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Introduction to quantum physics and information
processing 1st Edition Vathsan Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Vathsan, Radhika
ISBN(s): 9781482238129, 1482238128
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 3.71 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
Physics

INTRODUCTION to QUANTUM PHYSICS and INFORMATION PROCESSING

Introduction to Quantum Physics and Information Processing
guides you in understanding the current state of research in the
novel, interdisciplinary area of quantum information. The book goes
deeply into issues of quantum theory without raising the technical
level too much.
The text begins with the basics of quantum mechanics required to
understand how two-level systems are used as qubits. It goes on to
show how quantum properties are exploited in devising algorithms
for problems that are more efficient than the classical counterpart. It
then explores more sophisticated notions that form the backbone of
quantum information theory.
Features
• Presents important fundamental ideas of quantum information
science
• Emphasizes the true meaning of the quantum mechanical
description of nature
• Introduces the methods, notation, and theoretical framework of
quantum mechanics
• Describes basic algorithms used in quantum computation, such
as the Deutsch–Josza, Grover, and Fourier transform-based
algorithms
• Addresses the notion of information content in qubits,
cryptographic applications of quantum information processing,
and quantum error correction
• Includes examples, exercises, problems, and references in
each chapter that encourage hands-on practice and further
exploration
Vathsan

Requiring no background in quantum physics, this text prepares

you to follow more advanced books and research material in this
rapidly growing field. Examples, detailed discussions, exercises, and
problems facilitate a thorough, real-world understanding of quantum
information.
K23207

w w w. c rc p r e s s . c o m
 INTRODUCTION to
QUANTUM PHYSICS and
INFORMATION PROCESSING
 INTRODUCTION to
QUANTUM PHYSICS and
INFORMATION PROCESSING

Radhika Vathsan
BITS Pilani K.K. Birla Goa Campus
India
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20150714

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-3812-9 (eBook - PDF)

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Contents

Preface ix

List of Figures xiii

List of Tables xvii

List of Boxes xix

List of Symbols and Notations xxi

About the Author xxiii

I Preliminaries 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Bits and Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Properties of Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Practical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 References for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 A Simple Quantum System 15

2.1 The Stern–Gerlach Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Quantum State: Basis States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Superpositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.2 Choice of different bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.3 Characteristics of basis states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 An Experiment to Illustrate Superpositions . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Interference and Complex Amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

II Theoretical Framework 31
3 The Essentials of Quantum Mechanics 33
3.1 The State Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.1 Basis states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.2 Inner product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1.2.1 Meaning of inner product . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1.3 Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

v
vi Contents

3.2 Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.1 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.2 Self-adjoint operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.3 Basis transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.4 Outer product representation for operators . . . . . . 46
3.2.5 Functions of operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.1 Continuous time evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.1.1 Schrödinger viewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.1.2 Heisenberg viewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5 Composite Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

4 Properties of Qubits 63
4.1 The Bloch Sphere Representation of a Qubit . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Cloning and Deleting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3 Distinguishability of Qubit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4 Entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.1 Quantum vs. classical correlations . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.4.2 The EPR paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4.3 Bell’s inequalities and non-locality . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5 Mixed States, Open Systems, and the Density Operator 77

5.1 The Density Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.1.1 Properties of the density operator . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.1.2 Distinguishing pure and mixed states . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1.3 The Bloch ball and the density operator . . . . . . . . 84
5.1.4 Decomposition of the density operator . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2 Quantum Mechanics with Density Operators . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.1 States and observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.2 Generalized measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.3 Measurements of the POVM kind . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.2.4 State evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.3 Composite Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3.1 Reduced density operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3.2 Schmidt decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3.3 Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6 Computation Models and Computational Complexity 101

6.1 Computability and Models for Computation . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1.1 Turing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.1.2 Probabilistic Turing Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.1.3 Quantum Turing Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2 The Circuit Model and Universal Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.1 Universal gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
 Contents vii

6.3 Reversible Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

6.3.1 Classical reversible gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.3.2 Universal reversible gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.4 Resources and Computational Complexity . . . . . . . . . . 116

III Quantum Computation 119

7 Quantum Gates and Circuits 121
7.1 Single Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.1.1 Measurement gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.2 Multi-Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.3 Quantum Function Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.4 Universal Quantum Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.4.1 Controlled-U gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.4.2 Universal gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.5 Comments on Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

8 Quantum Algorithms 143

8.1 The Deutsch Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
8.1.1 Deutsch–Josza algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.2 The Bernstein–Vazirani Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.3 Simon’s Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.4 Quantum Fourier Transform and Applications . . . . . . . . 153
8.4.1 The discrete Fourier transform and classical algorithm 153
8.4.2 Complexity of the classical FFT algorithm . . . . . . . 158
8.5 Definition of the QFT from Discrete Fourier Transform . . . 158
8.5.1 Period-finding using QFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.5.1.1 Shor’s factorization algorithm . . . . . . . . 165
8.5.2 Phase estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.6 Grover’s Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.6.1 Extension to multiple solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8.6.2 Quantum counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

IV Quantum Information 175

9 Information and Communication 177
9.1 Entanglement as a Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.1.1 Teleportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.1.2 How teleportation does not imply faster-than-light com-
munication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.1.3 How teleportation does not imply cloning . . . . . . . 181
9.2 Quantum Dense Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.3 Quantum Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.3.1 Basic cryptographic paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
9.3.2 Security of cryptosystems: possible attacks . . . . . . 188
9.4 Quantum Key Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
viii Contents

