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Language Development From Theory to Practice 3rd
Edition Khara Pence Turnbull Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Khara Pence Turnbull, Laura Justice
ISBN(s): 9780134170428, 0134170423
Edition: 3
File Details: PDF, 87.30 MB
Year: 2016
Language: english
Language Development
from Theory to Practice

Third EdiTion

Khara L. Pence Turnbull

Charlottesville, Virginia

Laura M. Justice
The Ohio State University

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Title: Language development from theory to practice / Khara L. Pence
Turnbull, Charlottesville, Virginia ; Laura M. Justice, The ohio State University.
description: Third edition. | Upper Saddle river, new Jersey : Pearson
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To the very special and sweet guys in my life,
Doug, Ian, and Murray
—K.P.T.

To Ian, Addie, and Griffin, for their unwavering

support, love, and thoughtfulness
—L.J.
Preface

T he field of language development is an incredibly exciting area of study for

college and university students in diverse disciplines, including allied health
(e.g., speech–language pathology, audiology), liberal arts (e.g., linguistics,
psychology), and education (e.g., elementary education, special education). For stu-
dents in many preprofessional training programs, a basic course in language devel-
opment is required at the undergraduate or graduate level. Yet, instructors teaching
courses in language development commonly say that the language-development
textbooks currently available do not address several important criteria:
• Integration of theory and practice, including discussion of how theories of lan-
guage development influence state-of-the-art educational and clinical practices
with children
• Discussion of individual differences in language development, including those
of children who are developing language in diverse cultures or developing lan-
guage atypically (e.g., children with disabilities)
• Descriptions of techniques that educators, clinicians, and researchers use to
measure children’s language achievements, including computer software
• Examination of language development from a multidisciplinary perspective, in-
cluding its relevance to theory and practice in different disciplines
Language Development from Theory to Practice was designed to meet and exceed
these criteria. This text provides a survey of key topics in language development, in-
cluding research methods, theoretical perspectives, major language milestones from
birth to adolescence and beyond, and language diversity and language disorders. The
research base and the theoretical foundation this text provides are designed to pre-
pare students for advanced study in subjects associated with language development,
such as language disorders, psycholinguistics, instruction of English as a second or
foreign language, and developmental psychology, among others. Although we do not
adopt a single theoretical framework for how language phenomena are interpreted
in the text, we attempt to summarize the various theoretical orientations that have
guided research and practice in the relevant fields mentioned earlier.

NEw To THIS EDITIoN

The purpose of this third edition is to build on the strengths of the first and second
editions by making a number of enhancements in response to suggestions from
the field. we have retained a number of features from the second edition that were
well received. one such feature, Beyond the Book, presents opportunities to connect
the text to students’ own future experiences with language. Another such feature,
Apply Your Knowledge, presents problems that allow students to apply their knowl-
edge in a similar way as on exams such as the Praxis. we have also made it a pri-
ority to improve students’ learning opportunities in each chapter through the use of
advance organizers, self-check quizzes, and video clips relevant to chapter content.
we learned that students and educators would like to see more detailed coverage
of topics (e.g., theory of mind, bilingualism) that students should find particularly
v
vi www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

interesting. we have thus responded by expanding some topics and shortening others.
we have also continued to strive to present material in an enjoyable and reader-
friendly way. Finally, we received feedback that it would be helpful for students
to have a general understanding of language development and language building
blocks as well as language neuroanatomy and neurophysiology prior to introducing
language-development theories, as language acquisition theories have risen from our
understanding of language development and language neurology. we have respond-
ed by reorganizing the chapters to begin with an introduction to language devel-
opment (Chapter 1), followed by language building blocks (Chapter 2), language
neuroanatomy and neurophysiology (Chapter 3), and language-development science
and theories (Chapter 4).
More specifically, the third edition of Language Development from Theory to
Practice features the following changes to ensure that the material is current and
comprehensive, while meeting the needs of students and educators:
• we have created Learning Outcomes for each chapter and linked each learning
outcome to one main section within each chapter.
• we have also created a brief multiple-choice item within each chapter section called
Check Your Understanding; this feature allows students to check their own respons-
es and to receive immediate feedback before proceeding to the next section.
• we have also included a comprehensive End of Chapter Quiz with multiple-
choice items assessing the chapter’s learning outcomes. The End of Chapter Quiz
allows students to check their own responses and receive immediate, detailed
feedback.
• we have added a feature to each chapter called Learn More About. Each Learn
More About margin note links to a video clip illustrating chapter content and
provides a detailed description of the video. For example, videos of child lan-
guage samples include a description of specific instances of language form,
content, and use. As another example, videos of research paradigms include a
description of the research stimuli and procedure.
• we have also provided more detailed coverage of topics that should be of in-
terest to students. For example, we have expanded our discussion of areas such
as language pragmatics, theory of mind, Spanish dialects used in the United
States, and language disorders in children who are bilingual. with regard to
language-development theories, we have expanded the categorization scheme
(previously nurture-inspired theories and nature-inspired theories) to include
a third category—interactionist theories, based on common categorization
schemes in the language-development literature. we have also provided greater
emphasis on the distinctions between the three categories of theories rather
than the distinctions between the individual theories, and we have reduced the
number of individual theories we discuss.
• Finally, in response to feedback, we have separated our discussion of Language
Diversity and Language Disorders in Children into two separate chapters to
allow a more thorough treatment of each of these topics.

oRgANIzATIoN oF THE TExT

Language Development from Theory to Practice includes ten chapters. Chapters 1
through 4 provide a basis for understanding language development. Specifically, in
Chapter 1, we define language and explain how it relates to the areas of speech, hear-
ing, and communication. we also introduce the three domains of language—form,
content, and use—and describe the features of language that make it so remarkable.
Chapter 1 concludes with an introduction to language differences and language disor-
ders. In Chapter 2, we introduce the building blocks of language: phonological, mor-
phological, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic development. Chapter 3 addresses the
 Preface vii

neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of language. we describe the major structures of

the brain, explain how the brain processes and produces language, and discuss sen-
sitive periods in neuroanatomical and neurophysiological development. In Chapter 4,
we describe the many reasons different people study language development. we in-
troduce some major approaches to studying language development as well as some
major language-development theories; we reference these approaches and theories
subsequently in several places in the text. we conclude Chapter 4 by describing how
theories of language development contribute to practice in several areas.
Chapters 5 through 8 provide a developmental account of language acquisi-
tion for four age groups (infancy—Chapter 5; toddlerhood—Chapter 6; preschool
age—Chapter 7; and school age and beyond—Chapter 8). More specifically, in each
of these four chapters, we describe the major language-development milestones
children achieve during the period in question; examine achievements in language
form, content, and use; explain some of the intra- and inter-individual differences
in language development; and discuss methods researchers and clinicians use to
measure language development.
In Chapter 9 we explore language differences. we detail the connection be-
tween language and culture, explain how languages evolve and change, describe
bilingualism and second language acquisition, and explain some theories of second
language acquisition and their implications for practice.
Finally, in Chapter 10, we examine language disorders in childhood. we define
the term language disorder, explain who identifies and treats children with language
disorders, discuss the major types of language disorders, and describe how practi-
tioners treat language disorders.

