WORLD

RELIGION
(MISS 431)

Course Notes

Paul O. Kolawole Ph.d

INTRODUCTION: CONCEPT OF COMPARATIVE RELIGION..............................................................................
ASIANITIC RELIGIONS..........................................................................................................................................
HINDUISM.........................................................................................................................................................
BUDDHISM........................................................................................................................................................
SHINTOISM.......................................................................................................................................................
CONFUCIANISM...............................................................................................................................................
ZOROASTRIANISM...........................................................................................................................................
TAOISM.............................................................................................................................................................
ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS......................................................................................................................................
JUDAISM...........................................................................................................................................................
CHRISTIANITY FROM EARLY FORMATION TO THE CHURCH OF THE EARLY MIDDLE
AGES (474 – 800)..............................................................................................................................................
ISLAM................................................................................................................................................................
BAHAISM...........................................................................................................................................................
AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE...................................................................
AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION: FROM THE EARLY FORMATION TO THE
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOCIETY..................................................................................
WEST AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION.....................................................................................................
RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE....................................................................................................................................

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 INTRODUCTION: CONCEPT OF COMPARATIVE
RELIGION
The goal of every religion is man’s universal thirst for peace and goodness. Man achieves this
goal through many ways in which he expresses his beliefs and attitudes. No matter when or
how man developed from the time he became man, his irresistible urge to worship has created
and will continue to create endless forms of religious behaviour. This force is so powerful in man
that it has produced a Mosaic kind of beliefs, attitudes and practices. And considering the fact
that each of the world religions embraces varying beliefs and practices, areas of interaction and
cooperation are necessary for peaceful co-existence. This is because religion, whether Islam,
Christianity, Taoism, Buddhism, Taoism or African Traditional Religion, remains a potent factor
to reckon with in the scheme of things the world over.

However, one needs to be aware of the changes which particular religious traditions and
institutions have undergone, that is, changes which are evident from historical comparison. The
person who is more likely to be hostile to another man's religion is that man who knows no other
religion than that of his own. They will attempt to make an impartial study of religious traditions
by highlighting these historical records in terms of the ideas they teach, the types of personality
they have and the kinds of societies where they were found.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. Explain the goals of religion in man's life.
ii. Acknowledge the cause for many religions of the world.
iii. Explain what comparative religion is all about.
iv. Imbibe the mechanism for studying religion.

AN OVERVIEW OF COMPARATIVE RELIGION

Comparative religion centred on the application of comparative or scientific method to the data
provided by the religious of the world, past and present. This involved the assignment to each of
a place within a scheme of progress, development, or evolution, and the assessment of their
value (Sharpe, 1987). To Kasiera (1990). Comparative religion is the study of the various
religious traditions and of the inter-relation to the way in which religious themes and ideas are
fused in these traditions. Tiwari (1983) also sees comparative religion as a comparative study of
the important features of the different religions of the world in a perfectly scientific spirit. The
purpose is not to assert the truth or falsity or relegate any religion or to in corporate value
judgement about other religions, but to show that the religions of the humankind are similar in
many ways and also different in significant ways (Dopamu 2000).
Dopamu (2000) further studied that comparative religion is not restricted to comparison between
religions but it involves comparison between concepts, themes, elements, topics or phenomena
of different religions. The implication of Dopamu submission is that religions are placed side by
side for the purpose of underscoring their claims and values.

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Through comparative study of religion, scholars endeavour to evaluate their religion in order to
show how they stood relative to another in terms of their various levels of development. In this
way, religions are studied in an appreciative and non-judgmental manner. The aim of
comparative religion therefore, as it is observed by Dopamu (2000) is to identify the point of
similarities and differences between two religions or more. This course examines the various
notable religions of the world.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF RELIGION

E. B. Idowu (1973) accounted for the following approaches in the comparative study of religions.
These include:

1. Caution: To study a religion other than one's own effectively, a scholar or religious
investigator must exercise great caution. The scholar must not prove that he has known
everything already about that religion even if he belongs to it. This is because religion is
a divinely invented phenomenon that application of self mind cannot be easily
comprehended, thus Job 11:7-9 query:

“Can you fathom the mysteries of God?

