INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION NETWORK

• A communication network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links
• It provides a service whereby it allows the transfer of information between users located at various geographical
points

BENEFITS OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Benefits
• 10 PPM Stability at high frequencies • Better timing margin, system reliability
• Any Frequency, accurate up to 6 decimal places • Improves system performance and BER
• LVPECL, LVDS, HCSL, CML support on differential • Interfaces with all commonly used IC signaling
products levels
• Ability to meet demand upsides
• Short lead times and excellent availability
• Low cost of ownership
• 100% drop in replacement for quartz • No redesign or relay out required
USES OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Telecommunications Uses
Reliable telecommunications on voting day are not only necessary for security reasons but for normal operations with
regard to:
• seeking guidance on operational or legal issues;
• regular reporting of voting station activity;
• advice to election managers of any need for additional supplies or emergency staff;
• reporting of successful commencement and finish of voting;
• reporting dispatch of election material;
• advice of preliminary count figures (if the count is conducted at the voting station).
TYPES OF NETWORK
Types of Networks
• Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified as:
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
• A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices, usually within an office building or home.
• LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed by multiple users
• Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile
• Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
• Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device
• Has lower cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s
Local Area Network (LAN)
• LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fibre optic cable can be used in wired LAN’s.
• Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that governs how packets are configured and transmitted.
• Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology.
These topologies include:
– Bus
– Ring
– Star
• LANs are capable of very high transmission rates (100s Mb/s to G b/s).

Local Area Network (LAN)

Advantages of LAN
• Speed • E-mail
• Cost • Resource Sharing
• Security
Disadvantages of LAN
• Expensive To Install • File Server May Fail
• Requires Administrative Time • Cables May Break

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus.
• A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
• A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and
organizations.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.
• A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
• Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL to customers and cable TV network.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)
• WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the world.
• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart.
• To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines or wireless links such as satellites.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways, which enable them to share
data.
• The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.
Wide Area Network (WAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN)

• A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer devices (including telephones) in
close proximity of around a few meters within a room
• It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting to a larger network such as the
internet.
• PAN’s can be wired or wireless

Personal Area Network (PAN)

• A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices, including
telephones and personal digital assistants, in proximity to an individual's body.
• The devices may or may not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN is typically a few meters.
Network topology
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer or biological network.
Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network, and may be depicted physically or logically. Physical topology
refers to the placement of the network's various components, including device location and cable installation, while logical
topology shows how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical design. Distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be
identical.
A good example is a local area network (LAN): Any given node in the LAN has one or more physical links to other devices
in the network; graphically mapping these links results in a geometric shape that can be used to describe the physical
topology of the network. Conversely, mapping the data flow between the components determines the logical topology of
the network.
Topology
There are two basic categories of network topologies:[5]
1. Physical topologies
2. Logical topologies
The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of the network. This refers to the layout
of cabling, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling.[1] The physical topology of
a network is determined by the capabilities of the network access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance
desired, and the cost associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits.
The logical topology, in contrast, is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes
through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's
logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, the original twisted pair Ethernet using
repeater hubs was a logical bus topology with a physical star topology layout. Token Ring is a logical ring topology, but
is wired a physical star from the Media Access Unit.
The logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same classifications as those in the physical
classifications of network topologies but describes the path that the data takes between nodes being used as opposed to the
actual physical connections between nodes. The logical topologies are generally determined by network protocols as
opposed to being determined by the physical layout of cables, wires, and network devices or by the flow of the electrical
signals, although in many cases the paths that the electrical signals take between nodes may closely match the logical flow
of data, hence the convention of using the terms logical topology and signal topology interchangeably.
Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control methods and protocols. Logical topologies are
able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of equipment such as routers and switches.

Diagram of different network topologies.