9.4.1 BB84 protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

9.4.2 BB92 protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.4.3 E91: QKD using entangled states . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9.5 Information Reconciliation and Privacy Amplification . . . . 193

10 Quantum Error Correction 197

10.1 3-Qubit Repetition Code for Bit Flips . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
10.1.1 Details: stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.1.2 Error analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.2 Phase Flip Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10.3 9-Qubit Shor Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.4 Discretization of Quantum Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
10.5 The 5-Qubit Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.6 The 7-Qubit Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

11 Characterization of Quantum Information 211

11.1 Measures of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.1.1 Classical picture: Shannon entropy . . . . . . . . . . . 213
11.1.2 Mathematical characteristics of the entropy function . 216
11.1.3 Relations between entropies of two sets of events . . . 219
11.2 The von Neumann Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.2.1 Properties of the von Neumann entropy . . . . . . . . 224
11.2.2 Entropy of composite systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
11.3 Distance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.3.1 Kolmogorov or trace distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
11.3.2 Fidelity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
11.4 Entanglement Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Bibliography 237

Index 243
Preface

This book is aimed at undergraduates or beginning graduates in physics,

mathematics or engineering, as an introduction to the developing field of
quantum information. The book has grown out of lecture notes for a one-
semester course offered to undergraduate students of engineering and science
at the BITS Pilani Goa Campus. The level is consequently basic, and is in-
tended to train a student with no background in quantum physics to be able
to follow more advanced books on the subject, such as the classic by Neilsen
and Chuang, and also research material in this rapidly growing field. We start
from the basics of quantum mechanics required to understand two-level sys-
tems to be used as qubits, and then go on to show how quantum properties
are exploited in devising algorithms for problems that are more efficient than
the classical counterpart. We then go on to more sophisticated notions that
form the backbone of quantum information theory.
The idea behind a book at this level is that a student doesn’t need to go
through a masters course in physics to get started on quantum information, an
interdisciplinary subject that is currently in an exciting stage of development.
The treatment of the subject matter is elementary but with a bias toward ideas
of foundational importance in quantum information science. It consequently
goes deeper into issues of understanding quantum theory without raising the
technical level too much. Fully aware of being perhaps too wordy, some of the
introductory material is described at length to impress upon the student the
true meaning of the quantum mechanical description of nature.
The book is presented in four parts. The first preliminary part sets the
stage by introducing the methods and notation of quantum mechanics of fi-
nite state systems. We begin with a thorough but brief description of a typical
two-state system: electron spin, using the Stern–Gerlach system as an illustra-
tive medium. The second part sets the theoretical framework in place, starting
with the rules of quantum mechanics in the language of linear algebra. With
a view to completing the background required to understand current research
papers, we have also included a slightly advanced chapter on the density ma-
trix approach to the characterization of mixed states and open systems. We
also include a brief on concepts in computer science such as the circuit model
for computation, computational complexity, and reversible computation, after
the manner of Neilsen and Chuang.
The third part deals with quantum computation, starting with universal
quantum gates and circuits. We treat the basic quantum algorithms such as

ix
x Preface

the Deutsch–Josza, Grover and Fourier transform-based algorithms, which are

discussed in some detail. The fourth part on quantum information addresses
the notion of information content in qubits, cryptographic applications of
quantum information processing, and quantum error correction. We have also
included a chapter on slightly advanced material dealing with the characteriza-
tion of quantum information, to bridge the gap in the material undergraduate
students are normally exposed to, and current research literature in quantum
information theory.
Richly illustrated by examples and supplemented by exercises and prob-
lems, the book is intended to take the beginner seamlessly to the state of cur-
rent research in the area, so that the advanced literature in this fast-developing
field can be easily followed. The reader is led through example and detailed
discussions to understanding some of the deeper concepts of quantum theory
that can be put to use in this area of the subject. Each chapter is accompanied
by pointers to references that take the reader beyond what is presented in the
book.

Acknowledgments
A work of this nature is simply not possible without the inspiration, guid-
ance, help, and cooperation of numerous people. I would first like to dedicate
this book to the memory of Prof. Suresh Ramaswamy whose encouragement
was the inspiration to start on this project. Thanks are due to my faculty col-
leagues who provided guidance, to the many enthusiastic students who took
my course on quantum information and computation at the BITS Pilani Goa
Campus, which formed the base on which this book was built, and to the
kind cooperation of the Raman Research Institute, Bangalore, for extending
its hospitality during a sabbatical period in 2013 during which part of this
work was completed.
I would like to individually thank my students Aarthi Sundaram, Anu-
pam Mitra, Arunav Sanyal, Bharath Srivathsan, Mayank Jog, Milind Shyani,
Nisheeth Bandaru, Pratik Mallya, Shubhanshu Tiwari, Tarik Gupta, and
many others for vital class discussions that made me eagerly look forward
to the pleasure of their class, and for helping produce solutions to problems.
I’d like to thank my colleagues Andal Narayanan, Anu Venugopalan, Tabish
Qureshi, Joseph Samuel, Supurna Sinha, A. R. Usha Devi, Sumati Surya and
Urbasi Sinha, for stimulating discussions. Thanks are due to Dhavala Suri, a
graduate student in our department, for proofreading the material and offering
to help with the clarity and effectiveness of the delivery.
I am greatly indebted to the creators and improvers of the fantastic type-
setting environment of LATEX, which was one of the inducements for writing
this book! Referring to Leslie Lamport’s LATEX and Mittelbach and Goossen’s
 Preface xi