Can you probe the limits of the Almighty?
They are higher than the heavens above—what can you do?
They are deeper than the depths below—what can you know?
Their measure is longer than the earth
and wider than the sea.

The above strengthens the words of Idowu which continues to say that one must rather
learn slowly, painfully and actively to ask new questions and to sense new visions.
Caution approach therefore will not make the study of any religion subjective but
objective.

2. Openness: The approach of openness in the study of religion implies that when we are
studying other people’s religion we must enter into their feelings and aspirations.
Religion cannot be properly studied unless it is studied from inside and only those who
are prepared to allow truth to reveal itself to them and those who are prepared to enter
into the feelings of worshipers as soon as possible can make any profitable and
objective study of religion. That one must not enter the field of studying religion with a
self imprisoned mind or misconception about any religion to be investigated.

3. Sympathy: In studying religion we must have appreciation for understanding and

sympathy. It is not what people say about religion that is of importance rather it should
be what the religion says about itself. Religion is a sacred phenomenon therefore, the
scholar must show sympathy and enter into the feelings of the people and see with their
own eyes in order to grasp and possess the knowledge of what they actually know and
believe about the spiritual world.

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 4. Reverence: Religion is a sacred phenomenon and this should be studied with
reverence. Thus Psalms 5:5-7 inter-alia says:

The arrogant cannot stand

in your presence.
You hate all who do wrong;
you destroy those who tell lies.
The bloodthirsty and deceitful
you, Lord, detest.
But I, by your great love,
can come into your house;
in reverence I bow down
toward your holy temple. (NIV).

The above depicts that to understand and establish the mysteriousness of the God or
gods the religion is seeking, the researchers or scholars of religion need to go about with
a reverenced heart, and total sense of submission.

5. Interest: Absolute interest and honesty is another key to obtain a meaningful result while
studying religion. The sacred and the mysterious fundamentally endowed religious
phenomenon calls for total interest of the religious scholars so as to obtain an objective
result.

6. Adaptability: To attain acceptable information about a religion being studied calls for
adaptability of all purposes. The researcher should comply with the norms and traditions
surrounding the subject of his or her investigation. This in return will open ways for a
sense of belonging and remove fear on the path of the leaders and the individuals who
are supposed to assist and release the needed information to the researcher.
Association and interaction of all purposes are ingredients that can streamline the easy
ways to the hidden information about the religion that the researcher seeks to know.

CONCLUSION
From the discussions so far you have learnt the following:

● Religion came to being as a result of man's thirst for truth, peace and goodness
● Religion remains a potent factor to reckon with in the scheme of things the world over.
● The religions of the world are similar in many ways and also different in significant ways.
● Comparative religion aims at underscoring claims and values of religions of the world
and not solely in comparing one religion to the others with the aim of “finding out” which
is better.
● Approaches the scholars of religion need to adopt while studying religion for the purpose
of achieving the set goals.

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SUMMARY
In this unit you have been exposed to the concept of comparative religion. In addition you have
been able to understand that comparative religion is not solely for judging one religion over the
other, but to study the various religions of the world and ascertain the areas of commonalities
and differences for the purpose of thorough understanding and better knowledge about them.

REFERENCE AND FURTHER READINGS

Adams C. (ed) The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol 3 , New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.
Buursma, D.R (ed) (1998) The NIV Topical Study Bible, Grand Rapids, The Bible League.
Dopamu, P.A (2000) Esu: The invisible Foe of Man, Ijebu Ode. Shebotimo Publications.
Idowu, E.B (1973). African Traditional Religion (A definition) London. SCM Press Ltd.
Kasiera, E.M (1990): The Scope of Comparative Religion. In Mugonmbi.
J.N.K (ed) A comparative study of Religions, Nairobi: Nairobi University. Tiwari, K.N. 91983)
Comparative Religions, Delhi: Narenda Prakash Jain.

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ASIANITIC RELIGIONS

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 HINDUISM

INTRODUCTION TO HINDUISM AS A RELIGION

Hinduism is one of the world’s great religions. It is very difficult to define Hinduism. It grew
gradually over a period of nearly 5000 years absorbing and assimilating all the religions and
cultural movements of India.

