution
control. The IJC is mentioned as successful in resolving all trans-boundary issues referred to
it.

3.6. POTENTIAL AND ACTUAL USE OF WATER IN ETHIOPIA, EGYPT AND THE
SUDAN

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Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt are African countries sharing several socioeconomic, cultural,
and natural resources. These three countries have been experiencing similar culture, religion,
and even economic characteristics through their long history.
Ethiopia and Egypt were exchanging popes for their Orthodox Churches during their past
long history. Ethiopia and Sudan share a long land border in addition to their strong economic
ties. The three countries again together share the Nile water and its resources.

These three countries sometimes appear to experience conflicts among themselves. The
sources of conflict among these neighboring countries originate from land and water
resources shared among them. Particularly the main cause of conflict between the three
countries emanates from the utilization and development of the Nile waters.

The per capita water use in Ethiopia is about 1,666 cubic meters per person per year. In
Sudan, per capita, water use is around 1,981 cubic meters per person per annum. Coming to
Egypt, it is low (about 830 cubic meters per person per year). This is less than the 1700 cubic
meters of water per person per annum proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO).

Table 3.3 Notable conventions and treaties of Nile basin countries (see in your text
book)
NB
The Nile River is shared by 11 riparian countries. The basin supports over 160 million people
whilst the total population of the riparian states is estimated to be over 300 million. Yet, the
use of the Nile waters for hydropower generation and irrigation was in the past exclusively
dominated by Egypt and Sudan. Conversely, widespread poverty and lingering political
instability hindered upstream countries from effectively using the potential of the Nile.
Several bilateral and multilateral conventions were made by the colonial powers and riparian
African countries concerning the use and sharing of the waters of the Nile basin. A summary
of the many notable conventions is provided in Table 3.3.

3.7 CONFLICTS OVER RESOURCES

3.7.1 The concept of resource conflict
Natural resources are useable assets essential for human livelihoods. They are crucial for both
people and animals. Some examples of natural resources include water, air, land, forests, fish,
wildlife, topsoil, and minerals.
Access to such natural resources partly decides the wealth and prestige of people and even
the position of countries in the international economic system. Some of the aforesaid natural
resources are exhaustible with excessive utilization. Resources like diamonds, minerals, and
natural oil are available in limited amounts and can be exhausted with use.
The market value of such resources rises when their quantities shrink. When the size of
natural resources shrinks, asset scarcity occurs. The shortage then triggers conflict among the
resource users – what is commonly called ‘Natural Resource Conflict’. This topic thus
focuses on conflicts rising from resources.

Resource conflicts are disputes arising over accessing, controlling, and using materials found
in nature. Such conflicts often emerge because people use resources such as forests, water,
pastures, and land. Disputes also arise when the interests and needs of users are not met or
when the priorities of some user groups are not considered by governments. Such conflicts of
interest are inevitable features of all societies. In recent years, the scope and magnitude of
natural resource conflicts have increased and intensified.

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These conflicts, if not addressed, can escalate into violence and cause environmental
degradation and deterioration of livelihoods. Recognizing conflicts is a common feature of
resource users. Such conditions are prerequisites for sustainable management and equitable
use.

3.7.2 Sources and areas of resource conflict

At a wider scope, four kinds of resource conflicts occur as a general challenge to national
stability:
a. Secessionist conflicts in which resource-rich regions seek to split away from the rest of a
country;
b. Disputes over resources as part of new national laws and conventions (i.e. in the context of
a peace agreement or new constitution);
c. Grievances over standalone projects such as mines and hydroelectric dams; and
d. Cumulative impacts of multiple small-scale clashes, typically over land, livestock,

Natural resource conflicts have always been with us due to multiple competing demands. But
conflicts can often be managed and resolved. Disputes over the control, ownership and use of
natural resources exist all over the world. Such disputes trigger violence and devastation,
principally in countries with weak administration, high levels of corruption, and experiencing
fierce ethnic and political divisions. Some 40–60 % of the civil wars during the past six
decades have been instigated by the control and use of natural resources. Although grievances
over the usage of shared resources cause fierce competition among people and countries, they
may be markers of change and progress for many reasons; if handled properly and peacefully.
Typical examples of conflicts that originated from the seizure and use of natural resources are
presented in the proceeding paragraphs.