The LATEXCompanion made designing the book layout great fun. The quan-
tum circuit diagrams in this book owe their neatness and ease of typesetting to
the wonderful LATEXpackage QCircuit designed by Steve Flammia and Bryan
Eastin. I owe a lot to the Inkscape vector graphics package for making the
illustrations a pleasure to design and draw.
I am indebted to the CRC team starting with my editor, Aastha Sharma,
for encouraging me to bring these notes out in book form, to the anonymous
referees for insightful comments, and to Karen Simon for the fine editing.
Finally, I owe much to my mother, who inculcated in me a sense of per-
fectionism, aesthetic sensibility, and a never-say-die attitude (and provided a
lot of training in copy editing!), my father who introduced me to Feynman’s
legendary lecture notes at a young age and spurred my dream of being a
theoretical physicist, my sister whose sense of humor and support carried me
through many dark moments, and of course to Kshipra who put up with my
many moods and late timings while amma’s book was being put together.
List of Figures

1.1 Three approaches to the quantum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 Two-slit interference with light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Two-slit experiment with quantum particles. . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Visualizing a classical bit, a fuzzy bit and a quantum bit. . 8
1.5 Computational power: quantum vs classical. . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1 (a) The Stern–Gerlach Setup. (b) The inhomogeneous mag-

netic field between asymmetric pole pieces. . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 The Stern Gerlach experiment: (a) The classically expected
result. (b) What was actually observed. . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 The SGz filters (the paths of the beams are bent back to z = 0
using suitable magnets). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Measuring Sx after Sz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Successive measurements of Sz , Sx and Sz . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6 Repeated spin measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7 An experiment with the SG along an arbitrary direction θ. 23
2.8 Successive Stern–Gerlachs in z and x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 Successive Stern–Gerlachs z, x and z again. . . . . . . . . . 25
2.10 Linearly polarized light wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.11 Effect of a linear polarizer on unpolarized light; subsequent
polarizer allows only a component ∝ cos2 δ through. . . . . . 27
2.12 Light with elliptic polarization: the electric field vector traces
out an ellipse in the x-y plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.1 Experiment for determining the eigenstates of Ŝx in the com-

putational basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2 The measurement process for measuring an observable A with
values a. Note that this is distinct from an operator A acting
on |ψi to transform it to A|ψi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 Projection operator |aiha| acting on a state. . . . . . . . . . 52

4.1 The Bloch sphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

4.2 Spin measurement on an entangled pair of particles. . . . . 72
4.3 Directions for SG detectors a, a0 , b and b0 and the correspond-
ing observables measured by Alice and Bob, that maximally
violate the CHSH inequality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

xiii
xiv List of Figures

5.1 (a) A convex set, (b) A non-convex set. . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

5.2 Bloch ball: points inside the Bloch sphere represent qubits in
mixed states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.3 Density matrix ρ allowing three different decompositions. . . 88
5.4 Generalized measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5 Illustrating a bipartite composite system. . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.1 A schematic of a Turing machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

6.2 Classical circuit for function evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.3 A simple thermodynamic system encoding a bit of informa-
tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.4 Erasing a bit of information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.5 Reversible implementation of an irreversible function . . . . 111

7.1 Illustrating a quantum circuit with n qubits. . . . . . . . . . 121

7.2 Action of X̂ on the Bloch Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.3 Rotation of a qubit by Rn (θ) on the Bloch sphere. . . . . . 125
7.4 H gates acting in different ways on two qubits. . . . . . . . 127
7.5 CNOT gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.6 CNOT producing entanglement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.7 Circuit representing a controlled-U gate. . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.8 CNOT with second qubit as control and first as target. . . . 129
7.9 A 0-controlled gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.10 Different control operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.11 Circuit for preparing Bell States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.12 Circuit for Bell measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.13 Bell measurement on part of an entangled state. . . . . . . . 131
7.14 Circuit for measuring an operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.15 Quantum function evaluator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.16 Circuit to evaluate C-U up to the phase factor . . . . . . . . 136
7.17 Implementation of controlled U gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.18 Implementation of C-C-U gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.19 Efficient implementation of a Toffoli gate. . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.20 Implementation of Cn -U gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

8.1 The quantum function evaluator with a uniform superposi-

tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.2 Classical black box function evaluator as an oracle. . . . . . 144
8.3 The Deutsch algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.4 The circuit for the Deutsch–Josza algorithm. . . . . . . . . . 147
8.5 A circuit that executes Uf for f = 11010 · x. . . . . . . . . . 149
8.6 Analysis of circuit for the Bernstein–Vazirani algorithm for
a = 11010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.7 The circuit for the Simon algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.8 The 2-point DFT: butterfly diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
 List of Figures xv

8.9 Butterfly diagram for computing an 8-point DFT. . . . . . . 157

8.10 Circuit for the quantum Fourier transform F̂2n , on n qubits. 160
8.11 Circuit for quantum period finding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.12 Graph comparing sin θ and 2θ/π. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.13 Circuit for phase estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.14 Geometric Visualization of the action of the Grover Iterate . 169
8.15 Circuit implementing Grover’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.16 Construction of oracle for k = 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.17 Construction of operator Ŝ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8.18 Circuit for quantum counting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.19 The quantum function evaluator as a controlled Ũf gate. . . 173