The study of network topology recognizes eight basic topologies:[6]
• Point-to-point • Mesh
• Bus • Tree
• Star • Hybrid
• Ring or circular • Daisy chain
Point-to-point
The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints. Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model
of conventional telephony. The value of a permanent point-to-point network is unimpeded communications between the
two endpoints. The value of an on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of
subscribers, and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.
Permanent (dedicated)
Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point communications channel that
appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two endpoints. A children's tin can telephone is one
example of a physical dedicated channel.
Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example
might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone
dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two
points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit
from a parade route back to the studio.
Switched:
Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be set up dynamically, and
dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of conventional telephony.

Bus
Bus network topology
In local area networks where bus topology is used, each node is connected to a single cable. Each computer or
server is connected to the single bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines
connected on the bus cable until it finds the intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended
address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data matches the machine address, the data
is accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared
to other topologies. However, the low cost of implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of managing
the network. Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure. If the network cable
is terminated on both ends and when without termination data transfer stop and when cable breaks, the entire
network will be down.
Linear bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission
medium which has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or
trunk) – all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted over this common transmission
medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the network simultaneously.[1]
Note: When the electrical signal reaches the end of the bus, the signal "echoes" back down the line, causing
unwanted interference. As a solution, the two endpoints of the bus are normally terminated with a device called a
terminator that prevents this echo.
Distributed bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission
medium which has more than two endpoints that are created by adding branches to the main section of the
transmission medium – the physical distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as the physical
linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes share a common transmission medium).
Notes:
1. All of the endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally terminated using 50 ohm resistor.
2. The linear bus topology is sometimes considered to be a special case of the distributed bus topology – i.e.,
a distributed bus with no branching segments.
3. The physical distributed bus topology is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a physical tree topology –
however, although the physical distributed bus topology resembles the physical tree topology, it differs
from the physical tree topology in that there is no central node to which any other nodes are connected,
since this hierarchical functionality is replaced by the common bus.
4. Star
Star network

Star network topology

In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub with a point-to-point
connection. In Star topology every node (computer workstation or any other peripheral) is connected to central
node called hub or switch. The switch is the server and the peripherals are the clients. The network does not
necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star network, but all of the nodes on the network must be
connected to one central device. All traffic that traverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts
 as a signal repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage
of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is
that the hub represents a single point of failure.
Notes
1. A point-to-point link (described above) is sometimes categorized as a special instance of the physical star
topology – therefore, the simplest type of network that is based upon the physical star topology would
consist of one node with a single point-to-point link to a second node, the choice of which node is the 'hub'
and which node is the 'spoke' being arbitrary.[1]
2. After the special case of the point-to-point link, as in note (1) above, the next simplest type of network that
is based upon the physical star topology would consist of one central node – the 'hub' – with two separate
point-to-point links to two peripheral nodes – the 'spokes'.
3. Although most networks that are based upon the physical star topology are commonly implemented using
a special device such as a hub or switch as the central node (i.e., the 'hub' of the star), it is also possible to
implement a network that is based upon the physical star topology using a computer or even a simple
common connection point as the 'hub' or central node.[citation needed]
4. Star networks may also be described as either broadcast multi-access or nonbroadcast multi-access
(NBMA), depending on whether the technology of the network either automatically propagates a signal at
the hub to all spokes, or only addresses individual spokes with each communication.
Extended star
A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the physical star topology has one or more
repeaters between the central node (the 'hub' of the star) and the peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being
used to extend the maximum transmission distance of the point-to-point links between the central node and the
peripheral nodes beyond that which is supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond that which
is supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the physical star network is based.
If the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical extended star topology are replaced with hubs or
switches, then a hybrid network topology is created that is referred to as a physical hierarchical star topology,
although some texts make no distinction between the two topologies.
Distributed Star
A type of network topology that is composed of individual networks that are based upon the physical star topology
connected in a linear fashion – i.e., 'daisy-chained' – with no central or top level connection point (e.g., two or
more 'stacked' hubs, along with their associated star connected nodes or 'spokes').
Ring
Ring network

