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set for the Carbohydrates section using your instructions:

🧠 CARBOHYDRATES — STRUCTURED
STUDY NOTES

📌 WHY - WHAT - WHERE

WHY (Importance) WHAT (Definition) WHERE (Presence & Role)
Primary source of energy
Polyhydroxy Cell membranes (glycoproteins/lipids)
(4 Cal/g) Precursors for
aldehydes/ketones or Cell walls (plants/microbes)
other biomolecules
their hydrolyzable Exoskeletons (insects) Blood (glucose)
Structural role Energy
derivatives Liver & muscles (glycogen)
storage

🌿 BASIC STRUCTURE AND FORMULA

 Empirical Formula (General): (CH₂O)ₙ, where n ≥ 3
 ⚠️Exception: Not all molecules with this formula are carbohydrates (e.g., acetic acid),
and some true carbohydrates don’t follow this formula (e.g., deoxyribose)

🧠 Mnemonic: "Not all hydrates are carbs, not all carbs are hydrates."

🔬 DEFINITION
Carbohydrates = Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones OR compounds that yield them on
hydrolysis

 Soluble & sweet carbs → Sugars

 Insoluble & tasteless → Non-sugars

🛠️FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
Function Example
1️⃣ Major energy source 4 Cal/g from dietary carbs
2️⃣ Precursors for Glucose → Fatty acids, Amino acids
 Function Example
biosynthesis
3️⃣ Cell structure/function Glycoproteins & Glycolipids in membranes
4️⃣ Structural elements Cellulose (plants), Chitin (insects), Cell walls (microbes)
5️⃣ Energy storage Glycogen (animals), Starch (plants)

🧪 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Flowchart: Carbohydrate Classification
Carbohydrates
│
├── Monosaccharides (1 sugar unit)
│ ├─ Aldoses (aldehyde group)
│ └─ Ketoses (ketone group)
│
├── Oligosaccharides (2–10 units)
│ ├─ Disaccharides (2 units)
│ └─ Trisaccharides, etc.
│
└── Polysaccharides (>10 units)
├─ Homopolysaccharides (1 type of monosaccharide)
└─ Heteropolysaccharides (≥2 types)

🧱 MONOSACCHARIDES
Basis of Classification Types Examples
Functional Group Aldoses Glyceraldehyde, Glucose
Ketoses Dihydroxyacetone, Fructose
Carbon Atoms Trioses (3C) Glyceraldehyde, Dihydroxyacetone
Tetroses (4C) Erythrose, Erythrulose
Pentoses (5C) Ribose, Xylose
Hexoses (6C) Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
Heptoses (7C) Sedoheptulose

🧠 Mnemonic for hexoses: "Good Friends Go Gliding"

Glucose – Fructose – Galactose

🧩 OLIGOSACCHARIDES
 2–10 monosaccharide units
 Hydrolyzable
 Subtypes:
o Disaccharides: e.g., Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
o Trisaccharides: e.g., Raffinose
🧬 POLYSACCHARIDES
Type Sub-class Properties
Homopolysaccharide One monosaccharide type e.g., Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose
Heteropolysaccharide More than one type e.g., Hyaluronic acid, Heparin

 High molecular weight

 Tasteless, colloidal in water

📎 HIGH-YIELD BOX: Clinical Correlations

Concept Clinical Relevance
Glycogen Stored in liver/muscles → Used during fasting
Cellulose Not digestible by humans → Dietary fiber
Fructose Absorbed via GLUT-5 → Inborn errors like hereditary fructose intolerance
Glycoproteins Blood group antigens, cell signaling

🎯 ACTIVE RECALL SECTION

🧠 Rapid-Fire Qs:

1. What is the general formula of carbohydrates?

2. Which carbohydrate is a polyhydroxy ketone with 6 carbons?
3. Which two disaccharides contain glucose?
4. What is the difference between homo- and heteropolysaccharides?
5. Which sugar is absorbed via GLUT-5?

❓ MCQs:

1. Which of the following is a ketopentose?

A. Ribose
B. Ribulose
C. Glucose
D. Galactose
✅ Answer: B

2. Glycoproteins are involved in all EXCEPT:

A. Fertilization
B. Blood clotting
C. Bone formation
D. Cell adhesion
✅ Answer: C

✏️Short Answer:

Q: Classify carbohydrates and give an example of each.

