ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Sarah for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Organisms are classified into groups by the features they

1. Characteristics and share.
Species: a group of organisms that can reproduce to
Classification of Living produce fertile offspring.
Sequence of Classification: Kingdom → Phylum →
Organisms Classes → Orders → Families → Genus → Species.
Acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Good Soup
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms The Binomial Nomenclature
The Age-Old Acronym: MRS GREN The Binomial System of Naming Species is an
internationally agreed system in which an organism's
scientific name is comprised of two parts, namely, the
genus and species.
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalised,
and the species are not.
While typing the species is italicized and when writing it
is underlined
The classification of organisms helps show the
evolutionary relationships between them.
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help
classify organisms.
The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely the two
Movement: an action by an organism or part of an organisms are related.
organism causing a change of position or place
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break
down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes
in the internal or external environment
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the
same kind of organism
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth,
and development Dichotomous Keys

1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification

System
Sequence of Classification

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Dichotomous Keys use visible features to classify Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
another option until the organism is narrowed down to their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
its genus and species. chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic and
saprotrophic organisms with cell walls not made of
cellulose, spread by spreading spores in
moist/dark/warm environments. Most have hyphae and
mycelium in structure. Ex: yeast, mushrooms.
Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true
nucleus and mitochondria. Many also have plasmids
(important for Genetic Engineering). Ex: E.coli,
Salmonella.
Protist or Protoctist: Single-celled organism with a
nucleus. Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba,
seaweed.

1.3. Features of Organisms 1.4. Vertebrates

The Five Kingdoms

| Types of Vertebrates | Features | |----|----| | Mammals |

Fur on the skin, External ears (pinna), Internal fertilisation,
Mammary Glands | | Reptiles | Thick, dry, scaly skin, Usually
four legs, Internal fertilisation, Soft Shelled Eggs | | Fish |
Wet scales, Streamlined body shape, External fertilisation,
and soft eggs | | Amphibians | Smooth, moist skin, External
fertilisation, and soft eggs, Gills, & Lungs can live on land and
water. Most have four legs. | | Birds | Feathers on the body
and scales on legs, Constant internal body temperature,
Hard eggs, Internal fertilisation, birth through eggs |

1.5. Arthropods
Invertebrates: Organisms that do not have a backbone.
All arthropods have three standard features:

1. Exoskeleton
2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
| Type of Arthropod | Number of Legs | |----|----| | Insects |
6 | | Arachnids | 8 | | Crustaceans | >10 | | Myriapods | Viruses are not part of any classification system because
>20 | they are not considered living things.
They do not carry out the seven life processes for
themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s
1.6. Classification of Plants metabolic pathways to make multiple copies of
themselves.
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA
and flowering plants. or DNA) inside a protein coat.
Ferns: Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
Do not produce flowers/seeds ribosomes)
They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves
Reproduce by spores
Flowering plants:
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Reproduce sexually through flowers and seeds
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower

| Monocotyledons | Dicotyledons | |----|----| | One

cotyledon/One-seed leaf | Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf | |
Parallel veins | Branching veins | | Long Narrow Leaf |
Broad leaves | | The Number of Petals is a Multiple of 3 |
The Number of Petals is a Multiple of 4 or 5 | | Scattered
Vascular Bundles | Ringed Vascular Bundles |

Tip: Differentiating monocotyledons and

dicotyledons comes up frequently in Multiple
2. Organisation of the
Choice Questions Organism
1.7. Viruses 2.1. Cell Structure

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

All living things are made of cells. One example of a prokaryote is bacteria.
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall made of
All typical eukaryotic cells (multicellular) have: peptidoglycan, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes,
Cell Membrane: controls movement in and out of and plasmids.
cells It lacks a nucleus and is represented by a circular
Cytoplasm: where chemical/metabolic reactions take chromosome of DNA.
place Plasmids are small, circular rings of DNA in the
Nucleus: contains DNA, stores genetic information cytoplasm with extra genes outside the chromosomal
and controls the activity of the cell DNA.
Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Ribosome: allows protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it
looks rough under the microscope.
A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all the above.
Plant cells especially also have:
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
Cell Wall: rigid to hold the shape of the cell,
strengthens the cell
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs
light energy for photosynthesis
A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has
everything above.
Syllabus 2.1.3: You must be able to identify
Prokaryotes the cell structures in diagrams and images of
plant, animal and bacterial cells
Prokaryotes (Unicellular) DO NOT have mitochondria and a
true nucleus. 2.2. Levels of Organisation
The division of existing cells produces new cells.

