Motivation

Why do we behave the way we do?

1. Instinct theory –___________________________________________________________________________________
Example – spider creating a web
2. Drive-reduction theory –___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Example – we get hungry, we are motivated to eat
3. Incentive theory – _________________________________________________________________________________
Example – the lure of money entices us to go to work every day.
4. Optimum Arousal Theory – _________________________________________________________________________
Example – Some people like to rock climb because it is exciting.
5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs- _______________________________________________________________________
Example- You like to build things, so you want to become an engineer

* Why do students go to college? List at least 5 reasons and then classify them as drive-reduction (DR), incentive (I), optimum
arousal (OA), or self-actualization (SA).

For the chart below, identify the theory that best explains the behavior, and then give an explanation!

Behavior Theory Explanation

A human infant rooting
to find the mother’s
nipple.
Getting a glass of water
when you are thirsty.
Going for a walk when
you are worried or
restless.
Reading a book on a
long car ride
Studying hard to pass
an exam.
Crying when hurt or
upset.
Developing a lasting,
intimate relationship.

Motivation can be extrinsic or intrinsic:

Extrinsic motivation – _____________________________________________________________________ (Example – Studying
for a test because you will be grounded if you don’t bring up your grades)
Intrinsic motivation – _______________________________________________________________________effective (Example –
Studying for a test because the information is interesting or because you want to be knowledgeable)
Hunger
The Physiology of Hunger
Stomach fullness
When stomach muscles are stretched (stomach is full), a message is sent to brain to inhibit further eating.

Body Chemistry – chemicals in our body affect our desire to eat (ones in bold are on your test!)
Glucose – when blood glucose drops, we feel hungry
Insulin – an increase in insulin causes a drop in blood glucose. Thus, we feel hungry when insulin increases.
Leptin – hormone secreted by bloated fat cells that decreases hunger and increases activity (leptin lowers hunger)
Neuropeptide Y – hormone secreted by the hypothalamus that increases drive to eat (particularly carbohydrates)
Ghrelin – hormone secreted by organs of the digestive tract that stimulates appetite.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) – a hormone secreted as the food enters the small intestine from the stomach that suppresses appetite. In
some bulimics, CCK release is inhibited, thus accounting for binge-eating.
Norepinephrine – a hormone that triggers the fight-or-flight response, leading to suppression of appetite.
Orexin – a hormone secreted by the hypothalamus that increases hunger.
Serotonin – Serotonin is derived from carbohydrates in your diet. When serotonin levels are low (as in depression), your hunger
increases (especially for carbohydrates). Some people believe that our cravings for sweet foods (carbs) following disappointment is
an attempt to raise serotonin levels and make ourselves feel better. For some people, antidepressants such as SSRI’s, which raise
serotonin levels, diminishes their urge to overeat.

Fill in the summary chart with the information above: MAKE SURE TO INDICATE IF IT IS INCREASED OR
DECREASED IF NECESSARY!! You will use ALL chemicals for the chart
Suppress Appetite Stimulate Appetite

The Brain – Brain structures play a role in our desire to eat

Hypothalamus - controls drive to eat –
- Lateral hypothalamus (sides of hypothalamus) – _________________________________________________
o Destruction of LH causes rats to have no interest in food, even when starving
- Ventromedial hypothalamus (lower middle part) – ______________________________________________________.
o Destruction of VMH causes rats to 1) eat more and 2) metabolize food more efficiently. This combination leads to
a very fat mouse.
* Memory Aids  “V” looks like an arrow pointing down. Stimulation of ventromedial hypothalamus DECREASES hunger.
L stands for “lick your lips,” which you do when hungry. Stimulation of lateral hypothalamus INCREASES hunger.

Set-point theory
Set point – the point at which an individual’s “weigh thermostat” is supposedly set. What happens physically in the body when our
weight gets above our set point? _____________________________________________________________________________.
What about when it drops below our set point? _________________________________________________________________.

Our set point is determined both by genetics and body composition. Fat cells are much more efficient with food than muscle cells,
and therefore, people with little muscle find that their bodies do not burn food as easily. This is why exercise (which increases
muscle mass) is necessary for a diet to be successful. Without exercise, our set point remains the same and our body resists weight
loss.
* Based on your own self-awareness, what would you guess is your set point in terms of weight?_________________________
(if you do not wish to share, please omit this answer)

Unfortunately, once we have accumulated fat, it is very hard to get rid of it.
1. Fat cells shrink during dieting, but do not disappear.
2. Fat cells have low metabolic rates and require less food to maintain than other types of tissue.
Genetics
- Underlying many of the physiological aspects of hunger is genetics.
- Twin and adoption studies confirm that body weight is partially genetic.

The Psychology of Hunger

Obesity is increasing in developed countries all over the world. This cannot be explained by genetics.

External Cues –
1) Overweight people are more likely to respond to external cues to eat rather than internal cues (signals from body that we
are hungry)
2) External cues include: availability of food, time schedules for eating, eating out of habit, eating when bored or stressed,
eating because others are eating.
3) External cues can affect our body chemistry. Insulin levels actually increase at the sight and smell of delicious food.
Internal Cues- when we physically feel hungry
Are you affected more by external or internal hunger cues? Explain or give examples:____________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Taste Preference – (see pages 477-78)

1) Carbohydrates increase ____________________ levels, making us feel calm.
2) TRUE or FALSE: (circle one) Preference for fat, sweet, and salty foods are genetic and universal
3) We naturally dislike foods that are unfamiliar (probably an adaptive strategy to avoid toxic substances) – what is this fear
called? _______________________

Obesity and Weight Control

Dangers of obesity:
1. Physical – increased risk of ____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________(pg 582)
2. Psychological – people tend to stereotype obese people as ____________________________________________ (page 583);
victims of ridicule and job discrimination.

Hints for Losing Weight

1. Minimize exposure to external food cues.
2. Exercise to boost your metabolism.
3. Set realistic goals.
4. Change the type of food you eat – eat less fat and sugar
5. Don’t starve yourself all day and eat one big meal at night
6. If you have a lapse on your diet, don’t assume that you’ve blown it for good and binge.

Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa – _____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________(page 478)
Associated medical problems:
1. lack of menstrual periods (amenorrhea) 7. dizziness and headaches
2. lack of energy 8. lanugo (fine hair growth)
3. feeling cold all the time 9. low blood pressure
4. dry, yellowish skin 10. osteoporosis
5. constipation 11. cardiac arrest (2-10% die from disease)
6. insomnia or restlessness

Bulimia nervosa – _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Associated medical problems
1. Bloating or swelling of 3. Tooth decay and mouth 6. Swollen cheek and salivary
hands and feet sores glands
2. Dizziness 4. Chronic sore throat 7. Ruptured stomac
5. Acid reflux 8. Constipation
 9. Cardiac arrhythmias 10. Metabolic deficiencies

* Check your understanding of the effects of various factors that influence hunger by indicating whether hunger would tend to
increase (I) or decrease (D) in each of the situations described below.
____1. The ventromedial hypothalamus of a rat’s brain is destroyed by lesioning.
____2. The glucose level in Marlene’s bloodstream decreases.
____3. Norman, who is not diabetic, receives an injection of insulin.
____4. You’re watch has broken, but the clock on the wall says its an hour past your usual dinnertime.
____5. Brownies are baking in the oven and the smell permeates the house.
____6. A rat is given an injection of leptin.
____7. A rat is given an injection of neuropeptide Y.