Water and pasture shortages for instance cause conflicts in many areas of the world. See
examples:
 Protests in Pakistan and Bolivia;
 Conflicts in China (in the Shandong & Guangdong Provinces in 2000),
 In Darfur (Sudan), for instance, much of the fighting was due to water scarcity.
 Between Nile riparian countries over the use of Nile water,
 Pasture land conflict: in Ethiopia (between Somali and Afar pastoralists),
 In Afghanistan, the main causes for village-level clashes in 2008 were arising from
the use of land and irrigation water.
Bigger bodies of water (oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers) serve for fishing, transportation,
development, offshore oilfields, and culture. Could also be sources of conflict if not handled
wisely? Examples:
 Fishing disputes led to “cod wars” between UK and Iceland in the 1950s & 1970s,
 There are more than 263 shared watercourses throughout the world that could be
potential sources of conflict,
The land is the other sphere of resource conflict. Ownership of land provides the chance to
access minerals, timber, animals, pasture, and farm plots, plus many other resources. People
often have strong ‘emotional and symbolic attachments to land and the resources on it’. Land
often holds high economic value and socio-cultural prestige. But, due to population growth
and environmental degradation, lands that can be used for personal, industrial, or agricultural
purposes are becoming increasingly scarce and then initiate conflict among people or
countries. Customarily, most wars have been fought for the control of lands: Example:
 Ecuador and Peru have fought several wars over their disputed border,

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  Recently, violent conflict over land has occurred in China, East Timor, Kosovo,
Rwanda, and Tajikistan,
 Border conflicts and wars were waged between Ethiopia and Eritrea, Ethiopia and
Somalia,
 There are still border conflicts between India and Pakistan (over Kashmir); Ethiopia
and Sudan, and many other countries.
Timber increasingly gets scarce with mounting populations. Today, 46% of the 30% of world
forest cover has been destroyed. Population growth and industrialization are destroying
rainforests and causing environmental degradation. Yet, like water and land, the increased
demand for timber pushes to conflict. Examples of conflicts over the exploitation of timber
are available in Burma, Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Liberia.

Fuel scarcity becomes the greatest concern for developing and developed countries. Many
sources warn that oil in Saudi Arabia will rapidly exhaust and the world will soon face the
end of the oil era. Moreover, the world’s largest petroleum reserves located in Iran, Iraq,
Nigeria, Venezuela, and Sudan are facing ardent conflicts. The market value and demand for
fuel, especially petroleum, trigger conflicts in those areas. Besides, the developed world’s
increasing demand for oil and the search for supply deposits may intensify existing conflicts.
For instance,
Natural Oil in the Middle East caused the Gulf war between Kuwait and Iraq. In Africa, it
caused conflict between Cameroon and Nigeria.

Precious stones (minerals) are nowadays becoming conflict minerals when their control and
exploitation contribute to armed conflicts. Such conflict minerals have varied commodity
values and occur in many geographical locations. For example:
 Diamonds in Western and Central Africa: have been used by several rebel groups as a
source of income. The Angola National Union for the Total Independence of Angola
(UNITA) and Sierra Leone [Revolutionary United Front (RUF)] in the late 1990s; as
well as the rebel groups in Liberia, Ivory Coast, Democratic Republic of Congo, and
the Republic of Congo used such minerals for their rebel objectives,
 Amber in Russia, and
 Gold in Indonesia.

Conflicts can arise when:

 User groups are excluded from participating in natural resource management,
 Natural resources are poorly managed and inequitably shared,
 Contradictions arise between local and introduced management systems;
 Confusions develop among users due to the absence of information about government
policy and program objectives;
 Contradictions or lack of clarity occur on laws and policies;
 Inequality in resource distribution exists between users; and/or
 Poor policy and unsuccessful program implementation prevail

3.7.3. Forms of Resource Conflict Expressions

The form and intensity of conflicts vary widely with the place and over time within any
community. Some of the forms of how resource conflicts manifest themselves involve the
following ways:
 Through breaking rules,
 By the acts of sabotage and violence,
 Sometimes conflicts remain hidden or latent,

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  People may allow grievances to rage because of fear,
 By showing distrust, and etc.
Actors of Resource Conflict
Natural resource conflicts occur at various levels and involve a variety of actors:
Local people in the homesteads over the use of nearby resources,
Neighboring communities over the control of woodland,
Villages,
Community-based organizations,
Domestic and multinational businesses,
Governments,
International development agencies, and
NGOs over the use and management of large forest tracts.
3.7.4 Conflict Handling Strategies
The ways how people respond to natural resource conflicts vary considerably. Different
communities have different methods of handling conflicts. The mechanisms can be formal or
informal, violent or peaceful, equitable or not. Although the specific methods vary, people
generally rely on the same basic procedural modes of handling conflicts. Most people use the
following strategies:
 Avoidance: acting in ways to keep a conflict from becoming publicly acknowledged,
 Coercion: threatening or using force to impose one’s will,
 Negotiation: following a voluntary process in which parties reach an agreement
through consent,
 Arbitration: submitting a conflict to a mutually agreeable third party who renders a
decision,
 Mediation: using a third party to facilitate the negotiation process (a mediator lacks
the authority to impose a solution),
 Adjudication: relying on a judge or administrator to make a binding decision.

UNIT FOUR
4.GLOBAL POPULATION DYNAMICSAND CHALLENGES
4.1. THE GROWTH OF WORLD POPULATION

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