Hindus call their religions SANATANA-DHARMA which means “timeless, eternal set of
truths”. Hinduism is not revealed by any act of a personal God, but it is seen by those whose
pure minds catch its reflection. The ancient seers or ‘rishis’ transmitted this truth to humanity.

When one considers the religion from the point of inner growth, Hinduism may be described as
the way of life lived and brought to conscious self-reflection by the Indo-Aryans, who then taught
the truth they discovered from the early settlers. The difference of Hinduism from revealed
religions such as Judaism, Islam and Christianity lies in the fact that in the case of the latter
religions, it is accepted that the truths were revealed by God to a particular person at a
particular time and place. But in the case of Hinduism, the realisation of the truths and their
expressions was the result of a gradual process of reflection by many individuals through
centuries.

Hinduism is more of Orthopraxy rather than Orthodoxy. Orthodoxy is the holding of commonly
accepted religious opinions, however, in Hinduism, there is no commonly acceptable religious
opinion. The religion is more of practice than an accepted dogma. One is Hindu because he is
born a Hindu that is of Hindu parentage and ancestry and as such need no specific religious
doctrines. The fact that Hinduism is orthopraxy is evidenced in the following areas:

1. No Dogma: Hinduism is often characterised by its lack of dogma—there are no fixed set
of beliefs imposed to be unquestioningly accepted. This is why many scholars describe it
as the indigenous religion of the Indian subcontinent. It evolved through the fusion of
Dravidian and Aryan cultures, with Aryan influence eventually predominating,
assimilating and co-opting Dravidian religious and cultural practices.

2. No Doctrinal Orthodoxy: There is no doctrinal orthodoxy in Hinduism. So long as a

person accepts the authority of the Vedas and the basic elements of Hindu social order
in his conduct, he may believe anything and still remain within the fold of Hinduism. He
must however follow with the greatest strictness, the rules that govern the life and
activities of the sub-group to which he belongs.

3. No Creed: Both Christianity and Islam are creedal religions. It is their creeds that
attracted many adherents to them the entire world over. But Hinduism is not a creedal
religion. Hindus are born Hindus and are therefore predominantly found in the land of

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 India where Hindus originated and in other parts of the world to which Indians have
migrated in large numbers.

4. No Revelation: Unlike Christianity and Islam, Hinduism does not claim any great
revelation of God to any individual at a particular place or time. Rather, religious truths
are results of reflections by many individuals through the centuries. In Hinduism, the
truths rather than the privileged mediators are all that matters. The truths are not
revelation properly but insights or intuitions of the human mind and heart.

They do not enjoy the undeniability of revealed truth as we have in orthodox religions.
This is why Hinduism is called a natural religion, a metaphysical religion and a reflective
religion rather than an orthodox religion.

In the light of the afore-mentioned reasons, Hinduism is best studied as a process rather than
as a fixed and integrated body of doctrines. It is best studied as a developing tradition which
changed considerably over the centuries and which is still changing in a creative direction. Thus
in the study of Hinduism, we do not present a list of fixed and integral system which could be
designated by the term Hinduism. We rather present a process which had a beginning and
which has gone through several main phases of development up to the present time. Hinduism
is still a living process and must be seen as such.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
● State the origin of Hinduism.
● Give reasons why Hinduism is orthopraxy rather than orthodoxy.
● Explain caste system in Hinduism and the basic conceptions in Hinduism.
● Explain the methods of obtaining salvation in Hinduism.

MAIN CONTENT
Hindu scriptures offer profound insights into the fundamental principles of Hinduism, delineating
its historical evolution. Predominantly composed in Sanskrit, these texts encompass a broad
spectrum of religious doctrines and rituals. They are thought to have been authored over a span
exceeding 2000 years. Notably, various philosophical schools and religious movements within
Hinduism have drawn inspiration and validation from select scriptures across different epochs,
shaping their beliefs and societal norms. Hence, these scriptures warrant our careful study and
consideration.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF HINDU SCRIPTURES

The Hindu scriptures are categorised into two main classes: Shruti and Smriti. Shruti, meaning
"what is heard," pertains to the eternal truths of religion that were perceived or heard by Hindu
seers. These truths are considered independent of any deity or individual to whom they were
revealed and are regarded as the ultimate authorities on religious truths. The Vedas, which
were recorded by disciples based on the revelations received by the seers, constitute the
primary and definitive texts of Shruti.