KEY FEATURES oF THE TExT

Each chapter bridges language-development theory and practice by providing stu-
dents with a theoretical and scientific foundation to the study of language develop-
ment. we emphasize the relevance of the material to students’ current and future
experiences in clinical, educational, and research settings.

Multicultural Considerations
Current perspectives emphasize the importance of taking into account multicul-
tural considerations in understanding language development. This text promotes
students’ awareness of the way in which culture interacts with language develop-
ment for children from diverse backgrounds within and beyond the many types of
communities in the United States.

Research Foundations
Current initiatives in the educational, social science, and health communities emphasize
the use of evidence-based practices. Such practices emphasize the importance of re-
search results to making educational and clinical decisions. In keeping with this prem-
ise, we emphasize the research foundations of the study of language development, and
use the most current empirical findings to describe children’s language achievements.

Multidisciplinary Focus
The study of language development is constantly evolving and being influenced by
many diverse disciplines; this multidimensional and multidisciplinary foundation
attracts many students to the study of language development. we introduce exciting
innovations in theory and practice from many diverse areas of research.
viii www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

Easy-to-Read Format
Language Development from Theory to Practice is presented in a way that promotes
student learning. First, the chapters are infused with figures, tables, and photographs
to contextualize abstract and complex information. Second, important terms are
highlighted for easy learning and reference. Third, discussion questions are integrat-
ed throughout to provide opportunities to pause and consider important informa-
tion. All these features create opportunities for students to actively engage with the
material in the text.

Pedagogical Elements
The text includes many pedagogical elements:
• Learning outcomes to organize each chapter
• Discussion questions interspersed throughout each chapter
• Video clips relevant to chapter material
• Chapter summaries
• Self-check, multiple-choice quizzes
• Activities that allow students to engage with language Beyond the Book
• Boxed inserts:
• Developmental Timeline: we present milestones for language development,
observable features of these milestones, and approximate ages for the
milestones.
• Language Diversity and Differences: we introduce cultural differences in
language development and describe the observable features of these differ-
ences. we also discuss educational and clinical implications with regard to
cultural differences.
• Research Paradigms: we provide descriptions of various research paradigms
used to inform our understanding of language development.
• Theory to Practice: we discuss some implications of different theoretical per-
spectives for educational and clinical practice.

ACKNowLEDgMENTS
we extend our thanks to our family members, friends, and colleagues who support-
ed us throughout this revision. Among these persons are the Pence family, the Pow-
ell family, the Turnbull family, and the Justice and Mykel families. we are indebted
to them for their interest in and support of this text.
we are grateful to a number of experts who reviewed this manuscript: Eileen
Abrahamsen, old Dominion University; Karin M. Boerger, University of Colorado–
Boulder; Julie Dalmasso, western Illinois University; Martin Fujiki, Brigham Young
University; and Shannon Hall-Mills, Florida State University.
Brief Contents
Chapter 1 Language Development: An Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Building Blocks of Language 32
Chapter 3 Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology of
Language 65
Chapter 4 The Science and Theory of Language
Development 94
Chapter 5 Infancy: Let the Language Achievements
Begin 122
Chapter 6 Toddlerhood: Exploring the world and
Experimenting with Language 158
Chapter 7 Preschool: Building Literacy on
Language 195
Chapter 8 School-Age Years and Beyond: Developing
Later Language 227
Chapter 9 Language Diversity 262
Chapter 10 Language Disorders in Children 290

glossary 319
References 331
Name Index 354
Subject Index 360

ix
Contents
1 Language Development: An Introduction 1
LEARNINg oUTCoMES 1
wHAT IS LANgUAgE? 2
Language Defined 2
Language as a Module of Human Cognition 5
How DoES LANgUAgE RELATE To SPEECH, HEARINg, AND
CoMMUNICATIoN? 6
Speech 7
Hearing 10
Communication 12
wHAT ARE THE MAJoR DoMAINS oF LANgUAgE? 16
Form, Content, and Use 16
Components of Form, Content, and Use 17
wHAT ARE SoME REMARKABLE FEATURES oF LANgUAgE? 20
Acquisition Rate 20
Universality 21
Species Specificity 22
Semanticity 22
Productivity 22
wHAT ARE LANgUAgE DIFFERENCES AND LANgUAgE DISoRDERS? 23
Language Differences 23
Language Disorders 28
SUMMARY 30
BEYoND THE BooK 31

2 Building Blocks of Language 32

LEARNINg oUTCoMES 32
wHAT IS PHoNoLogICAL DEVELoPMENT? 33
Phonological Building Blocks 34
Influences on Phonological Development 37
wHAT IS MoRPHoLogICAL DEVELoPMENT? 38
Morphological Building Blocks 38
Influences on Morphological Development 40
wHAT IS SYNTACTIC DEVELoPMENT? 43
Syntactic Building Blocks 43
Influences on Syntactic Development 48
wHAT IS SEMANTIC DEVELoPMENT? 51
Semantic Building Blocks 51
Influences on Semantic Development 56

xi
xii www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

wHAT IS PRAgMATIC DEVELoPMENT? 57

Pragmatic Building Blocks 57
Influences on Pragmatic Development 62
SUMMARY 63
BEYoND THE BooK 64

3 Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology of

Language 65
LEARNINg oUTCoMES 65
wHAT ARE NEURoANAToMY AND NEURoPHYSIoLogY? 66
Terminology 69
Neuroscience Basics 70
wHAT ARE THE MAJoR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIoNS oF THE HUMAN
BRAIN? 74
Cerebrum 75
Brainstem 80
Cerebellum 81
How DoES THE HUMAN BRAIN PRoCESS AND PRoDUCE LANgUAgE? 81
Semantics 82
Syntax and Morphology 83
Phonology 84
Pragmatics 85
wHAT ARE NEURoPHYSIoLogICAL AND NEURoANAToMICAL SENSITIVE
PERIoDS? 86
Sensitive Periods Defined 86
Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological Concepts Related to Sensitive
Periods 87
Sensitive Periods and Language Acquisition 88
SUMMARY 92
BEYoND THE BooK 92