A:

 Monosaccharides: Glucose
 Disaccharides: Sucrose
 Oligosaccharides: Raffinose
 Polysaccharides: Starch

🍬 MONOSACCHARIDES – STRUCTURAL ASPECTS

🎯 1. Stereoisomerism

Term Definition
Stereoisomers Same molecular formula & structure, but different spatial arrangement.
Asymmetric
Carbon bonded to 4 different groups.
Carbon
2ⁿ (n = number of asymmetric C atoms). E.g. Glucose has 4 → 16
No. of isomers
isomers.
Enantiomers Mirror images (D- and L- forms).
Differ at only 1 carbon (excluding anomeric). 💡 C4: Glucose vs
Epimers
Galactose 💡 C2: Glucose vs Mannose
Diastereomers Stereoisomers not mirror images.
Anomers Differ only at the anomeric carbon (C1) in cyclic form (α or β).

🧠 Mnemonic for Epimers:

"GaLac and GLUcose fight over C4, Man wants C2."

🔄 2. D- and L-Isomers (Based on Glyceraldehyde)

Rule Description
OH on the right of the chiral carbon nearest the terminal
D-isomer
CH₂OH
L-isomer OH on the left of that carbon
🧬 In Nature D-series predominant in mammalian tissues.
🌈 3. Optical Activity

Term Rotation Example

Dextrorotatory (+) Rotates light to the right Glucose (D⁺)
Levorotatory (−) Rotates light to the left Fructose (L−)
Racemic Mixture (dl) Equal d and l → no optical activity

💉 “Dextrose” = D(+) glucose in solution.

🔬 4. Reference Carbohydrate: Glyceraldehyde

 Simplest monosaccharide (triose).

 One asymmetric carbon.
 Used to define D-/L- series for other sugars.

📊 5. Monosaccharide Table (Occurrence + Role)

Type Name Location Function

Triose Glyceraldehyde Cells (as phosphate) Intermediate in glycolysis
Dihydroxyacetone Cells (as phosphate) Glycolysis intermediate
Tetrose D-Erythrose Widespread In carb metabolism
Pentose D-Ribose RNA, nucleotides ATP, NAD⁺ structure
D-Deoxyribose DNA DNA backbone
D-Ribulose Metabolism HMP shunt
D-Xylose Glycoproteins Involved in structure
Uronic acid
L-Xylulose Excreted in essential pentosuria
pathway
D-Lyxose Heart muscle In lyxoflavin
Hexose D-Glucose Fruits, blood Energy (major fuel), excreted in diabetes
Converted to glucose, failure →
D-Galactose Milk sugar
galactosemia
Plants,
D-Mannose Polysaccharide structure
glycoproteins
D-Fructose Fruits, honey Glycolysis intermediate
Heptose D-Sedoheptulose Plants HMP shunt, photosynthesis

🍭 6. Disaccharides Summary

Name Components Occurrence Function

Sucrose Glucose + Cane sugar Common table sugar
 Name Components Occurrence Function
Fructose
Glucose + Only sugar in breast milk ⚠️Lactase
Lactose Milk
Galactose deficiency → diarrhea
Glucose + Germinating seeds, starch
Maltose Starch digestion intermediate
Glucose breakdown

🌀 7. Mutarotation & Anomers

⏩ Aldehyde + OH → Hemiacetal
⏩ Ketone + OH → Hemiketal

🌀 α-anomer: OH at C1 opposite to CH₂OH

🌀 β-anomer: OH at C1 same side as CH₂OH

Form Optical Rotation

α-D-glucose +112.2°
β-D-glucose +18.7°
Equilibrium +52.7° → 63% β, 36% α, 1% open

🧪 Mutarotation: Interconversion of α and β forms via open chain.

🔁 8. Mutarotation Flowchart
graph TD
A[α-D-Glucose (+112.2°)] --> B[Open Chain]
B --> C[β-D-Glucose (+18.7°)]
C --> B
B --> A

🍯 9. Fructose Mutarotation

 Fructose switches between pyranose (6-ring) and furanose (5-ring) forms.

 Final equilibrium = −92° optical rotation.

🔁 10. Tautomerization

🧪 Hydrogen shifts → Forms enediols

 Important in ketose to aldose conversions.

 Basis for reducing properties of sugars.
🔍 ACTIVE RECALL QUESTIONS
1. What determines the number of stereoisomers in a sugar?
2. Which carbon differentiates D- and L-glucose?
3. Define epimers. Give an example.
4. Why is glucose called "dextrose"?
5. What is mutarotation? What causes it?
6. Which form of glucose is more stable in water—α or β? Why?
7. What is a racemic mixture? Does it rotate light?
8. Name a heptose and its function.
9. What is the anomeric carbon in glucose?
10. Compare D-glucose and D-galactose. Which carbon differs?