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On the other hand, Smriti, or "what is remembered," holds a secondary authority, drawing its
legitimacy from the principles laid down in Shruti. As recollections, Smriti texts encompass all
sacred writings apart from the Vedas. This category includes law books, the two prominent
epics - Ramayana and Mahabharata - which predominantly feature myths, stories, legends, and
historical accounts of significant events. Additionally, Smriti contains the Agamas, which serve
as theological treatises and manuals for worship.

1. Vedas: The word “Veda” is derived from the Sanskrit word meaning 'knowledge' or
'wisdom,' epitomising the 'Book of Wisdom' when referring to scriptures. These ancient
texts, representing the earliest Hindu scriptures, comprise hymns, prayers, rituals, and
incantations. Consisting of four primary components—Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-
Veda, and Atharva-Veda—each is further divided into three segments.

2. Firstly, hymns extol the virtues of the deities, followed by the Brahmanas, written in
prose to serve as instructional manuals for conducting sacrificial rites aimed at
appeasing the gods. Lastly, the Upanishads, concluding portions of the Vedas, delve
into philosophical speculations and mystical discourses concerning spiritual truths.

3. Upanishads: The Upanishads constitute the foundation of later Hinduism. Their

teaching centres around the concepts of Brahman that is, the ‘Absolute Being’ and
Arman (self). They search for the relationship between the identity of Brahman and
Arman and man's knowledge of his true self. The Upanishads, though based on the
Vedas, reflect a movement away from the sacrifices and ritualism of Polytheism to a
more man- centred philosophy and to the problem or ethical behaviour.

4. Epics: The two great Hindu epics - the Ramayana and the Mahabharata expound the
principles of the Vedas by interpreting the exploits of the great national heroes.
Characters like Rama and Sita depict the ideals of moral and social behaviour for the
individual, the family and the nation.

The Ramayana epic relates the story of Rama, the ideal man and shows how an individual
should behave towards all other men and how a community should live in peace and harmony.
The Mahabharata is the story of the conflict between two branches of the same family. Through
problems and dialogues the epic seeks to answer the moral, spiritual and metaphysical
problems of the times. For the first time in the development of Hindus spirituality the love of God
for man and of man for God is introduced.

CASTE SYSTEM IN HINDUISM

Caste system in India was not originally a planned institution; rather, the system came into
existence as a result of circumstances of race and occupation. In terms of religion, the caste
system was an accidental feature of Hinduism. The four popular castes are the Brahmins, the
Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas, and the Shudras.

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 1. The Brahmins: These are the priestly group. They are regarded as the people nearer to
the Supreme Being. They are usually approached in all matters of worship. They offer
sacrifices on behalf of the Hindu. They are the intermediaries between the Supreme
Being and men.

2. The Ksatriyas: The Kshatriyas consist of warriors who are responsible for fighting the
people’s wars; they defend the traditional integrity of Hindu society. The Kshatriyas also
produce kings who rule the society. Because most of them were skilled soldiers, their
rule over the people was usually successful in those days.

3. The Vaishyas: This group comprises eminent traders and constitutes a significant
portion of property owners, including lands. Due to the financial support they provide to
various endeavours, the Vaishyas are highly regarded in Hindu society.

4. The Sudras: These are the labouring class. Mostly, they are the indigenous people of
India. In the early days of their settlement, they were primarily engaged in manual
labour, specialising in professions such as agriculture and various services.

5. Outcastes or Untouchables: The individuals not belonging to any of the four castes
were known as Outcastes or Untouchables. They emerged due to intermingling among
the four castes, resulting in the creation of several sub-castes.

It should be mentioned, however, that the Hindu caste system cannot be simply regarded as a
social scale of class distinction. Rather, when associated with social administration, it is a
religious justification known as Karma-Samsa, which asserts that a person's birth into a
particular caste is determined by their actions in previous existences or experiences. To this
extent, each caste defines and regulates an individual’s social and religious status, as well as
their duties and obligations.