Key Terms

Cells: Building Blocks of Life

Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
together to perform a shared function
Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a
specific function
Organ system: Group of organs with related functions
working together to perform body functions.
Organism: A human

Specialised Cells
Specialised Cells have Specific Functions.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
| Specialised Cells | Specific Function | Location of Cell | |--- Diffusion: Net movement of particles down the
-|----|----| | Ciliated cells | Movement of mucus in the concentration gradient (high → low) as a result of their
trachea and bronchi | Respiratory Tract, Fallopian Tube, random movement.
Testes | | Root Hair cells | Absorption | Roots | | Palisade
Mesophyll cell | Photosynthesis | Leaf Cells | | Neurones |
Conduction of electrical impulses | Everywhere in an
organism | | Red Blood cells | Transport of oxygen |
Everywhere in an organism | | Sperm and Egg cells/ovum
(gametes) | For reproduction | In their respective gonads |

2.3. Magnification
The general formula is represented in this way:
$$ Magnification = \frac{\text{size of drawing}}{\text{size of
specimen}} = \frac{\text{image}}{\text{actual}} = \frac{I}{A}
$$
Other Forms in Magnification Formula Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
the random movement of molecules and ions.
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as
Image size = magnification x actual size without it, molecules that are needed for life, (Such as
glucose and oxygen for respiration) would not be able to
Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)
get to the places they are required.
1cm = 10mm Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
1mm = 1000μm through the cell membrane.
1μm = 0.001mm
Factors that influence diffusion (Passive Transport)
Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)
Concentration gradient
Tip: This comes out frequently in all three Temperature
papers Surface area to volume ratio
Distance

3. Movement Into and Out of 3.2. Osmosis

Cells The role of water acts as a solvent in organisms to aid
with digestion, excretion, and transport.
3.1. Diffusion Knowing the definition of Diffusion, Osmosis and
Active Transport is COMPULSORY!
The cell membrane is partially permeable, allowing small
molecules (like water) through but not larger molecules.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region
of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of Dialysis Tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living,
lower water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially permeable membrane made from cellulose.
partially permeable membrane. Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large
molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller
molecules (such as glucose and water) to pass through
by diffusion and osmosis.

| Conc. of Solute (In-Cell) | Conc. of Solute (Outside-Cell) |

Condition of the Cell | |----|----|----| | Low | High | Cell
Shrinks (Flaccid/Hypertonic) | | Same | Same | No Change
(Isotonic) | | High | Low | Turgid/Hypotonic |

In Animals
Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it 3.3. Active Transport
to burst (cell lysis) because it has too much water and
no cell wall. Active Transport: The movement of particles through a cell
membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher
In Plants concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient)
uses energy from respiration.
Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the
cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up. The cell
wall can withstand the higher turgor pressure.
Decreasing solute concentration inside the cell causes
the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole
to get smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from
the cell wall.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.

Dialysis Tubing Experiment

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
| Test for: | Solution | Process | Positive Result | Negative
Carrier Proteins or Protein Carriers are also used Result | |----|----|----|----|----| | Reducing Sugars | Benedict
during active transport. Solution | Add Benedict solution into a beaker and Heat Up
to 70-80°C | Brick Red | Blue | | Starch | Iodine Solution |
Add Iodine solution to the specimen | Blue-Black | Brown |
| Protein | Biuret Solution | Add Biuret solution to the
sample | Purple/Violet | Blue | | Fats (Physical test) |
Ethanol | Add ethanol to the sample and shake with an
equal volume of water. | Cloudy Emulsion | N/A | | Vitamin
C | DCPIP | Add DCPIP solution to the sample | Colourless |
Blue |

It is embedded in the cell membrane, where it picks up

specific molecules and moves them through the
membrane against their concentration gradient.
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by
root hair cells.
Some particles are too large to cross a membrane by
diffusion or active transport. A few very specialised cells
have developed a method for taking up these particles;
the particles are engulfed by the cell surface membrane 4.3. Structure of a DNA
flowing around them. This process of phagocytosis is
used by white blood cells.

4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and Oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})
| Smaller molecules | Larger molecules | |----|----| | Simple
sugars | Starch, glycogen and cellulose | | Fatty acids and
glycerol | Fats and oils | | Amino acids | Proteins |

4.2. Food Tests

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA

DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.

Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to

Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly react, complementary to the active site.
coiled DNA Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction
Two strands coiled together to form a double helix Different sequences of amino acids may lead to varying
Each strand contains chemicals called Bases shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences
Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases (temperature/pH) may be deferred in their function.
The bases always pair up in the same way:
A and T
C and G 5.2. Temperature on Enzymes
You do NOT need to know the names of the DNA bases
for this syllabus. Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the
temperature at which they work best. In animals and
humans, the fastest reaction ≈ is at 37 °C.
5. Enzymes When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, and frequently collide.
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to
5.1. Enzymes bind to active sites.
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
General Characteristics of an Enzyme too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape
and no longer binding with a substrate.
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of reaction When the temperature is too low, there is not enough
and is not used up itself. kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly.
Biological Catalyst: A living substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
Enzymes: Specific proteins involved in all metabolic 5.3. pH on Enzymes
reactions, functioning as biological catalysts.
Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a Enzymes are sensitive to pH.
reaction to take place. Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an
It is essential in all living organisms for sustaining life. alkaline.
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH.
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused
If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken,
Lock and Key Model (Hypothesis) denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the
substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs.
Pepsin is used in acidic conditions, Amylase is used in
neutral conditions, and trypsin is used in alkaline
conditions.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme

Activity
| Effect of Temperature | Effect of pH | |----|----| |

$$ Carbon Dioxide + Water \xrightarrow{light + chlorophyll}

Glucose + Oxygen $$
$$ 6CO_2 + 6H_2O\xrightarrow{light +
cholorophyll}C_6H_{12}O_6+6O_2 $$

Only EXTENDED Students must know the Balanced

Chemical Equation
| The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of
a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
Chlorophyll is a green pigment that traps light energy
and converts it into chemical energy to form
carbohydrates and their subsequent storage.
Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
cell walls, and making proteins and sugars.

Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in

Photosynthesis

starch as an energy store

cellulose to build cell walls
glucose used in respiration to provide energy
| sucrose for transport in the phloem

6.2. Mineral Requirements

6. Plant Nutrition
| Nitrate ions | Magnesium ions | |----|----| | Making amino
6.1. Photosynthesis acids | Making chlorophyll | | Deficiency: small plant due to
slow/stunted growth | Deficiency: The plant lacks
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow. |
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light. Tip! You need to know the purpose of these
required nutrients.

6.3. Investigation of Chlorophyll

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)

leaves. 6.5. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness Concentration
for about 48 hours.
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days. Take two de-starched potted plants.
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration B.
by ethanol. Inside A, keep $NaHCO_3$ (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract produces $CO_2$.
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation Inside B, keep $NaOH$ (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs
Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf $CO_2$.
The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight
starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, for at least 6 hours
it will remain brown.
The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
test
Hydrogencarbonate indicator: measures the carbon
dioxide concentration

6.4. Investigation of Light Intensity

NOTE: This type of question is famous in IGCSE Biology
Paper 2.

De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48

hours
Place a stencil over part of a leaf
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
Remove the stencil and test for starch Key: PMROY, purple being the lowest carbon dioxide
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue- concentration, and yellow the highest.
black
-ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain
brown 6.6. Limiting Factors
Limiting Factors: something present in the environment
(Temperature, Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Light
Intensity) in such short supply that it restricts life processes.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

6.8. Adaptations of Leaf Structure for

Photosynthesis
Here is a table of different adaptations of the specific leaf
structure helping towards photosynthesis.
| Adaptation | Functions | |----|----| | Large Surface Area
6.7. Leaf Structure of Leaf | Increase surface area for diffusion of carbon
dioxide and absorption of light for photosynthesis. | | Thin |
Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse quickly into the palisade
and are thin. mesophyll cells | | Chlorophyll | Absorb light energy so
| Structure | Function | |----|----| | Waxy Cuticle | A photosynthesis can take place. | | Network of Veins | Allow
waterproof waxy layer that prevents water loss from the top efficient transport of water and mineral ions throughout the
of the leaf | | Upper & Lower Epidermis | Thin and plant | | Epidermis is thin | Allow more light to reach the
transparent to allow light to enter the palisade mesophyll palisade mesophyll cells | | Stomata/Stoma | Allow oxygen
cells | | Palisade Mesophyll Cells | Found at the top of the and carbon dioxide to continuously diffuse in and out of
cell and contains the MOST chloroplasts that absorb stomata |
sunlight for photosynthesis. | | Spongy Mesophyll Cells |
Irregularly shaped cells create air spaces to allow the
gaseous exchange to take place; do not contain many
7. Human Nutrition
chloroplasts | | Vascular Bundle | Made up of xylem and
phloem | | Xylem | A tissue vessel that transports water and 7.1. Diet
mineral ions | | Phloem | A tissue vessel that transports
sucrose and amino acids | | Stomata/Stoma | Little holes Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of
that open and close to allow the gaseous exchange to occur carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
| | Guard Cells | Control the opening and closing of stomata to maintain good health and metabolism.
|
Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle:
Children Below 12: Require more calcium
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Males: Generally require more energy