9.1 Communication of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

9.2 Quantum Teleportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.3 Circuit for teleportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.4 Communication scenario for cryptography. . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.5 Private key cryptography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.6 Public key cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.7 Different photon polarization states indicated on the Bloch
sphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

10.1 Simplified model of error correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

10.2 Binary symmetric channel for bit flips. . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
10.3 Encoding circuit for the 3-qubit bit-flip code. . . . . . . . . 199
10.4 Syndrome measurement for the 3-qubit bit-flip code . . . . . 199
10.5 Error detection and correction for 3-qubit bit-flip code. Here
SM is the syndrome measurement circuit. . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.6 Circuit for measuring an operator Ô. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.7 Circuit equivalences for measuring Ẑ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.8 Measuring Z1 Z2 and Z2 Z3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.9 Encoding circuit for 3-qubit phase-flip code. . . . . . . . . . 204
10.10 Encoding circuit for the 9-qubit Shor code . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.11 The encoding circuit for the 5-qubit code . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10.12 Circuit for the 7-qubit encoding. The qubits are arranged ac-
cording to significance from highest to lowest, top to bottom. 209

11.1 Simplified model for communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

11.2 Graph of y = x − 1 compared with y = ln x. . . . . . . . . . 217
11.3 The binary entropy function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
11.4 Relationship between entropic quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . 220
List of Tables

1.1 Summary of common physical implementations of quantum

computing systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.1 Interference in the Stern–Gerlach setup. . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.1 The Dirac notation and its properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.2 Correspondence between the math and the physics of quan-
tum mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

6.1 Basic classical gates and their symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

6.2 The four 1-bit functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

7.1 Resulting state after measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

9.1 Bob’s conditional operations in the teleportation protocol. . 180

9.2 Operations for super-dense coding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

10.1 Syndrome measurement: outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

10.2 Eigenvalues of stabilizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.3 Probability of occurrence of corrupted states in a bit-flip chan-
nel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

xvii
List of Boxes

2.1 Polarization States of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.1 Linear Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Hilbert Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Diagonalizable Operators and the Spectral Theorem . . . . . 41
3.4 Basis Transformations among the X̂, Ŷ and Ẑ Bases . . . . 45
3.5 The Pauli Spin Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6 Properties of Projection Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7 The Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8 Algebra of Tensor Product States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1 Bell States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.1 POVM from Projective Measurements on a Composite System 94
6.1 Billiard Ball Reversible Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.2 Complexity Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.1 Useful Representations of Single Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . 126
8.1 Complexity Analysis for Simon’s Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.2 Classical FFT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.1 No Signaling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.1 Error-Correction and Fidelity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.1 Binary Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

xix
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 17. Uzel states that what is regarded as the ligula of Campodea is formed from
the sternite of the first maxillary segment; while the two parts regarded as
paraglossæ grow out from the sternite of the mandibular segment, and these three
structures together he regards as the hypopharynx. (Zool. Anzeiger, July 5, 1897, p.
234.)

18. See, also, Breithaupt, Ueber die Anatomie und die Functionen der
Bienenzunge, 1886. It confirms and extends Cheshire’s work.

19. Cholodkowsky, Zool. Anz., ix, p. 615; x, p. 102.

20. Zool. Anz., ix, p. 711.

21. Ent. Amer., v, p. 110, Pl. II, Fig. 7.

22. In his account of his studies on the locomotion of insects, De Moor states
that he obtained the track of each of the feet in different colors by coating them
with different pigments; the insect, as it moved, left its track on a strip of paper.
(Archives de Biologie, Liège, 1890.)

23. Carlet and also De Moor (1890) confirm Graber’s statement that in beetles
the first and last appendages on the same side are in contact with the ground, while
the middle one is raised. On the other side of the body the middle appendage is on
the ground and the first and last one raised.

24. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. xx, p. 168.

25. Proc. Ent. Soc. London. Feb. 19, 1896. Heymons also shows that the germs
of the elytra of the larva of Tenebrio molitor in the prepupal stage are like those of
other insects. (Sitzungs-Ber. Gesell. natur f. Freunde zu Berlin, 1896, pp. 142–144.)

26. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte und Reproductionsfähigkeit der

Orthopteren. Von Vitus Graber. Sitzungsberichte d. math.-naturw. Classe der
Akad. d. Wissensch., Wien. Bd. lv, Abth. i, 1867; also Die Insekten.

27. On the transformations of the common house fly, by A. S. Packard, Jr.

Proceedings Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xvi, 1874. See Pl. 3, Figs. 12a,
12b.

28. See our Guide to the Study of Insects, p. 66, Figs. 65, 66.

29. Our Common Insects, 1873, p. 171.

30. Compare the observations of Palmén, Gerstäcker, Vayssière, and others.

31. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Termiten. Jenaische Zeitschrift für

Naturwissenchaft, Bd. ix, Heft 2, p. 253, 1875. Compare, however, Palmén’s Zur
Morphologie des Tracheensystems, Helsingfors, 1877, wherein he opposes Müller’s
view and adopts Gegenbaur’s. See p. 8, footnote.