Ring network topology

A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels around the ring in one direction and
each device on the right acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. Each device incorporates a receiver
for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next device in the ring. The network is dependent
on the ability of the signal to travel around the ring. When a device sends data, it must travel through each device
on the ring until it reaches its destination. Every node is a critical link. [5]
Mesh
Mesh networking
The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming that
communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.
Fully connected
Fully connected mesh topology
The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2.
Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical networks,
although the topology is used when there are only a small number of nodes to be interconnected (see Combinatorial
explosion).
Partially connected

Partially connected mesh topology

The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected to more than one other
node in the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy
that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a
connection between every node in the network.
Note: In networks that are based upon the partially connected mesh topology, the data that is transmitted between
nodes in the network takes many shortest paths between nodes using a technology like Shortest Path Bridging,
except in the case of a failure or break in one of the links, in which case the network uses the remaining alternative
paths to the destination. This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of algorithm to determine
the correct path to use at any particular time.
Tree

Tree network topology

The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more
other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the
second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top
level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level)
connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node
above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.) Each node in the network having a specific fixed
number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the 'branching
factor' of the hierarchical tree. This tree has individual peripheral nodes.
 1. A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology must have at least three levels in the
hierarchy of the tree, since a network with a central 'root' node and only one hierarchical level below it
would exhibit the physical topology of a star.
2. A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology and with a branching factor of 1 would be
classified as a physical linear topology.
3. The branching factor, f, is independent of the total number of nodes in the network and, therefore, if the
nodes in the network require ports for connection to other nodes the total number of ports per node may
be kept low even though the total number of nodes is large – this makes the effect of the cost of adding
ports to each node totally dependent upon the branching factor and may therefore be kept as low as required
without any effect upon the total number of nodes that are possible.
4. The total number of point-to-point links in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology
will be one less than the total number of nodes in the network.
5. If the nodes in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology are required to perform any
processing upon the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network, the nodes that are at higher
levels in the hierarchy will be required to perform more processing operations on behalf of other nodes
than the nodes that are lower in the hierarchy. Such a type of network topology is very useful and highly
recommended.
—Advantages--
• It is scalable.Secondary nodes allow more devices to be connected to a central node.
• Point to point connection of devices.
• Having different levels of the network makes it more manageable hence easier fault identification and isolation.
--Disadvantages--
• Maintenance of the network may be an issue when the network spans a great area.
• Since it is a variation of bus topology, if the backbone fails, the entire network is crippled.
definition : Tree topology is a combination of Bus and Star topology.
An example of this network could be cable TV technology. Other examples are in dynamic tree based wireless networks
for military, mining and otherwise mobile applications [7] In a pilot system, aerial cameras kept aloft by balloons relayed
real time high resolution video to ground personnel via a dynamic self healing tree based network.
Hybrid
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit
one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example a tree network connected to a tree network is still a
tree network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected.
Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network
• A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation access unit (MAU) as
a centralized hub.
• A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as
the network's backbone).
While grid and torus networks have found popularity in high-performance computing applications, some systems have
used genetic algorithms to design custom networks that have the fewest possible hops in between different nodes. Some
of the resulting layouts are nearly incomprehensible, although they function quite well. [citation needed]
A Snowflake topology is really a "Star of Stars" network, so it exhibits characteristics of a hybrid network topology but is
not composed of two different basic network topologies being connected. Definition : Hybrid topology is a combination
of Bus,Star and ring topology.
Daisy chain
Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is by daisy-chaining, or connecting
each computer in series to the next. If a message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces
it along in sequence until it reaches the destination. A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.
• A linear topology puts a two-way link between one computer and the next. However, this was expensive in the
early days of computing, since each computer (except for the ones at each end) required two receivers and two
transmitters.
• By connecting the computers at each end, a ring topology can be formed. An advantage of the ring is that the
number of transmitters and receivers can be cut in half, since a message will eventually loop all of the way around.
When a node sends a message, the message is processed by each computer in the ring. If the ring breaks at a
particular link then the transmission can be sent via the reverse path thereby ensuring that all nodes are always
connected in the case of a single failure