4 The Science and Theory of Language

Development 94
LEARNINg oUTCoMES 94
wHo STUDIES LANgUAgE DEVELoPMENT AND wHY? 95
Basic Research 97
Applied Research 98
wHAT ARE SoME MAJoR APPRoACHES To STUDYINg LANgUAgE
DEVELoPMENT? 99
Approaches to Studying Speech Perception 100
Approaches to Studying Language Production 101
Approaches to Studying Language Comprehension 105
wHAT ARE SoME MAJoR LANgUAgE-DEVELoPMENT
THEoRIES? 106
Questions Language Theories Should Answer 106
Major Language-Development Theories 107
Nurture-Inspired Theory 110
Nature-Inspired Theories 111
Interactionist Theories 113
 Contents xiii

How Do LANgUAgE-DEVELoPMENT THEoRIES INFLUENCE

PRACTICE? 116
Linkage of Theory to Practice 116
Instruction in English as a Second Language: Theory and Practice 117
Practices Language Theories May Inform 118
Evidence-Based Practice: Linking Theory, Science, and Practice 119
SUMMARY 120
BEYoND THE BooK 121

5 Infancy: Let the Language Achievements

Begin 122
LEARNINg oUTCoMES 122
wHAT MAJoR LANgUAgE-DEVELoPMENT MILESToNES oCCUR IN
INFANCY? 123
Infant Speech Perception 123
Awareness of Actions and Intentions 127
Category Formation 128
Early Vocalizations 129
Additional Milestones 134
wHAT ARE SoME oF THE EARLY FoUNDATIoNS FoR LANgUAgE
DEVELoPMENT? 134
Infant-Directed Speech 135
Joint Reference and Attention 136
Daily Routines of Infancy 139
Caregiver Responsiveness 140
wHAT MAJoR ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANgUAgE FoRM, CoNTENT, AND USE
CHARACTERIzE INFANCY? 141
Language Form 142
Language Content 143
Language Use 143
wHAT FACToRS CoNTRIBUTE To INFANTS’ INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENTS IN
LANgUAgE? 144
Intraindividual Differences 144
Interindividual Differences 145
How Do RESEARCHERS AND CLINICIANS MEASURE LANgUAgE
DEVELoPMENT IN INFANCY? 147
Researchers 147
Clinicians 154
SUMMARY 156
BEYoND THE BooK 157

6 Toddlerhood: Exploring the world and

Experimenting with Language 158
LEARNINg oUTCoMES 158
wHAT MAJoR LANgUAgE-DEVELoPMENT MILESToNES oCCUR IN
ToDDLERHooD? 159
First words 159
gestures 160
Theory of Mind 162
xiv www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

wHAT MAJoR ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANgUAgE FoRM, CoNTENT, AND USE

CHARACTERIzE ToDDLERHooD? 163
Language Form 165
Language Content 174
Language Use 180
wHAT FACToRS CoNTRIBUTE To ToDDLERS’ INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENTS IN
LANgUAgE? 181
Intraindividual Differences 182
Interindividual Differences 182
How Do RESEARCHERS AND CLINICIANS MEASURE LANgUAgE
DEVELoPMENT IN ToDDLERHooD? 184
Researchers 184
Clinicians 190
SUMMARY 194
BEYoND THE BooK 194

7 Preschool: Building Literacy on Language 195

LEARNINg oUTCoMES 195
wHAT MAJoR LANgUAgE-DEVELoPMENT MILESToNES oCCUR IN THE
PRESCHooL PERIoD? 196
Decontextualized Language 196
Theory of Mind 197
Emergent Literacy 198
wHAT MAJoR ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANgUAgE FoRM, CoNTENT, AND USE
CHARACTERIzE THE PRESCHooL PERIoD? 203
Language Form 204
Language Content 206
Language Use 210
wHAT FACToRS CoNTRIBUTE To PRESCHooLERS’ INDIVIDUAL
ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANgUAgE? 215
Intraindividual Differences 215
Interindividual Differences 216
Effects of Peers and Siblings 217
How Do RESEARCHERS AND CLINICIANS MEASURE LANgUAgE
DEVELoPMENT IN THE PRESCHooL PERIoD? 219
Researchers 219
Clinicians 223
SUMMARY 225
BEYoND THE BooK 226

8 School-Age Years and Beyond: Developing Later

Language 227
LEARNINg oUTCoMES 227
wHAT MAJoR LANgUAgE-DEVELoPMENT MILESToNES oCCUR IN THE
SCHooL-AgE YEARS AND BEYoND? 228
Shifting Sources of Language Input 228
Acquisition of Metalinguistic Competence 231
 Contents xv

wHAT MAJoR ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANgUAgE FoRM, CoNTENT, AND USE

CHARACTERIzE THE SCHooL-AgE YEARS AND BEYoND? 236
Language Form 236
Language Content 241
Language Use 246
wHAT FACToRS CoNTRIBUTE To SCHooL-AgE CHILDREN’S, ADoLESCENTS’,
AND ADULTS’ INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANgUAgE? 251
Language and gender 251
Language and Aging 254
How Do RESEARCHERS AND CLINICIANS MEASURE LANgUAgE
DEVELoPMENT IN THE SCHooL-AgE YEARS AND BEYoND? 255
Assessment Types 255
Assessment of Language Form 255
Assessment of Language Content 257
Assessment of Language Use 259
SUMMARY 261
BEYoND THE BooK 261

9 Language Diversity 262

LEARNINg oUTCoMES 262
wHAT IS THE CoNNECTIoN BETwEEN LANgUAgE AND CULTURE? 263
The Interrelatedness of Language and Culture 263
Infant-Directed Speech 264
How Do LANgUAgES EVoLVE AND CHANgE? 265
Dialects 265
Pidgins 273
Creoles 273
wHAT ARE BILINgUALISM AND SECoND LANgUAgE ACQUISITIoN? 273
Bilingualism and Multilingualism 274
Second Language Acquisition 278
wHAT ARE SoME THEoRIES oF SECoND LANgUAgE ACQUISITIoN AND
THEIR IMPLICATIoNS FoR PRACTICE? 282
Nurture-Inspired Theories 283
Nature-Inspired Theories 283
Interactionist Theories 284
other Theories 287
what Practices Does Research Support for EL Students? 287
SUMMARY 289
BEYoND THE BooK 289