7.2. Nutrition
| Nutrients | Uses | |----|----| | Carbohydrates | Energy | |
Fats and oils | Source of energy, building materials, energy
store, insulation, buoyancy, making hormones | | Proteins |
Energy, building materials, enzymes, haemoglobin,
Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain structural material (muscle), hormones, antibodies | |
how the structures above adapt leaves for Vitamin C | Collagen, resistance to diseases | | Vitamin D |
photosynthesis Absorption of calcium | | Calcium | Development and
maintenance of strong bones and teeth | | Iron | Making
haemoglobin | | Fibre (Roughage) | Provides bulk for faeces,
helps peristalsis | | Water | Chemical reactions, solvent for
transport |

7.3. Deficiencies

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
and teeth ingestion takes place
Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
7.4. Digestive System and helps food slide down the oesophagus
Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis
Process of Digestion (circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
from mouth to stomach
Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the Stomach: has pepsin (a protease that works best in
body through the mouth. acidic conditions) to break down proteins into amino
Physical/Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food into acids and kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They also
smaller pieces without chemical change. have elastic walls.
It increases the surface area of food for the action Mechanical digestion in the stomach occurs via
of enzymes in chemical digestion. peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle.
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of three
molecules into small, soluble molecules. parts:
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested
intestines into the blood by pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body down starch.
as faeces Jujenum (not in syllabus)
Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal is where absorption also takes place.
Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin (a protease that
works best in alkaline conditions), and lipase.
Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat
molecules), deamination, and makes urea to be sent to
the kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol
and other toxins.
Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is
released.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need
to be known.

7.5. Teeth

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Our teeth play a key role in mechanical digestion to help
increase the surface area of food. Structure of Tooth
| Incisors | Canines | Premolars | Molars | |----|----|----|----|
| Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums

Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from

calcium salts
Cement: helps to anchor tooth
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and
nerve endings that detect pain.
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
collagen fibers
| Nerves: Detect sensation
Blood vessels: Provide nutrition

7.6. The Stomach

The stomach lining contains many smooth muscles that
contract to squeeze physically and mix the food with the
strong digestive juices present, a process also known as
| "stomach-churning."

The food will be digested within the stomach for several

hours
First stop for protein digestion

| | Rectangular shape, sharp for cutting and biting | Sharp-

pointed for piercing and tearing | Blunt for chewing and 7.7. Chemical Digestion
grinding, one or two roots, cusps/bumps at the end | Blunt
chewing and grinding. Two or three roots, ridges at the end Chemical Digestion: the breakdown of large insoluble
| molecules into small soluble molecules
The role of chemical digestion in producing small soluble
molecules that can be absorbed

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

7.8. Enzymes in Digestion

Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is
produced in the pancreas (secreted into the duodenum) 7.9. Hydrochloric Acid and Bile
and salivary glands.
Functions of Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:
Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms
Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Kills pathogens
Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid
mixture of food and gastric juices entering the
duodenum from the stomach to provide a suitable pH
for enzyme action.

Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose in the

membrane of the epithelium lining in small intestines.

Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides and

amino acids. Pepsin comes from the stomach (acidic),
and trypsin comes from the pancreas (alkali).

7.10. Absorption and Villus

Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood

Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,

produced by the pancreas.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Single Circulation System (fish):

Blood flows through the heart once every complete
circuit (No Septum)
Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle)
Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills in lower-pressure
Released in body cells, then back to the heart
Double Circulation System:
Four heart chambers
Blood passes through the heart twice every complete
circuit
Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body,
and back to the heart
Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
The small intestine is the region for absorption of
around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated
digested food.
blood to it from the lungs, preventing the mixing of
The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
the surface area for absorption. One villus will have
tiny folds on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
The epithelium is one cell thick, allowing efficient 8.2. Heart
diffusion of nutrients.
A large surface area means more absorption of The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary
nutrients can happen. circuit.
Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Right Atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to
Capillaries: provide a good blood supply and a steep
the right ventricle
concentration gradient.
Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
Pulmonary Artery: carries deoxygenated blood from
some from the colon (large intestine).
the right ventricle to the lungs
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart
8. Transport in Animals and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood
separate.
Pulmonary Vein: carries oxygenated blood from the
8.1. Circulatory Systems lungs to the left atrium
Left Atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to
Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries, the left ventricle
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins) Left Ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via
to ensure a one-way flow of blood. the aorta
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle
to the rest of the body
Atrioventricular and Semi-lunar Valves: prevent
backflow of blood
IMPORTANT! Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right
Ventricle < Left Ventricle

