Unit-IV

Theory of Relativity
Contents
• Introduction, Frame of reference, Galilean transformation eqs,
• Michelson-Morley experiment, 1887
• Postulates of special theory of relativity,
• Shortcomings in Galilean transformation
• Lorentz transformations equations 1895
• Length contraction, Time dilation, Experimental verification of
time dilation, Relativistic addition of velocities, Simultaneity of
two events,Variation of mass with velocity
• Mass energy relation, 1905, Numerical
Any Moving body (e.g. rocket, ball or atom etc.) - Object
A reference point w.r.t. which the object is moving - System
S- frame S΄- frame
y y΄
𝓋

x x΄
System Object

z z΄

Object’s frame is a moving frame as S′- frame

System’s frame is a stationary frame as S- frame
 Theory of relativity is divided into

Special theory of relativity

•deals with Object & System which are either moving at constant
speed or at rest w.r.t. one another.
•Newton΄s laws are valid
General theory of relativity
•deals with Object & System which are accelerated or decelerated
w.r.t. one another.
•Newton΄s laws are not valid
Inertial frame of reference Non-Inertial frame of reference

A reference frame in which a A reference frame in which a

particle obeys Newton’s law particle appears to be either
of inertia i.e. it remains in its accelerating or decelerating
state of rest or moving with without a net force acting on it. A
constant velocity if no force particle observed from this frame
acts on it. will not obey Newton΄s first law
Transformation equations transforms the measurements of
space & time from one inertial frame of reference to another.
(X , Y , Z , t)
(X΄,Y΄,Z΄, t΄)

Observer Event
sitting happening

Let an event is happening in S΄ frame at point P at any time t΄ Let

space and time coordinates of event w.r.t to an observer in S & S΄
frame are (x, y, z, t) & (x΄,y΄,z΄, t΄) respectively.
Under Galilean transformation,
Transformation of “Velocity” of a particle is not invariant
S S΄
y y΄ 𝓋

x x΄

z z΄
Galilean Invariance: some quantities like mass, length, time,
acceleration..etc. of particle do not change under Galilean
transformation. “Newton’s laws of motion are invariant under
Galilean transformation”
 Ether hypothesis for absolute frame
It was assumed that
“all bodies in the universe including our planet earth
move freely through a hypothetical medium called ether”.

“Ether” was supposed to be a

massless,
invisible,
perfectly transparent &
perfectly non-resistive medium
at absolute rest.
 S- frame S΄- frame
y y΄ 𝓋

Ether x Earth x΄

z z΄

If ether is at rest then for any material body moving through it will
be a relative motion b/n the two. As earth moves around the Sun in
its orbit with very high velocity 𝓋 It can be assumed that earth
passes through stationary ether with speed 𝓋, consequently the
absolute motion of moving body can be measured.
Michelson & Morley’s Interferometer Experiment (1887)
Is there any existence of absolute frame of reference ?
Aim:
Michelson & Morley performed an experiment to detect for any
existence of absolute frame of reference. In their experiment they
compared the speed of light in two perpendicular directions in an
attempt to detect relative motion of earth through stationary ether.
Experiment: A monochromatic beam of light was incidents on a
semi silvered glass plate P, placed at 45° to incident beam. At P the
ray is partly reflected & partly transmitted as Ray1 & Ray2 resptly.
 Ray 1

C
P Ray 2 P′
Velocity of light
through Ether

Assuming that the direction of motion of earth

coincides with the direction of incident beam of light.
 Following the hypothetical Ether , the whole experimental setup
was moving w.r.t. the Ether (since the apparatus was placed on
moving Earth), therefore it was expected that the two rays should
take different time to return back to P.
 The motion of Earth through Ether can be determined by
measuring the time difference ‘dt’ between two journeys (P to M1
& back) & (P to M2 & back) by Ray1 & Ray2 respectively.
 A1
In Transverse journey (P to M1 & back)
Ray1 transversely strikes the mirror at A1 ct

& reflected back at P. Let ‘t’ be the time

d
taken in the journey from P to A1 X
P′

B1
(Note: If there is any relative motion b/n ether & earth, some shift in the
fringe system will be observed, otherwise there will not be any fringe shift)
𝒸
However, to be able to notice any (if any)
shift in the fringe due to moving earth, the Ray
whole apparatus was rotated by 90°. By 1

doing so the path of two rays is Ray 2

interchanged.
Significance of the “Null result”
It suggests that there is no relative motion b/n Earth & Ether. The
motion of earth through “stationary ether” is a meaningless concept.
⇒ There is No absolute frame of reference.
⇒ The velocity of light is constant in all directions.
The failure of Michelson Morley experiment eventually led to the
Postulates of Einstein’s special theory of relativity
Postulates of Einstein’s special theory of relativity
I. Absence of universal frame of reference
“The fundamental laws of Physics have same form in all inertial
frames of reference”.
II. Constancy of speed of light “The speed of light in vacuum
is a universal constant, it has the same value in all inertial
frames of reference, regardless of their relative motion”.
For the microscopic world where particle’s velocities are
enormously high, Galilean transformation equations need to be
modified. Lorentz developed the transformation equations for fast
moving particles by directly using the Einstein’s Postulates.
Lorentz’s transformation equations for the transformation of
coordinates from S to S΄ frame
Lorentz transformation (in 1-D) using Einstein’s Postulates