10 Language Disorders in Children 290

LEARNINg oUTCoMES 290
wHAT IS A LANgUAgE DISoRDER? 291
Distinguishing Between Language Disorders and Language Differences 291
Prevalence 292
wHo IDENTIFIES AND TREATS CHILDREN wITH LANgUAgE DISoRDERS? 295
Speech–Language Pathologists 295
Psychologists 296
general Educators 296
xvi www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

Special Educators 297

Early Interventionists 298
Audiologists 298
otorhinolaryngologist 299
wHAT ARE THE MAJoR TYPES oF CHILD LANgUAgE DISoRDERS? 300
Specific Language Impairment 300
Autism Spectrum Disorder 302
Intellectual Disability 304
Traumatic Brain Injury 306
Hearing Loss 307
Identification and Treatment of Language Disorders 312
Treatment of Language Disorders 315
SUMMARY 317
BEYoND THE BooK 317

glossary 319
References 331
Name Index 354
Subject Index 360
 1
Language
Development
An Introduction

Learning OutcOmes
After completion of this chapter, the reader will be
able to:
1. Define the term language.
© robert Kneschke/shutterstock
2. Describe how language relates to speech,
hearing, and communication.
3. Describe the major domains of language.
4. identify several remarkable features of
language.
5. Discuss the distinction between language
differences and language disorders.

1 1
2 www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

H undreds of scientists worldwide study the remarkable phenomenon of chil-

dren’s language acquisition. each year, these scholars publish the results of
numerous studies on children’s language development in scientific journals,
pursuing answers to such questions as:
• Does the language a child is learning (e.g., chinese vs. english) influence the
rate of language development?
• How do caregivers’ interactions with their child affect the timing of their child’s
first word?
• Do children who show early delays in language development typically catch up
with their peers?
• Do children learning a signed language develop language similarly to children
learning a spoken language?
• Why do children with autism have such difficulties developing language skills?
these questions provide the student of language development a glimpse into
many of the interesting topics language scientists focus on in their work around
the world. these questions also suggest how important language research is to
informing the everyday practices and activities of parents, teachers, psychologists,
and other professionals invested in helping children achieve their fullest language
development potential. that these questions have yet to be fully answered, shows
that the study of language development is a constantly evolving and complex area
of science in which practitioners have many more questions than answers.
in this chapter, we provide a general introduction to the study of language
development and consider five major topics. in the first section, we answer the
question “What is language?”, and present a definition of language that we build on
throughout this text. in the second section, we discuss differences among speech,
hearing, and communication—three aspects of human development and behavior
that are closely related but are nonetheless distinct capacities. in the third section,
we address the five major domains of language, a topic we introduce here and dis-
cuss more fully in chapter 2. in the fourth section, we examine several remarkable
features of language, and in the fifth section, we describe differences in and disor-
ders of language development—two topics we explore more comprehensively in
chapters 9 and 10.

WHat is Language?
Language Defined
You probably have an intuitive sense of what language is because it is a human
behavior you have acquired to a sophisticated level and use regularly for various
purposes. in fact, you are using your language abilities as you read and analyze the
content of this chapter. However, if you take a moment to define language more
explicitly, you may find the task challenging. if you were to ask 10 classmates for
a definition of language, each would likely respond differently. the same outcome
would probably occur if you questioned 10 language researchers.
You are also most likely aware that language is a basic and essential human
behavior that develops early in life. You probably recognize that language involves
words and sentences and both expression (language production) and comprehen-
sion (language understanding). in addition, you know language is a process of
the brain that helps people communicate their thoughts to other individuals, al-
though you may be somewhat unclear about how language differs from speech and
communication.
However, to be as specific as possible about what language is and is not,
let’s look at the official definition of the term language the american speech-
Language-Hearing association (1982) uses:
 Chapter 1 Language Development 3

The relationship between a

word and its referent is arbi-
trary. English speakers use
the word happy to represent
an internal feeling of happi-
ness, but any word would do.

© Paul Hakimata/Fotolia
Language is a “complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that
is used in various modes for thought and communication.”
next, we delineate in more detail the specific characteristics of language identified
in this definition:
1. Language Is a System of Symbols. the first characteristic of language war-
ranting discussion is that it is a code, consisting of a system of symbols called
morphemes. morphemes are the smallest units of language that carry meaning; we
combine them to create words. some words consist of a single morpheme (e.g.,
school), but many words comprise two or more morphemes, such as schools (two
morphemes—school + -s) and preschools (three morphemes—pre- + school + -s).
these symbols can exist in spoken or written format, a point we’ll return to shortly.
the term code refers to the translation of one type of information into another
type of information; this involves the use of symbols. For humans to develop the
capacity to use language thousands of years ago, perhaps the most important pre-
requisite was the human ability to use symbols, such as representing a specific
concept with a specific sound (christianson & Kirby, 2003). in language, we create
words by using morphemes to represent myriad aspects of the world around our
language community. For instance, as english speakers, we can represent an inter-
nal feeling of happiness by using the single word happy. When we use the word
happy in a conversation with other people to describe our feelings, we use the
word to translate our feelings. although we can share feelings and ideas through
other means—such as gesture, facial expression, and posture—words are much
more specific and provide a uniquely powerful tool for communicating.
One important characteristic of language code is that the relationship between
a word and its referent (the aspect of the world to which the word refers) is arbi-
trary. For example, although english speakers recognize that happy refers to a spe-
cific feeling, any other word (e.g., sprit, nopic, or grendy) would do. Likewise, one
way english speakers can denote plurality is to attach the morpheme -s to words
(e.g., pens, dogs). Because the relationship between the plural morpheme -s and its
plural marking is arbitrary, english speakers could denote plurality in various other
ways. in contrast, the code we use to organize words into sentences is not arbitrary;
rather, we must follow specific rules for organizing thoughts into words and sen-
tences, as we discuss next.
4 www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