8.3. Functioning of the Heart

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting
into the right atrium via the vena cava. blood supply to the heart muscle.
Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the heart attack
right ventricle. Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed genetic predisposition, age and sex
into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty
valve, which prevents blood from flowing backwards food (a good diet) and exercising regularly
into the heart.
The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the 8.6. Blood Vessels
capillaries, passing the alveoli.
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the Major Blood Vessels
pulmonary vein
It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein
left ventricle Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins
The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins
the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein
The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood
from flowing back down into the heart The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the
heart to the liver
Example Past Year Question The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the
liver back to the heart
Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood
arteries (0610/42/F/M/23) from the gut to the liver
caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)
pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
contract/pump
pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax

8.4. Exercise on Heart Rate

The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
listening to the sounds of the valves closing.
Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and
Arterioles and Venules
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle.

8.5. Coronary Heart Disease

The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called transport water and mineral ions, and support the
arterioles plant’s overall structure.
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
venules Functions of Phloem

transport sucrose and amino acids from the sink to the

8.7. Blood source (and vice versa)

Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and Adaptations of Xylem

oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody 1. thick walls with lignin (dead cell)
production 2. no cell contents
Platelets: allows/promotes blood clotting 3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea, long, continuous tube
hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
dissolved substances)

Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify

red and white blood cells in
photomicrographs and diagrams

Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and

White Blood Cells images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
| Phagocyte | Lymphocyte | |----|----| | Phagocytes have dicotyledonous plants
lobed/irregular C-shaped nuclei and vesicles containing
digestive enzymes. | Lymphocytes have a circular nucleus 9.2. Water Uptake
and are found in blood | | Phagocytosis: engulfs pathogen,
vesicles fuse with the vacuole, enzymes digest bacteria. | Root Hair Cells
Large nucleus/small cytoplasm, and they produce
antibodies, | | Antigens: protein/carbohydrate on the
surface of the pathogen which provokes the immune system
| Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins bind to label pathogens,
marking them for destruction by the phagocytes. |

Blood Clotting
Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out
Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to
form a scab.
Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil
They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area,
9. Transport in Plants which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis
and ions by active transport.
9.1. Xylem and Phloem
Functions of Xylem

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, which
the uptake of water and mineral ions. evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the
air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the
Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis stomata.
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm.
Then, it enters the root cortex cells, xylem, and
mesophyll cells.

Investigate the Pathway of Water through the

Above-Ground Parts of a Plant
Water uptake can be investigated by placing a plant (like
celery) into a beaker of water with a stain (dye, food
colouring) added.
A few hours later, the celery leaves turn the same colour
as the dyed water.
When the cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain
Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by
areas are stained by the colour of the water, showing
an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
that it is being carried in specific vessels through the
diffuses out of the stomata.
stem - a.k.a xylem vessels.
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
area provided by the interconnecting air spaces
between mesophyll cells and the size and number of
stomata.
Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
water molecules.

Wilting
Wilting occurs if water loss exceeds water uptake. Cells
become flaccid, and tissues become limp.

9.3. Transpiration This is when all the cells of the plant are not full of water,
so the strength of the cell walls cannot support the plant
and it starts to collapse

Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Temperature: The kinetic energy of the water molecules

increases, so they evaporate and diffuse faster from the
mesophyll cells, increasing the transpiration rate
Humidity: Low humidity increases the concentration
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, hence
increasing the transpiration rate, while high humidity
decreases the gradient, reducing the transpiration rate.
Wind Speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a
steep concentration gradient

9.4. Translocation
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of
storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth
(sinks).

Translocation in different seasons:

Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Sarah at The Indian Public School on 25/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE
Biology

© ZNotes Education Ltd. & ZNotes Foundation 2024. All rights reserved.
This version was created by Sarah on Tue Feb 25 2025 for strictly personal use only.
These notes have been created by Zhan Xuan Chong for the 2023-2025 & 2026-2028 syllabus.
The document contains images and excerpts of text from educational resources available on the internet and printed books.
If you are the owner of such media, test or visual, utilized in this document and do not accept its usage then we urge you to contact us
and we would immediately replace said media. No part of this document may be copied or re-uploaded to another website.
Under no conditions may this document be distributed under the name of false author(s) or sold for financial gain.
"ZNotes" and the ZNotes logo are trademarks of ZNotes Education Limited (registration UK00003478331).