32. Pancritius, who also adopted Müller’s views, lays much stress on the fact
that in larvæ of some orders the tracheæ do not enter the rudimentary wings until
the end of larval life, and hence the wings have not originated from tracheal gills,
but were originally “perhaps only protective covers for the body.”

33. Reproduced from the author’s remarks in Third Report U. S. Ent.

Commission, pp. 268–271, 1883.

34. Von Lendenfeld, however, points out the fact that Straus-Durckheim
proved that the wings of beetles are moved by a complicated system of numerous
muscles. “In the Lepidoptera I have never found less than six muscles to each wing,
as also in the Hymenoptera and Diptera.” “The motions of the wings of Libellulidæ
are the combined working of numerous muscles and cords, and of a great number
of chitinous pieces connected by joints.”

35. Heymons, however, denies that the so-called cerci in Odonata are such,
and claims that they are the homologues of the “caudal processes” (superior
terminal appendages of Calvert), because they arise from the tenth abdominal
segment.

36. Amer. Nat., iv, December, 1870.

37. Handbuch der Zoologie, p. 17, 1863, Fig. 162.

38. In my account of the anatomy of Melanoplus spretus, 1st Report U. S.

Entomological Commission, p. 259, I have called these the infra-anal flaps or uro-
patagia.

39. It has been suggested to us by A. A. Packard that the power possessed by

insects of transporting loads much heavier than themselves is easily accounted for,
when we consider that the muscles of the legs of an insect the size of a house-fly
(¼ inch long), and supporting a load 399 times its own weight, would be subjected
to the same stress (per square inch of cross-section) as they would be in a fly 100
inches long of precisely similar shape, that carried only its own weight; from the
mechanical law that, while the weight of similar bodies varies as the cube of the
corresponding dimensions, the area of cross-section of any part (such as a section
of the muscles of the leg) varies only as the square of the corresponding
dimensions. In short, the muscles of a fly carrying this great proportional weight
undergo no greater tension than would be exerted by a colossal insect in walking.

40. This has been shown to be the case by Michels, who states that each
commissure is formed of three parallel bundles of elementary nerve-fibres, which
pass continuously from one end of the ventral or nervous cord to the other. “The
commissures take their origin neither out of a central punctsubstanz (or
marksubstanz), nor from the peripheral ganglion-cells of the several ganglia, but
are mere continuations of the longitudinal fibres which decrease posteriorly in
thickness, and extend anteriorly through the commissures, forming the
œsophageal ring, to the brain.”

41. The following extract from Newton’s paper shows, however, that the infra
or subœsophageal ganglion, according to Faivre, has the power of coördinating the
movements of the body; still, it seems to us that the brain is primarily concerned in
the exercise of this power, as the nerves from the subœsophageal ganglion supply
only the mouth-parts. “The physiological experiments of Faivre in 1857 (Ann. des
Sci. Nat. tom. viii, p. 245), upon the brain of Dyticus in relation to locomotion, are
of very considerable interest, showing, as they appear to do, that the power of
coördinating the movements of the body is lodged in the infraœsophageal
ganglion. And such being the case, both the upper and lower pairs of ganglia ought
to be regarded as forming parts of the insect’s brain.”—Quart. Jour. Micr. Sc., 1879,
p. 342.

42. The arthropod protocerebrum probably represents the annelid brain

(supraœsophageal ganglion). The antennal segment (deutocerebrum), with the
premandibular (intercalary) segment (tritocerebrum) originally postoral, have, as
Lankester suggests, in the Arthropoda moved forward to join the primitive brain.
See Wheeler, Journ. Morphology, Boston, viii, p. 112.

43. Viallanes’ assertion that the instincts of the horse-flies and dragon-flies are
“lower” than those of the locusts, may, it seems to us, well be questioned.

44. A. S. Packard, Experiments on the vitality of insects, Psyche, ii, 17, 1877.

45. Waterhouse, Trans. Ent. Soc., London, 1889, p. xxiv.

46. J. Müller, Physiology of the Senses. Trans. by Baly, copied from Lubbock,
p. 176.

47. Hauser here uses the word taster, but this means palpus or feeler. It is
probably a lapsus pennæ for teeth (Kegeln).

48. In 1870 I observed these sense-pits in the antennæ and also in the
cercopoda of the cockroach (Periplaneta americana). I counted about 90 pits on
each cercus. They are much larger and much more numerous than similar pits in
the antennæ of the same insect. I compared them to similar pits in the antennæ of
the carrion-beetles, and argued that they were organs rather of the smelling than
hearing. (Amer. Nat., iv., Dec. 1870.) Organs of smell in the flies (Chrysopila) and
in the palpi, both labial and maxillary, of Perla were described in the same journal
(Fig. 270). Compare Vom Rath’s account of the organs in the cercopods of Acheta
(Fig. 271); also the singular organ discovered by him on the end of the palpus of
butterflies, in which a number of hair-like rods (sh) are seated on branches of a
common nerve (n, Fig. 272).

49. Forel, however (Recueil Zoologique Suisse, 1887), denies that these
tympanic organs are necessarily ears, and thinks that all insects are deaf, with no
special organs of hearing, but that sounds are heard by their tactile organs, just as
deaf-mutes perceive at a distance the rumbling of a carriage. But he appears to
overlook the fact that many Crustacea, and all shrimps and crabs, as well as many
molluscs, have organs of hearing. The German anatomist Will believes that insects
hear only the stridulation of their own species. Lubbock thinks that bees and ants
are not deaf, but hear sounds so shrill as to be beyond our hearing.