2. The System of Language Is Conventional. the second characteristic of lan-

guage is that the system of symbols is conventional, so the members of a com-
munity or culture can share it. the term conventional means users of a language
abide by accepted rules. For instance, speakers of english agree to use the word
dog (and related words and synonyms, such as pup, puppy, and canine) to refer
to those companionable creatures, rather than other potential words, such as boop
or ming. speakers of spanish use a different word to refer to this concept (perro),
as do users of american sign Language. adhering to specific conventions allows
all members of a language community to use language with one another as a tool
for expression. a language community is a group of people who use a common
language. in fact, somewhere in the history of the human species, a single language
probably emerged within a social community of about 100 hominids (cartwright,
2000). some experts contend that language emerged within this community as a
type of grooming behavior, essentially an efficient way to share socially useful in-
formation (christiansen & Kirby, 2003). accordingly, the numerous languages of the
world emerged from this single community of language users.
Language communities emerge for many reasons. some form as a result of geo-
graphic circumstances, as in the case of ukrainian, the language people speak in
ukraine, a country in the western region of the former soviet union. alternatively,
a language community may emerge for sociological reasons, as in the case of He-
brew, which many persons of Jewish faith share, or american sign Language, which
persons in the u.s. Deaf community use. a language community can organize for
economic reasons as well. For instance, the World trade Organization (WtO), a
global group that coordinates and regulates trade among 161 countries (as of april,
2015), conducts its activities in english, French, and spanish.
3. The Language System Is Dynamic. the third characteristic of language is
that it is dynamic. this means language is in a state of activity and change, both
within an individual who is acquiring language and within a community that uses
a certain language. Let’s consider first the case of the individual. as we discuss
throughout this book, the acquisition of language begins at birth, or even before
birth, in utero, and is in a state of change across the lifespan. even as adults, our
language skills are dynamic. as one example, we might seek to learn a second
language. as another example, as we age, some aspects of our language skill de-
cline. We might, for example, have increased difficulty finding the names for things
(capuron et al., 2011), which is a normal part of aging.
the language a community uses is also very dynamic. When the first edition
of this book was published, in 2008, there was no such word as selfie (or selfie
stick, for that matter). sometime during the last eight years, this word entered the
english language and is now in our vocabulary. in any language, words come
and go and other changes happen as well, as we discuss more thoroughly in
chapter 9.
4. Language Is a Tool for Human Communication. the final and perhaps
most important characteristic of language requiring discussion is that it exists as
a tool for communication. Communication is the process of sharing information,
such as thoughts, feelings, and ideas, among two or more persons. although other
Learn more species are able to communicate, such as dogs, primates, birds, dolphins, and ants,
about 1.1 the innate and specialized capacity of humans to use language as a tool to com-
as you watch the video municate is what makes the human species unique. For instance, although some
titled “What is Language?” primates may communicate alarms to one another using calls, these alarm calls
consider the different seem to be general and do not symbolically represent a given predator (e.g., eagle)
features of language and (christiansen & Kirby, 2003). experts therefore argue that “language is the most
how language differs from distinctive feature that distinguishes humans from other animals” (Wang & minett,
other systems of communi- 2005, p. 263). Language itself is what supports the highly complex communication
cation. https://www.youtube. enjoyed by the human species, such as your ability to comprehend and learn from
com/watch?v=genkKxtk7bw the complex matter contained within this text.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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Title: The Geologic Story of Mount Rainier

Author: Dwight R. Crandell

Release date: September 4, 2019 [eBook #60234]

Most recently updated: October 17, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GEOLOGIC

STORY OF MOUNT RAINIER ***
Eunice Lake, northwest of Mount Rainier. The lake lies in
a small bedrock basin that was scoured out by a glacier
between about 15,000 and 20,000 years ago. The
rounded green slopes at the far edge of the lake are
underlain by rock that has been smoothed and grooved
by glacier ice. This side of Mount Rainier rises to Liberty
Cap, which hides the true summit of the volcano.

The Geologic Story

of Mount Rainier
 By
Dwight R. Crandell

A look at the geologic past of one of America’s

most scenic volcanoes

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1292

IV

UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

WALTER J. HICKEL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

William T. Pecora, Director

Library of Congress Catalog-Card No. 79-601704

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1969

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402—Price 65 cents (paper cover)

V
 contents
Page
The changing landscape of 12-60 million years ago 3
Thumbnail biography of Mount Rainier 11
Results of recent eruptions 12
Why glaciers? 23
Work habits of glaciers 25
Yesterday’s glaciers 29
Landslides and mudflows—past, present, and future 35
The volcano’s future? 42
Further reading in geology 43

Frontispiece. Eunice Lake, northwest of Mount Rainier.

Figure Page
1. Outcrop of sandstone and shale in the Puget Group 6
2. Outcrop of welded tuff in the Stevens Ridge Formation 8
3. Granodiorite looks like granite 9
4. Geological cross section of Mount Rainier 10
5. An old lava flow which forms Rampart Ridge 13
6. Columns of andesite at the end of an old lava flow 13
7. Layers of pumice on the floor of a cirque 14
8. Generalized distribution of some pumice layers 16
9. Breadcrust bomb enclosed in a mudflow deposit 19
10. Pumice layer C, which consists of light-brown fragments 20
11. The recent lava cone lies in a depression 21
12. Two ice streams meet to form Cowlitz Glacier 23
13. Glacier-smoothed and grooved rock 26
14. A lake lies behind an end moraine of Flett Glacier 27
15. Recessional moraines on the valley floor of Fryingpan Creek 28
16. Extent of glaciers between 15,000 and 25,000 years ago 30
17. Lateral moraine at Ricksecker Point 31
18. Rock-glacier deposit at The Palisades 33
19. Hummocky end moraine in front of Emmons Glacier 34
20. Avalanche deposits in the White River valley 37
21. The northeast flank of Mount Rainier 39

Table
1. Characteristics, sources, and ages of pumice layers, Mount Rainier
National Park
17
2. Summary of important geologic events in the history of Mount Rainier
National Park
41

The Geologic Story of

Mount Rainier
By Dwight R. Crandell
WASHINGTON
Seattle
Tacoma
 CASCADE RANGE
Mount Rainier
Mount Adams
Mount St Helens
OREGON
Portland
Mount Hood
Crater Lake

Ice-clad Mount Rainier, towering over the landscape of western

Washington, ranks with Fuji-yama in Japan, Popocatepetl in Mexico, and
Vesuvius in Italy among the great volcanoes of the world. At Mount
Rainier, as at other inactive volcanoes, the ever-present possibility of
renewed eruptions gives viewers a sense of anticipation, excitement, and
apprehension not equaled by most other mountains. Even so, many of us
cannot imagine the cataclysmic scale of the eruptions that were
responsible for building the giant cone which now stands in silence. 2
We accept the volcano as if it had always been there, and we
appreciate only the beauty of its stark expanses of rock and ice, its
flower-strewn alpine meadows, and its bordering evergreen forests.