Would you like me to help with visuals for the anomeric differences, optical activity, or
epimer/enantiomer examples next? Or turn this into an Anki deck or printable revision
sheet?
Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides
Foundation Module - Structured Notes
Format: Tables, Charts, Mnemonics, Clinical Correlations

🧠 Overview
Term Explanation
Carbohydrates Aldehyde/ketone compounds with hydroxyl groups
Empirical Formula (CH₂O)ₙ
Function Energy source, storage, structural, signaling
🍬 Monosaccharides
Definition: Simple sugars, cannot be hydrolyzed further

Category Examples Carbon Count

Trioses Glyceraldehyde, Dihydroxyacetone 3
Tetroses Erythrose, Erythrulose 4
Pentoses Ribose, Xylose 5
Hexoses Glucose, Galactose, Fructose 6
Heptoses Sedoheptulose, Mannoheptulose 7

🔄 Classification by Functional Group

Group Structure Examples
Aldoses Contain aldehyde (-CHO) Glucose, Galactose
Ketoses Contain ketone (>C=O) Fructose

🪞 Stereochemistry
Term Description
Asymmetric C Carbon with 4 different groups
D & L Forms Based on OH on last chiral C in Fischer projection
Epimers Differ at 1 carbon (e.g., Glucose vs Galactose = C4 epimers)
Enantiomers Mirror images (D-Glucose vs L-Glucose)
Anomers α and β forms differ at C1 in ring form

🔁 Isomerism Types
Type Description & Examples
Structural Isomers Same formula, different structures (e.g., Glucose vs Fructose)
Stereoisomers Same structure, different spatial arrangement
Epimers Differ at one carbon (e.g., Glucose & Mannose = C2 epimers)
Anomers α/β anomers at anomeric C (C1 in aldoses)

🔄 Cyclization (Hemiacetal/Hemiketal Formation)

Form Bond Formed Sugar Type
Hemiacetal Aldehyde + OH Aldose
Hemiketal Ketone + OH Ketose
  Result: Ring forms — Furanose (5-membered) and Pyranose (6-membered) rings
 Anomeric Carbon: C1 in aldoses, C2 in ketoses

🔥 Reducing vs Non-Reducing Sugars

Can Reduce Cu²⁺ →
Type Example
Cu⁺?
Reducing Sugar Yes Glucose
Non-Reducing Sugar No Sucrose (disaccharide)

Test Used: Benedict’s or Fehling’s

🧬 Clinical Correlations
Condition Description
Essential Fructosuria Deficiency of fructokinase → benign fructose in urine
Hereditary Fructose
Aldolase B deficiency → hypoglycemia, vomiting
Intolerance
Galactose-1-P uridyltransferase deficiency → cataracts,
Galactosemia
mental retardation

✨ Mnemonic Time
 "Glucose is A Good Sweet Fuel":
o A = Aldose
o G = Glucose
o S = Sweet (reducing sugar)
o F = Fuel
 Epimers: “Cousins at One Carbon”

📌 Quick Reference Table

Sugar Aldose/Ketose D/L Form # of C Ring Form Reducing?
Glucose Aldose D 6 Pyranose Yes
Fructose Ketose D 6 Furanose Yes
Galactose Aldose D 6 Pyranose Yes
Ribose Aldose D 5 Furanose Yes
Dihydroxyacetone Ketose D 3 Linear Yes
Here are your high-retention, structured notes on Disaccharides in a clean, Word/Docs-
friendly format with tables, mnemonics, diagrams, and clinical correlation.

Carbohydrates – Disaccharides
Foundation Module – Structured Notes
Format: Tables, Mnemonics, Clinical Points, Visuals

🍭 Overview of Disaccharides
Feature Description
Definition Oligosaccharides made of 2 monosaccharides linked via glycosidic bond
Properties Crystalline, water-soluble, sweet
Types 1. Reducing (free -CHO or =CO)2. Non-reducing (no free group)

🔍 Classification
Type Description Examples
Reducing Free aldehyde or ketone group present Maltose, Lactose
Non-reducing No free reducing group (both anomeric C involved) Sucrose, Trehalose

🔗 Glycosidic Bonds Summary

Disaccharide Monomers Involved Linkage Type Reducing?
Maltose Glucose + Glucose α(1→4) Yes
Isomaltose Glucose + Glucose α(1→6) Yes
Cellobiose Glucose + Glucose β(1→4) Yes
Lactose Galactose + Glucose β(1→4) Yes
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose α(1→β2) No
Lactulose Galactose + Fructose (synthetic) (Link varies) No (non-absorbed)