50. Weismann, Die nachembryonale Entwicklung der Musciden. Zeitschr. für

wissen. Zoologie, xiv, p. 196, 1864.

51. Plateau (1877) states that the digestive fluid of insects, as well as of
Arachnids, Crustaceans, and Myriopods, has no analogy with the gastric juice of
vertebrates; it rather resembles the pancreatic sugar of the higher animals. The
acidity quite often observed is only very accessory in character, and not the sign of
a physiological property. “Farther, I have found it in insects; Hoppe-Seyler has
demonstrated in the Crustacea, and I have proved in the spiders, that the ferment
causing the digestion of albuminoids is evidently quite different from the gastric
pepsine of vertebrates; the addition of very feeble quantities of chlorhydric acid, far
from promoting its action, retards or completely arrests it.” (Bull. Acad. roy.
Belgique, 1877, p. 27.)

52. The word grès we translate as the layer of gum. Not sure of the English
equivalent for grès, I applied to Dr. L. O. Howard, U. S. Entomologist, who kindly
answers as follows: “I have consulted Mr. Philip Walker, a silk expert, who writes
me the following paragraph: ‘Grès, as I understand it, is the gum of the silk fibre,
hence the French name for raw silk, grèye, which is in distinction to the silk that
has been boiled out in soap after twisting, or throwing, as it is called. As I
understand it, the silk fibre is composed of the grès and fibroin. The former is
soluble in alkali, like soap water, and the latter is not.’” While Blanc considers the
grès as the product of a special secretion of the wall of the reservoir, Gilson regards
its production as simultaneous with that of the silk or of the fibroin (l.c. 1893, p.
74).

53. On cytological differences in homologous organs. Report 63d meeting of

British Assoc. Adv. Sc. for 1893. 1894. p. 913.

54. See also Giard, Bull. Soc. Ent. France, p. viii, 1894.

55. “The contents of the Malpighian tubules may be examined by crushing the
part in a drop of dilute acetic acid, or in dilute sulphuric acid (10 per cent). In the
first case a cover-slip is placed on the fluid, and the crystals, which consist of
oblique rhombohedrons or derived forms, are usually at once apparent. If
sulphuric acid is used, the fluid must be allowed to evaporate. In this case they are
much more elongated, and usually clustered. The murexide reaction does not give
satisfactory indications with the tubules of the cockroach.” (Miall and Denny, The
cockroach, p. 129, footnote.)

56. “There is a curious analogy between the excretory organs of these insects
and the mesonephros of some vertebrates, where a second, third, etc., generation
of tubules is added to the primitive metameric series. When the embryonic number
of Malpighian vessels persists in insects, the demand for greater excreting surface
is supplied by a lengthening of the individual vessels.”

57. For the mode of adhesion of Cynips eggs, see Adler in Deutsche Ent. Zeits.
1877, p. 320.

58. Mercaptan is a mercury, belonging to a class of compounds analogous to

alcohol, having an offensive garlic odor. Methyl mercaptan is a highly offensive and
volatile liquid.

59. Embryonic or temporary glands, the “pleuropodia” of Wheeler, viz. the

modified first pair of abdominal legs, occur in Œcanthus, Gryllotalpa, Xiphidium,
Stenobothrus, Mantis (occasionally a pair on the second abdominal segment,
Graber); Blatta, Periplaneta, Cicada, Zaitha, Hydrophilus, Acilius, Melolontha,
Meloë, Sialis, Neophylax. (See Wheeler, Appendages of the First Abdominal
Segment, etc., 1890.)

60. These midges owe their phosphorescence to bacteria in their bodies during
disease.

61. Untersuchungen zur Anatomie und Histologie der Tiere, 1884, p. 72.

62. Zelle und Gewebe, 1885, p. 43. (See also our p. 217.)

63. Studien über die Lampyriden, Zeits. für wiss. Zool., xxxvii, 1882. Both
Wielowiejski and M. Wistinghausen have completely disproved the view of
Schultze, that the tracheæ end in star-like cells, where respiration takes place, as
the “star-like cells” are simply net-like expansions of the peritoneal membrane of
the tracheæ.

64. The following summary compiled from Krancher, is translated, with some
minor changes, from Kolbe’s work.

65. Miall and Denny state that in the cockroach the abdominal spiracles are
permanently open, owing to the absence of a valve, but communication with the
tracheal trunk may be cut off at pleasure by an internal occluding apparatus.
 66. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Biene, Zeitschr. wissens. Zoologie, xx, p.
519, 1870.

67. Die Entwicklung der Dipteren im Ei, Zeitschr. wissens. Zoologie, xiii, 1863.

68. Amer. Naturalist, May, 1886, p. 438.

69. Zeitschr. wissens. Zoologie, xl, 1884, Taf. xix, Fig. 8, T.

70. Science, 1893, pp. 44–46.

71. Art. Thorax, Todd’s Cycl. of Anat. and Phys.

72. The mesothoracic stigmata are open in Carabus, Potamophilus, Elmis,

Macronychus, Buprestis, Elater, Lampyris, Lycus, Triphyllus, Eucinetus, Dascillus,
Psephenus, Ergates, Micralymna, and probably many others. The metathoracic
stigmata are open in Lycus and Elmis.