Mount Rainier owes its scenic beauty to many features. The broad cone
spreads out on top of a major mountain range—the Cascades. The
volcano rises about 7,000 feet above its 7,000-foot foundation, and
stands in solitary splendor—the highest peak in the entire Cascade
Range. Its rocky ice-mantled slopes above timberline contrast with the
dense green forests and give Mount Rainier the appearance of an arctic
island in a temperate sea, an island so large that you can see its full size
and shape only from the air. The mountain is highly photogenic because
of the contrasts it offers among bare rock, snowfields, blue sky, and the
incomparable flower fields that color its lower slopes. Shadows cast by
the multitude of cliffs, ridges, canyons, and pinnacles change constantly
from sunrise to sunset, endlessly varying the texture and mood of the
mountain. The face of the mountain also varies from day to day as its
broad snowfields melt during the summer. The melting of these frozen
reservoirs makes Mount Rainier a natural resource in a practical as well as
in an esthetic sense, for it ensures steady flows of water for hydroelectric
power in the region, regardless of season.
Seen from the Puget Sound country to the west, Mount Rainier has an
unreal quality—its white summit, nearly 3 miles high, seems to float
among the clouds. We share with the populace of the entire lowland a
thrill as we watch skyward the evening’s setting sun redden the volcano’s
western snowfields. When you approach the mountain in its lovely
setting, you may find something that appeals especially to you—the
scenery, the wildlife, the glaciers, or the wildflowers. Or you may feel
challenged to climb to the summit. Mount Rainier and its neighboring
mountains have a special allure for a geologist because he visualizes the
events—some ordinary, some truly spectacular—that made the present
landscape. Such is the fascination of geology. A geologist becomes
trained to see “in his mind’s eye” geologic events of thousands or even
millions of years ago. And, most remarkable, he can “see” these events
by studying rocks in a cliff or roadcut, or perhaps by examining earthy
material that looks like common soil beneath pastureland many miles
away from the volcano.

Our key to understanding the geology of Mount Rainier is that each 3

geologic event can be reconstructed—or imagined—from the rocks
formed at the time of the event. With this principle as our guide, we will
review the geologic ancestry of this majestic volcano and learn what is
behind its scenery.
 The Changing Landscape of 12-60
Million Years Ago
The rocks of the Cascade Range provide a record of earth history that
started nearly 60 million years ago. Even then, as today, waves pounded
on beaches and rivers ran to the sea, molding and distributing material
that formed some of the rocks we now see in the park.

You may find it difficult to imagine the different landscape of that far
distant time. There was no Mount Rainier nor Cascade mountain range.
In fact, there was very little dry land in the area we call western
Washington. Instead, this was a broad lowland of swamps, deltas, and
inlets that bordered the Pacific Ocean. Rivers draining into this lowland
from the east spread sand and clay on the lush swamp growth. Other
plants grew on the deposits, and they were covered, in turn, by more
sand and clay. In this way, thousands of feet of sand and clay and peat
accumulated and were compacted into sandstone, shale, and coal. We
can see some of the rocks formed at that time in cuts along the Mowich
Lake Road west of the park (fig. 1). Seams of coal were mined at
Carbonado and Wilkeson, 10 miles northwest of the park, during the late
19th and the early 20th centuries.

These beds of sandstone, shale, and coal make up a sequence of rocks

called the Puget Group, which is 10,000 feet thick. Wave-ripple marks
and remains of plants show that the rocks were formed in shallow water
fairly close to sea level. How could the rocks have piled up to this great
thickness? The coastal plain and adjacent basin must have been slowly
sinking, and the influx of sand and clay must have just barely kept pace
with the downward movements.

4
 Mount Rainier

[This map in a higher resolution]

A little less than 40 million years ago, the western Washington 6

landscape changed dramatically. Geologists R. S. Fiske, C. A.
Hopson, and A. C. Waters have discovered that volcanoes then rose on
the former coastal plain at the site of Mount Rainier National Park and
became islands as the area sank beneath the sea. When molten rock was
erupted underwater from the submerged flanks of these volcanoes,
steam explosions shattered the lava into countless fragments. The
resulting debris, mixed with water, flowed as mud across great areas of
the submerged basin floor.
 Outcrop of gray to brown sandstone and dark-gray to
black coaly shale in the Puget Group along the Mowich
Lake Road. (Fig. 1)

You can see rocks formed from these layers of volcanic mud and sand in
cuts along the highway on the east side of Backbone Ridge and between
Cayuse Pass and Tipsoo Lake. Look there for alternating beds of grayish-
green sandstone and breccia, a concretelike rock in which the pebbles
have sharp corners. These rocks are known as the Ohanapecosh
Formation. Like the Puget Group, the Ohanapecosh Formation is at least
10,000 feet thick. Yet, nearly all of it accumulated in shallow water as
western Washington continued to sink slowly during the volcanic
eruptions.

The long-continued sinking finally ended after the Ohanapecosh volcanic

activity ceased. Western Washington was then lifted several thousand
feet above sea level, and the Puget and Ohanapecosh rocks were 7
slowly compressed into a series of broad shallow folds. Before
eruptions began again, rivers cut valleys hundreds of feet deep, and
weathering of the rocks produced thick red clayey soils similar to those
that are forming in some areas of high rainfall and high temperature
today. Look for the red rocks formed from these old soils in roadcuts as
you drive along the Stevens Canyon road about 2 miles southeast of Box
Canyon.

The next volcanic eruptions, which may have begun between 25 and 30
million years ago, differed from those of Ohanapecosh time. These
volcanoes, somewhere beyond the boundaries of the park, erupted great
flows of hot pumice that, being highly mobile, rushed down the flanks of
the volcanoes and spread over many square miles of the adjacent
regions. The pumice flows were “lubricated” by hot volcanic gas emitted
from inside each pumice particle, which buffered it from other particles.
Some hot pumice flows were 350 feet deep. The heat still remaining in
the pumice after it stopped flowing partly melted the particles to form a
hard rock known as welded tuff. Repeated pumice flows buried the hilly
landscape and eventually formed a vast volcanic plain. The rocks, which
are mostly welded tuffs, are now the Stevens Ridge Formation, which you
can see along the highway in Stevens Canyon 1-2 miles west of Box
Canyon. You can recognize the welded tuff by its light-gray to white color
and its many flattened and sharp-edged inclusions of darker gray pumice
(fig. 2).

Another period of volcanism followed, of still a different kind, when lava

flowed outward from broad low volcanoes. The flows were of two kinds:
basalt, the kind now erupted by Hawaiian volcanoes, and andesite, the
type erupted by Mount Rainier. Individual flows 50-500 feet thick were
stacked on top of one another to a total depth of fully 2,500 feet. We
know these rocks as the Fifes Peak Formation. They form many of the
cliffs and peaks in the northwestern part of the park. You can examine
them in cuts along the Mowich Lake Road between Mountain Meadows
and Mowich Lake. The time of the eruption of the Fifes Peak lavas may
have been between 20 and 30 million years ago.