𝓍
Let at any later time, pulse of light reaches point P. The coordinates
at pt. P w.r.t. S & S΄ frame respectively are (x, y, z, t) & (x΄,y΄,z΄,t΄)
• Following the II-Postulate to find the vlue of k,
“the constancy of speed of light in any frame of reference”. Thus if
pulse of light travels with same velocity i.e. 𝒸 in both frames,
then at later time its position in frame S & S΄ is given by
Thus Lorentz’s transformation equations for the transformation of
coordinates from S to S΄ frame are as follows:
Lorentz Inverse Transformation equations (in 1D) for
transformation of coordinates from S΄ to S frame are:
Consequences of Lorentz transformations are propositions that

• Length Contraction,
objects appear to contract in the direction of motion
• Time dilation,
rate of a moving clock seems to decrease
• Relativistic addition of velocities,
maximum velocity attainable in the universe is that of light
• Simultaneity of two events
• Relativistic variation of Mass with velocity
 Observer
in
stationary ℓ∘

Rod placed
in moving frame
𝓋 = 𝒸 and 𝓋 > 𝒸 ; Impossible
 ∆t ∆t0 =t'2−t'1
Observer Event happening
in in
Stationary moving frame
Time duration of event from Lab frame (stationary frame )
∆t=t2 −t1
Thus a meson in its life time in Lab frame can travel a distance of
d =𝓋∆t = 2.99×108 ×3.17×10−5= 9.5 km.
By the effect of time dilation from Lorentz transformation, in Lab
frame on Earth, the life time of μ-meson ∆t, appears to be
lengthened. Hence, despite their brief life time it is possible for
mesons to reach the Earth from high altitude.
Simultaneity of two events (in 1-D)
Events that seems to take place simultaneously to one observer
may not be simultaneous to another observer in relative motion
S S΄
y y΄
𝓋
t1 t2
x1 x2

O x O' x΄
Simultaneous
Events
z z΄
Relativistic addition of velocities (1-D)

S- frame S΄- frame

y y΄
𝓋

x x΄
System Object
z z΄
Earth is S-frame Spaceship is S'-frame
𝔂 𝔂΄

ux ux΄ = 𝒸

O 𝔁 O΄ 𝔁΄

𝔃 𝔃΄
• Addition of velocity of light to the velocity of light reproduces
the velocity of light.
𝔂 𝔂΄

ux ux΄ = 𝒸
O 𝔁 O΄ 𝔁΄

𝔃 𝔃΄
• If one object moves with velocity of light w.r.t. other i.e. 𝓋 = 𝒸
then their relative velocity is always 𝒸, whatever may be the
velocity of other.
𝔂΄
𝔂

𝔁 O΄ 𝔁΄
O
𝔃΄
𝔃
The law of conservation of total relativistic energy
In Relativistic mechanics, Einstein’s mass-energy relation give rise
to combined law of conservation of mass & energy
“ [Total relativistic Energy]before= [Total relativistic Energy]after
Physical significance of mass energy relation
During the formation of a nucleus, sum of the mass of protons &
neutrons in a nucleus is greater than the total mass of Nucleons.
Pair production When a photon of energy ≥ 1.02 MeV comes
near an atomic nucleus, it disappears & a pair of electron (ℯ−) and
positron (ℯ+) is created, without violating the conservation laws.
γ + XNucleus ⟶ YNucleus + ℯ+ + ℯ−
Energy ⟶Mass
ℯ+ (0.51MeV)
γ
ℯ− (0.51MeV)

For pair production to happen a photon of at least 1.02 MeV

energy is required, since the rest mass energy of electron &
positron is 0.51Mev. Any additional photon energy will appear as
K.E of electron, positron & recoil nucleus.
Pair annihilation When electron & positron encounter each
other under the influence of their opposite electric charges, they
annihilate each other & an equivalent amount of energy is
produced in the form of γ-rays photon. Their lost mass is
converted into energy of 1.02 MeV, in the form of γ-rays photons.
ℯ+ + ℯ− ⟶ γ + γ
Mass disappears ⟶ Energy is released
Note: Both these processes are in accordance with the law of
conservation of momentum, charge & mass-energy relation. The
process of pair production & pair annihilation also occurs in other
particle-antiparticle pairs such as proton-antiproton etc.
This is the Relativistic relation for total energy that works well for
‘mass particle’ as well as ‘massless particle’