73. In the Hymenoptera the two pairs on the meso- and metathoracic
segments are open in the Aculeata, also in the Siricidæ, among which sometimes
that on the third segment is closed. In Pimpla and Microgaster (fully grown larvæ)
only the mesothoracic stigmata are open.
Palmén adds that most dipterous larvæ are amphipneustic; Cecidomyia, the
Mycetophilidæ, Bibionidæ, and Stratiomys are typically peripneustic. (p. 92.)
Moreover, a single insect, as Sialis, may be apneustic as a larva, peripneustic
as a pupa, and holopneustic in the imago stage.

74. Mr. J. W. Folsom, who has made the accompanying sketch of the nymph of
Euphæa splendens in the Cambridge Museum, finds only seven pairs of gills, there
being no traces of them on segments 1, 9, and 10. A stout trachea, he writes us,
enters the base of each gill, and subdivides into several long branches, which
course along the periphery. Hagen in his original account said there were eight
pairs on segments 1–8 respectively.

75. Harris, Correspondence, p. 226, Pl. III., Fig. 7.

76. Nusbaum’s view has been questioned by Heymons, who, from his studies
on the embryology of the cockroach (Periplaneta and Phyllodromia), Forficula, and
Gryllus, concludes that the ectodermal ends of the sexual outlets owe their origin
to an unpaired median hypodermal invagination, and that it is quite doubtful
whether the ectodermal portions of the sexual passages of insects were ever paired
(p. 104). On the other hand he appears, even throwing out the case of Ephemera, to
have overlooked Nassonow’s discovery of paired outlets in the young of Lepisma.
 77. Acta Acad. German., xxxiii, 1867, No. 2, p. 81. Quoted by Dr. Sharp,
Insecta, p. 142.

78. Journ. Morph., iii, Boston, pp. 299, 300.

79. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xi, pp. 88, 89.

80. In the following general account of the embryology of insects, I have

closely followed the admirable arrangement and description of Korschelt and
Heider, in their Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichte der
wirbellosen Thiere, pp. 764–846, often translating their text literally, though not
omitting to state the results of other writers.

81. Korschelt and Heider state that no cellular embryonal membranes are
present in Synaptera, Uljanin finding none in the Podurids. In the embryo of
Isotoma walkerii we, however, observed a membrane which we compared to the
larval skin of many Crustacea, and both Sommer and Lemoine have detected in
eggs of the same group a cuticular larval skin which is provided with spines for
rupturing the chorion. The amnion is also wanting in Proctotrupids (Ayers), and is
rudimental in Muscidæ (Kowalevsky, Graber), in viviparous Cecidomyidæ,
according to Metschnikoff, who also states that in certain ants of Madeira the
envelopes are represented only by a small mass of cells in the dorsal region.

82. In Diptera the stomodæum may be dorsal, Dr. Pratt tells us.

83. Will (Aphis) and also Cholodkowsky’s statement (Blatta), as well as

Balfour and Schimkewitch’s statements that the brain is at first disconnected from
the ventral cord, are apparently erroneous.

84. The description perhaps applies not only to the cockroaches, but, as seen
from the similar but fragmentary notices of Heider and of Wheeler on the
Coleoptera, may be common to insects in general.

85. Report on the Rocky Mountain locust, etc. Ninth Annual Report U. S.
Geol. and Geogr. Survey of the Territories for 1875, pp. 633, 634.

86. Orthoptera Europæa, 1853, p. 37.

87. In his Für Darwin (1863), Fritz Müller gives his reasons for the opinion
that the so-called “complete metamorphosis” of insects was not inherited from the
primitive ancestor of all insects, but acquired at a later period.

88. For further details see the 1st Report of the U. S. Entomological
Commission, 1878, pp. 279–281.

89. See Köppen ueber die Heuschrecken in Südrussland, 1862, pp. 22, 23.
 90. In Samouelle’s The Entomologist’s Useful Compendium, 1819. See
Westwood’s Class. Insects, i, p. 2; Leach’s Ametabolia comprised the Thysanura
(Synaptera) and the lice.

91. From the Greek μανός, scanty; μεταβολή, change.

92. Greek, ἤρεμα, quiet; μεταβολή, change.

93. At the same date (March, 1869) we independently suggested that the
insects had originated from some form like the hexapodous young of Pauropus and
Podura. In November, 1870, we suggested that the Thysanura and the hexapodous
Leptus may have descended from some Peripatus-like worm. Afterwards (1871) we
proposed for the ancestral form the term leptiform, which was later abandoned for
Brauer’s term Campodea-form.

94. Amer. Naturalist, i, p. 85, 1867.

95. First Rep. U. S. Ent. Commission, p. 281–283.

96. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, iii, p. xv. See also Ashton, R. J., Trans. Ent. Soc.
London, iii, 1841–43, pp. 157–159.

97. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., x, 1866, p. 283.

98. See Max Braun’s article entitled Ueber die histologischen Vorgange bei der
Hautung von Astacus fluviatilis, with a full bibliography, in Semper’s Arbeiten aus
dem Zool. zoot. Institut in Würzburg, ii, pp. 121–166. Also Semper’s Animal Life, p.
20. Trouvelot also discovered the moulting fluid. (Amer. Nat., i, p. 37.)

99. American Naturalist, xvii, May, 1883, pp. 547, 548.

100. Le Pelletier. A. M. L., Bulletin de la Société Philomathique, Paris, April,

1813.