When the Fifes Peak volcanoes finally became extinct, this part of
western Washington changed again. The rocks once more were uplifted
and compressed into broad folds parallel to those formed at the end of
Ohanapecosh time. The rocks buckled and, in places, broke and 8
shifted thousands of feet along great fractures, or faults.
 Outcrop of light-gray welded tuff in the Stevens Ridge
Formation along the road in Stevens Canyon. The
angular dark-gray fragments in the welded tuff are
chunks of pumice. (Fig. 2)

About 12 million years ago one or more masses of molten rock, many
miles across, pushed upward through the Puget Group and younger 9
rocks. When this molten rock cooled and hardened, it formed
granodiorite, a close relative of granite. Although most of the molten rock
solidified underground, some of it reached the land surface and formed
volcanoes at a few places within the area of Mount Rainier National Park.
Granodiorite looks like granite and has a light-gray
speckled appearance. The knife is about 3 inches long.
(Fig. 3)
Granodiorite is probably the most attractive rock in the park. It is mostly
white, but it contains large dark mineral grains that give it a “salt-and-
pepper” appearance (fig. 3). The large size of the grains is a result 10
of the molten rock cooling slowly at a considerable depth below the
land surface—the individual minerals had a long time to grow before the
“melt” solidified into rock. In contrast, the rocks formed from lavas that
flowed onto the ground surface are generally fine grained because the
lavas cooled too quickly for the mineral grains to grow appreciably.

Granodiorite underlies the White River valley, the Carbon River valley, and
parts of the upper Nisqually River valley and the Tatoosh Range. You can
see it in roadcuts between Longmire and Christine Falls and at several
places along the road between White River Ranger Station and White
River campground.

Geological cross section of Mount Rainier and its

foundation rocks from Mother Mountain southward to
Tatoosh Range. True-scale cross section is nearly 17
miles long. Slightly modified from U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 444, Plate 1. (Fig. 4)

(left) High-resolution Diagram (right)

After the granodiorite solidified, the foundation of Mount Rainier was

complete except for one other landscape change that preceded the birth
of the volcano. Not long after the granodiorite was formed, the Cascade
mountain range began to rise—not rapidly, but little by little over many
thousands of years. As the land rose, rivers cut valleys into the growing
mountains so that by the time the new volcano began to erupt, the
Cascades had already been carved into a rugged range of high ridges and
peaks separated by deep valleys. Deep erosion thus laid bare the 11
rock layers in which we today read the geologic history of the park
(fig. 4).
Thumbnail Biography of Mount Rainier
The life span of a volcano can be compared to that of an individual—after
his birth and a brief youth, he matures and grows old. The birth date of
Mount Rainier is not known for sure, but it must have been at least
several hundred thousand years ago. We cannot tell much about the
volcano’s complex youth because most of its earliest deposits are now
buried under later ones. At an early age, well before the cone grew to its
present size, thick lava, like hot tar, flowed repeatedly 5-15 miles down
the deep canyons of the surrounding mountains. Because these lava
flows resisted later erosion by rivers and glaciers, most of them now form
ridgetops, as at Rampart Ridge, Burroughs Mountain, Grand Park, and
Klapatche Ridge (figs. 5 and 6). Violent explosions occasionally threw
pumice onto the slopes of the growing volcano and the surrounding
mountains. As the volcano matured, the long thick flows were 12
succeeded by thinner and shorter ones which, piled on top of one
another, built the giant cone that now dominates the region. Even though
Mount Rainier has grown old now, it has revived briefly at many times
during the last 10,000 years or so and may erupt again in the future.

The events of the last 10,000 years, because they are so recent, in terms
of geologic time, are better known than those of any earlier time, and we
can examine this part of the volcano’s history in some detail. We will
study three principal subjects: eruptions—because they have had
widespread effects; glaciers—because they are such conspicuous features
on the mountain; and landslides—because they have drastically changed
the volcano’s shape.
 Results of Recent Eruptions
While hiking, you soon become aware that there is a large amount of
pumice along the trails in Mount Rainier National Park. Pumice is a
lightweight volcanic rock so full of air spaces that it will float on water.
The air spaces, or bubbles, originated when fragments of gas-rich lava
were explosively thrown into the air above the volcano, and the molten
rock hardened before the gas could escape. If you examine pumice
deposits in a trail cut, in a streambank, or in the roots of blown-over
trees, you may also note that there is more than one layer (fig. 7). If you
circle the volcano on the Wonderland Trail, you may notice that the
greatest number of pumice layers are on the east side of the park, but
the thickest single layer is on the west side. The explanation lies partly in
the source of the pumice deposits, because some pumice was erupted
not by Mount Rainier but by other volcanoes in the Cascade Range of
Washington and Oregon and brought to the park by strong southerly or
southwesterly winds. The layers of pumice thrown out by Mount Rainier
within the last 10,000 years lie mostly on the east side of the volcano.
Strong winds evidently swept eruption clouds to the east during the
outbursts and prevented the pumice from falling west of the volcano. This
pattern of distribution, coupled with the coarsening and thickening of the
pumice toward the volcano, reveals that the layers were erupted by
Mount Rainier.

13
An old lava flow from Mount Rainier which forms
Rampart Ridge west of the meadow at Longmire. The
thick lava flowed down an old valley floor and cooled
and solidified. Rivers then eroded new valleys along
both sides of the flow. These new valleys, subsequently
glaciated, are today followed by the Nisqually River and
Kautz Creek. Thus, the area of a former valley floor is
now a ridge. (Fig. 5)
Columns of dark-gray andesite at the east end of an old
lava flow from Mount Rainier. This outcrop is near the
point at which the highway to Yakima Park crosses
Yakima Creek. (Fig. 6)

14
 Layers of pumice on the floor of a cirque near Paradise
Park. The yellow bed at the bottom is layer O, which was
erupted by Mount Mazama volcano at the site of Crater
Lake, Oregon, about 6,600 years ago. The yellowish-
brown layer a few inches above layer O is layer D, a
pumice that was erupted by Mount Rainier between
5,800 and 6,600 years ago. The light-yellowish-brown
pumice bed at the top of the outcrop is layer Y, which
originated at Mount St. Helens volcano between 3,250
and 4,000 years ago. Photograph by D. R. Mullineaux,
U.S. Geological Survey. (Fig. 7)

D. R. Mullineaux of the U.S. Geological Survey has studied in detail the

pumice deposits of Mount Rainier National Park. One of his first and most
important discoveries was that even though some pumice layers are
spread widely over the park, they were erupted from other volcanoes.
Strangely enough, one layer is thicker and more widespread than any
recent pumice erupted by Mount Rainier. We can clearly see that these
foreign pumice layers did not come from Mount Rainier, for they thicken
and coarsen southward, away from the park. The oldest was 15
erupted by Mount Mazama volcano at the site of Crater Lake,
Oregon, about 6,600 years ago; this pumice forms a yellowish-orange
layer about 2 inches thick nearly everywhere in the park. The pumice has
a texture like that of sandy flour, and it feels grainy when rubbed
between the fingers. It is so fine grained because of the great distance to
its source, 250 miles due south of Mount Rainier. Near Crater Lake this
same pumice consists of large chunks and is many feet thick.