🍺 Maltose
Feature Detail
Monomers 2 × α-D-Glucose
Bond α(1→4) glycosidic
Reducing? Yes (free anomeric C on 2nd glucose)
Enzyme Maltase
 Feature Detail
Found In Germinating seeds, starch breakdown
Osazone Shape 🌻 Sunflower

🍬 Isomaltose
Feature Detail
Monomers Glucose + Glucose
Bond α(1→6) glycosidic
Found In Starch digestion intermediate

🌿 Cellobiose
Feature Detail
Monomers Glucose + Glucose
Bond β(1→4)
Formed During Cellulose hydrolysis
Reducing? Yes
Comparison Like maltose but with β-link

🥛 Lactose
Feature Detail
Monomers β-D-Galactose + β-D-Glucose
Bond β(1→4) glycosidic
Reducing? Yes
Enzyme Lactase
Found In Milk
Osazone Shape 🦔 Powder puff / Hedgehog
Nutritional Role Key energy source for infants

🧪 Lactulose (Synthetic)
Feature Detail
Monomers Galactose + Fructose
Digestion Not digested or absorbed
Use Treatment for hepatic encephalopathy
Converts NH₃ → NH₄⁺ (less absorbed) → ↓ plasma
Mechanism
ammonia
🍰 Sucrose
Feature Detail
Monomers α-D-Glucose + β-D-Fructose
Bond α(1→β2) glycosidic
Reducing? No (both anomeric carbons used)
Enzyme Sucrase (Invertase)
Source Sugarcane, beets
Use Commercial sugar, food industry
Sweetness Rank Fructose > Sucrose > Glucose > Lactose, Maltose

🔄 Inversion of Sucrose
Property Value
Optical rotation before +66.5° (dextro)
After hydrolysis –28.2° (levo)
Term Invert Sugar

⚙️Mechanism of Inversion:

1. Sucrose (+66.5°) → Glucose (+52.5°) + Fructofuranose (initially dextrorotatory)

2. Fructofuranose converts to fructopyranose (–92°)
3. Overall mix = Levorotatory

💡 Mnemonics & Tricks

 Maltose = MALTed grains → Glu–Glu (α1→4)
 “Isomaltose = Isomer of maltose = α1→6”
 Lactose = LACTation = milk sugar → Gal–Glc (β1→4)
 Sucrose = SUGARcane → Glu–Fru (α1→β2) – Non-reducing

⚠️Clinical Relevance
Condition Cause / Effect
Lactose intolerance Deficiency of lactase → bloating, cramps
Hereditary fructose intolerance Aldolase B deficiency (see earlier notes)
Lactulose therapy ↓ Ammonia in hepatic encephalopathy

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mnemonics, flowcharts, and active recall tools.

🧠 MASTER NOTES: POLYSACCHARIDES

🔑 Key Concepts Overview

Term Type Components Function

Monosaccharide units Storage
Polysaccharides Carbohydrates linked by glycosidic (energy) or
bonds Structural
Energy
Homopolysaccharides One type of monosaccharide e.g. Glucan, Fructosan storage or
structure
Structural
e.g.
Multiple types of (connective
Heteropolysaccharides Glycosaminoglycans
monosaccharides/derivatives tissue,
(GAGs)
lubrication)

🌾 HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES

Type Source Composition Linkage Properties

Storage form in
Starch Plants Glucose α(1→4) + α(1→6)
plants
~15–20% of
Amylose Linear α(1→4) glucose Water-soluble
starch
~80–85% of Branched α(1→4) and
Amylopectin Water-insoluble
starch α(1→6) glucose
Highly branched
Glycogen Liver, muscles Glucose Animal starch
α(1→4) + α(1→6)
Not digested by
Cellulose Plant cell wall β-D-glucose β(1→4)
humans
Used for GFR
Inulin Garlic, onion Fructose β(2→1)
estimation
Plasma volume
Dextrans Bacterial Glucose α(1→6)
expander
Intermediate Breakdown of
Dextrins Glucose Various
products starch

🧠 Mnemonic for Starch:

Ami is a linear gal, but Amylo loves branches

 Amylose = Linear
 Amylopectin = Branched
🌿 CELLULOSE vs GLYCOGEN vs STARCH

Feature Cellulose Glycogen Starch

Monomer β-D-glucose α-D-glucose α-D-glucose
Linkage β(1→4) α(1→4), α(1→6) α(1→4), α(1→6)
Digestion Not digested Digested Digested
Function Structure (plants) Storage (animals) Storage (plants)
Solubility Insoluble Soluble Varies (Amylose = soluble)

🧠 Mnemonic:

“Be Careful” = Beta bonds = Cellulose = not digestible

Alpha bonds = Accessible (digestible)

🧪 ENZYMES & PRODUCTS

Enzyme Acts On Breaks Products

Amylase Starch α(1→4) Dextrins → Maltose → Glucose
Hyaluronidase Hyaluronic Acid β(1→4) Disrupts ovum gel for sperm penetration

🧠 Color Test Mnemonic for Dextrins:

Sweet Apple Energizes All

 Soluble starch - Blue

 Amylodextrin - Violet
 Erythrodextrin - Red
 Achrodextrin - No color

🧬 HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES (GAGs)

GAG Composition Found In Function

D-glucuronic acid + N- Synovial fluid, Lubricant, shock
Hyaluronic Acid
acetylglucosamine vitreous humor absorber
Chondroitin 4- D-glucuronic acid + N- Cartilage, bone,
Structural
sulfate acetylgalactosamine 4-sulfate skin
N-sulfo-D-glucosamine 6-sulfate + Liver, lung, mast
Heparin Anticoagulant
Glucuronate 2-sulfate cells
Dermatan L-iduronic acid + N-
Skin Structural
Sulfate acetylgalactosamine
Structure +
Keratan Sulfate Galactose + N-acetylglucosamine Cornea, cartilage
transparency
🧠 GAG Mnemonic:

Hi CHoCoLaTe Kake
Hyaluronic Acid, CHondroitin, Heparin, Lermatan, Keratan

💡 CLINICAL PEARLS

 Glucose = main energy source for mammals.

 Fructose = energy for sperm; found in semen.
 Inulin = GFR measurement (not metabolized by body).
 Heparin = anticoagulant.
 Hyaluronic acid = lubricant in joints; also broken down by hyaluronidase in semen.
 Cellulose = not digestible but useful as dietary fiber; reduces glucose/cholesterol
absorption, prevents constipation.
 Sorbitol/dulcitol accumulation → cataracts, nephropathy in diabetes.

🔁 ACTIVE RECALL & QUICK QUIZZES

Q1. What type of glycosidic linkage does cellulose contain?

→ β(1→4) glycosidic bonds.

Q2. Which GAG forms a gel around the ovum?

→ Hyaluronic acid

Q3. What is the major GAG in cartilage?

→ Chondroitin sulfate

Q4. Why can't humans digest cellulose?

→ Lack enzyme for β-glycosidic bond cleavage

Q5. Which polysaccharide is used to measure GFR?

→ Inulin

🔄 FLOWCHART: STARCH → GLUCOSE Breakdown

STARCH
↓ (Salivary/Pancreatic Amylase - α(1→4))
DEXTRINS
↓
MALTOSE
↓ (Maltase)
GLUCOSE → Absorbed into bloodstream

Would you like practice MCQs, flashcards, or a visual mind map next for this?
Yes Imaan, here's what was missed from the last part of your provided text (after
Chondroitin 4-sulfate):

✅ Missed Content (Structured Notes):

🔹 Chondroitin 4-sulfate (continued)

 Disaccharide Units:
o Made of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetylgalactosamine 4-sulfate.
o Linked by:
 β(1→3) glycosidic bond between uronic acid and amino sugar.
 β(1→4) linkages between disaccharide units.
 Function:
o Important structural component of connective tissues like cartilage and
tendons.
o Provides resistance to compression.

🔹 Heparin

 Structure:
o Composed of D-glucuronic acid and glucosamine sulfate.
o Contains sulfate groups, making it highly negatively charged.
 Function:
o Acts as a natural anticoagulant by activating antithrombin III, inhibiting
thrombin and other clotting factors.
o Found in liver, lungs, mast cells.

🔹 Dermatan Sulfate

 Structure:
o Made of L-iduronic acid and N-acetylgalactosamine sulfate.
 Location:
o Found in skin, blood vessels, and heart valves.

🔹 Keratan Sulfate

 Structure:
o Contains galactose and N-acetylglucosamine sulfate.
 Location:
o Found in cornea, cartilage, and intervertebral discs.

Let me know if you want a flowchart, mnemonics, or super sticky recall tricks for these!