101. Heineken, Carl. Observations on the reproduction of the members in

spiders and insects. (Zool. Journ., 1829, vi, pp. 422–432.)

102. Bees and Bee-keeping, pp. 21, 22.

103. Butterflies, their structure, changes, and life-histories. New York, 1881,
pp. 37–42. Butterflies of the Eastern United States and Canada, 1888, 1889. Also,
Frail children of the air, 1895, pp. 232, 233 a. Dr. Chapman, however, finds that
this piece in micropupæ has no connection whatever with the head or eye, but
belongs rather with the prothoracic segment. (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1893, p.
102.) We have been able to confirm his statements, but still this piece is peculiar to
the pupal state.
 104. Rep. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr., 1879, pp. 228, 229, Pl. IV, Fig. 4.

105. Monograph of bombycine moths, Pt. I, 1897. Figs. 24, 28, 29, 33, 34, 40,
77.

106. Amer. Naturalist, xii, pp. 379–383.

107. Hybocampa milhauseni, Dr. Chapman tells me, has a pupal spine
(imperfectly present in Cerura) with which it cuts out a lid of the cocoon.

108. Riley’s Report for 1892, p. 203.

109. Philosophy of the pupation of butterflies, and particularly of

Nymphalidæ, by Charles V. Riley. (Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, xxviii,
Saratoga Meeting, August, 1880, pp. 455–463.)

110. The homology of the suranal plate of the larva with the cremaster of the
pupa, established by Riley in 1880, is also affirmed by Jackson (1888) and by
Poulton, and for some years we have been satisfied that this is the correct view;
Professor Hatchett-Jackson discovered it, he states, in 1876.

111. In his remarkable studies on the morphology of the Lepidoptera,

Professor W. Hatchett-Jackson states his belief that Riley’s homology of the
sustentors with the soles or plantæ of the anal prolegs, and the sustentor ridges
with their limbs, is wrong, and that the eminences on either side the anal furrow,
or the “anal prominences,” as they are termed by Riley, represent the prolegs, and
that the sustentor ridges and sustentors are probably peculiar developments of the
body of the 10th somite, found only in some Lepidoptera. From our examination of
pupa of different families of moths, we are satisfied that Jackson’s view is the
correct one. We have not found the sustentors and their ridges in the pupæ of the
more generalized moths, but the vestiges of the anal legs are almost invariably
present, their absence in the pupa of Nola and Harrisina being noteworthy.

112. We copy from Kirby and Spence their abstract of Herold’s conclusions:
“The successive skins of the caterpillar, the pupa-case, the future butterfly, and its
parts or organs, except those of sex, which he discovered in the newly excluded
larva, do not preëxist as germs, but are formed successively from the rete
mucosum, which itself is formed anew upon every change of skin, from what he
denominates the blood, or the chyle after it has passed through the pores of the
intestinal canal into the general cavity of the body, where, being oxygenated by the
air-vessels, it performs the nutritive functions of blood. He attributes these
formations to a vis formatrix (bildende Kraft).
“The caul or epiploon (fett-masse), the corps graisseux of Réaumur, etc.,
which he supposes to be formed from the superfluous blood, he allows, with most
physiologists, to be stored up in the larva, that in the pupa state it may serve for the
development of the imago. But he differs from them in asserting that in this state it
is destined to two distinct purposes: first, for the production of the muscles of the
butterfly, which he affirms are generated from it in the shape of slender bundles of
fibres; and, secondly, for the development and nutrition of the organs formed in
the larva, to effect which, he says, it is dissolved again into the mass of blood, and
being oxygenated by the air-vessels, becomes fit for nutrition, whence the epiploon
appears to be a kind of concrete chyle.” (Entwickelungsgeschichte der
Schmetterlinge, pp. 12–27.) It seems that Herold was right in deriving the pupa
and imago from the hypodermis (his rete mucosum), but wrong in denying that the
germs did not preëxist in the young caterpillar, and wrong in supposing that the
latter originated from the blood, also in supposing that the muscles owe their
origin to the fat-body. Swammerdam, and also Kirby and Spence, were correct in
supposing that the imago arose from “germs” in the larva, though wrong in
adopting the “emboîtement” theory.

113. In the regions where the imaginal buds are not present (dorsal aspect of
the prothorax, and abdomen), the epithelium (hypodermis) may proliferate
independently of these buds.

114. We shall translate portions and, when the text allows, make an abstract of
parts of Gonin’s clear and excellent account, often using his own words.

115. C. Herbert Hurst, The Pupal Stages of Culex.

116. Lowne on the Blow-fly, new edit., pp. 2, 41, Fig. 7.

117. Miall, Natural History of Aquatic Insects, pp. 136–138. Also Trans. Linn.
Soc. London, V, Sept., 1892.

118. This account is translated from Korschelt and Heider, with some
omissions and slight changes.

119. Westwood in his excellent account of this group remarks: “Hence, as well
as from the account given by Jurine, it is evident that the pupa of the Stylops is
enclosed in a distinct skin, and is also in that state enveloped by the skin of the
larva, contrary to the suggestion of Mr. Kelly.” (Class. Insects, II. 297.) This is all
we know about the supernumerary larval stages.

120. Some facts towards a life history of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. Annals and
Magazine of Natural History for October, 1870.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
P. 316, changed “abdominal cells” to “absorbent cells”.
Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in
spelling.
Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as
printed.
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