Two other foreign pumice deposits in the park were erupted by Mount St.
Helens, a symmetrical young volcanic cone about 50 miles southwest of
Mount Rainier. The older of the two is between 3,250 and 4,000 years
old; it forms a blanket of yellow sand-sized pumice that is as much as 20
inches thick in the western part of the park. The younger pumice layer is
most conspicuous at the ground surface in the eastern part of the park,
where it is as much as 4 inches thick and resembles a fine white sand. It
is about 450 years old.

Mount St. Helens as it appears from Mount Rainier.

An inconspicuous bed of pumice records the first eruption of Mount

Rainier that occurred after Ice Age glaciers melted back to the slopes of
the volcano. It can be found on the east side of the mountain from Grand
Park south to Ohanapecosh campground (fig. 8). In roadcuts near the
east end of Yakima Park (Sunrise) the pumice forms a rusty-brown bed
about 4 inches thick which contains fragments as much as 2 inches
across. Wood from a thin layer of peat just above the pumice was dated
by its content of radioactive carbon as about 8,750 years old; thus, the
pumice is even older. We call this pumice layer R for convenience; other
letter symbols have been assigned to the younger layers (table 1).

Generalized distribution of some pumice layers within 16

Mount Rainier National Park. The pumice of layers W
and Y was erupted by Mount St. Helens; all the other
pumice originated at Mount Rainier. Letters represent
the following localities: C, Cougar Rock campground; I,
Ipsut Creek campground; L, Longmire; M, Mowich Lake;
O, Ohanapecosh campground; P, Paradise Park; S,
summit crater; T, Tipsoo Lake; W, White River
campground; and Y, Yakima Park. Based on studies by D.
R. Mullineaux. (Fig. 8)

Layer X (Between 110 and 150 years old)

Layer C (Between 2,150 and 2,500 years old)

Layer D (Between 5,800 and 6,600 years old)

Layer L (Between 5,800 and 6,600 years old)

Layer R (More than 8,750 years old)

 Layer W (line pattern), and Layer Y (stipple pattern)
(About 450 years old and 3,250 to 4,000 years old,
respectively)

17

TABLE 1.—Characteristics, sources, and ages of pumice layers,

Mount Rainier National Park
[Based on studies by D. R. Mullineaux]

Common range
of thickness in
park
Common
range in Approximate
diameter age in 1968,
West East of pumice or limiting
Pumice side side fragments dates (years
layer (inches) (inches) (inches) Color Source ago)
X Absent [1] ¼-2 Light Mount 100-150
olive Rainier.
gray
W 0-1 1-3 Medium White Mount [2]
450
sand St.
Helens.
C Absent 1-8 ¼-8 Brown Mount 2,150-2,500
Rainier.
 Y 5-20 1-5 Coarse Yellow Mount 3,250-4,000
sand St.
Helens.
D Absent 0-6 ¼-6 Brown Mount 5,800-6,600
Rainier.
L Absent 0-8 ¼-2 Brown Mount 5,800-6,600
Rainier.
O 1-3 1-3 Flourlike to Yellowish Mount About 6,600
fine sand orange Mazama.
R Absent 0-5 ⅛-1 Reddish Mount 8,750-11,000?
brown Rainier.
18
The next two eruptions of Mount Rainier occurred between 5,800
and 6,600 years ago. Again, pumice spread over the area east of the
volcano. The older pumice, which we call layer L, covers a band only a
few miles wide that extends to the southeast from the volcano (fig. 8).
The younger pumice, layer D, covers an area at least 10 miles wide
directly east of the volcano. The distribution of both deposits shows that
there were strong directional winds during the eruptions. The long,
narrow pattern of layer L probably was caused by strong northwesterly
winds during a short-lived eruption. The pattern of layer D was caused by
winds from the west.

Some time during these eruptions, hot volcanic bombs and rock
fragments were thrown out of Mount Rainier’s crater and fell onto
surrounding areas of snow and ice. Wholesale melting resulted, and
floods descended the east flank of the volcano carrying millions of tons of
ash, newly erupted rock debris, and breadcrust bombs. Breadcrust bombs
seem to be solid rock, but if you would break one open, you would find
that the inside is hollow or is filled with a spongy mass of black glass.
Their outer surfaces are cracked like the crust of a loaf of hard-crusted
bread (fig. 9), so we call them breadcrust bombs. They originated as
blobs of soft, red-hot lava which were thrown out of the volcano’s crater.
As the masses arched through the air, they quickly chilled on the outside,
and a hardened skin formed around the still hot and plastic core. As their
outsides cooled, gas pressure in their hot interiors caused the bombs to
expand slightly and their solidified outer skin to crack. When they struck
the ground, many of the bombs became flattened on one side, but they
were still plastic and sticky enough to remain whole.

Bombs can be found in two deposits that form the south bank of the
White River about half a mile downstream from the White River
campground. The deposits are mudflows caused by the mixing of hot
rock debris with the water from melted snow and ice. As the mudflows
moved down the valley floor they must have resembled flowing masses of
wet concrete.

Mount Rainier erupted several times between about 2,500 and 2,000
years ago. During one of the first eruptions, a mass of hot ash, rock
fragments, and breadcrust bombs avalanched down the side of the
volcano and buried the floor of the South Puyallup River valley. Although
this hot mass flowed like a wet mudflow, the temperature of the 19
rock debris was above 600°F. Thus, if any water had been present,
it would have been in the form of steam. You can see the resulting
deposit in cuts along the West Side Road on both sides of the bridge
across the South Puyallup River. Innumerable bombs have rolled from the
cuts into the ditches beside the road. A charcoal log found in the deposit
had a radiocarbon age of about 2,500 years.
 A large breadcrust bomb enclosed in a mudflow deposit
that consists of a mixture of volcanic ash and rock
fragments. The outcrop is on the south bank of the
White River about half a mile downstream from the
White River campground. (Fig. 9)

Large amounts of pumice were thrown out of the volcano at the same
time as the bombs or soon after. The pumice covers most of the eastern
half of the park, and fragments are scattered as far southwest as Pyramid
Peak and as far northwest as Spray Park. This pumice, called layer C, is
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