BASIC CONCEPTS IN HINDUISM

In order to understand the Hindu view of life, one needs to explore the various doctrines put
forward in Hinduism. Here are some of them:

1. Karma: This is 'Action' or 'Doing'. It is an interpretation of the moral law of causation,

stating that any action is the effect of a cause and is, in turn, the cause of an effect.
Karma is a principle of moral reaction to both good and evil actions. As a man sows, so
shall he reap. Bad actions result in suffering and bondage to human existence, while
good actions lead to freedom from this bondage. The law of Karma is fixed in the
spiritual realm and unalterable.

2. Samsara: The concept of Samsara is intertwined with Karma. It refers to the rebirth or
transmigration of the soul. According to this concept, the soul is capable of
transmigration from body to body, carrying its load of Karma with it. It enables a person
to be reborn as a god, a member of a higher caste, a member of a lower caste, or even

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 as an animal. Rebirth depends on an individual's thoughts, words, or actions, implying
that each person carries their own past with them.

3. In Samsara, there is the wheel of birth, death, and rebirth. Just as a caterpillar gathers
itself up before passing into another leaf, so does the soul. The soul cycles endlessly
through existences. Therefore, Hindus aim to escape from the wheel of Samsara.

4. Moksha: Moksha is the escape, release, liberation, or emancipation. It stems from the
Hindu belief that unless the chain of cause and effect is broken, the soul will forever be
bound to the process of birth, death, and rebirth. With Moksha, the soul is believed to be
freed from both righteousness and unrighteousness. It is deliverance from the body and
the final escape from the law of Karma.

5. Soul: Hinduism teaches that the soul is eternal and shares the essence of all living
things—plants, animals, and humans. The soul is ensnared with the impurities of finite
existence but is detached from the personal existence of the physical self. It does not act
and thus is not the agent of sin. Hindu hope lies in realising the immortality of the soul,
either in its individuality or in its absorption into Brahman. According to Hindu teachings,
the body is the prison house of the soul, and any idea of eternal union with the body is
unacceptable. There is no concept of the resurrection of the body in the Hindu scheme
of things.

6. Sin: For Hindus, sin is not the personal guilt it is for Christians and Jews. It belongs to
the realm of the metaphysical and is variously described as ignorance of truth, attributing
reality to empirical personhood, and the feeling of individuality. The true self never sins;
it is neither born nor does it die.

7. Salvation: Salvation in Hinduism is primarily the separation of the eternal soul from the
phenomenal world. It is the soul's relationship to God and its realisation of its own
mortality. An emancipated soul is identified with the ultimate reality, Brahman, and
enters a mystical union described as 'dreamless sleep'. This union is often expressed as
'Tat Tvam Asi'—'Thou art that'.

METHODS OF OBTAINING SALVATION

In Hinduism, there are three paths (margas) or methods of obtaining salvation, each of which is
valid. Below are the methods:

1. Karma-marga (the path of selfless or disinterested Action): Karma marga is the path of
religious duty. Actions motivated by the desire for their fruits bind the soul to the wheel of
existence. Action done without attachment to its consequences leads to spiritual
perfection.

2. Bhakti-marga (the path of exclusive devotion to God): The second path to salvation is
the path of exclusive devotion to God. For an atheist, this is a higher path. It is the way

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 of love. This may depend on external aids such as ritualistic worship, or it may be on a
higher level of direct communion with God. Devotion to God may assume many forms
reflecting the variety of human relationships. It may be the attitude of a servant to a
master or the love of a wife for her husband.

3. Jnana-marga (spiritual insight): The third way of achieving salvation is the path of higher
knowledge or spiritual insight. It is for the intellectual few. It leads to release from the
bondage of ignorance and to complete union with Brahman. The Vedanta School holds
that this is the highest way of salvation, while other schools think that it is preparatory to
Shakti.

CONCLUSION
From the study conducted on this topic, several key points have emerged:

1. Hinduism is an ancient religion of the people of India, deeply rooted in its culture and
history.
2. Unlike Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, where truths were revealed by God to
individuals, Hinduism has a distinct manner in which it was revealed to its ancestors.
3. Hinduism possesses unique features that set it apart from other religious traditions
around the world.
4. The Hindu scriptures provide a clear understanding of the basic tenets of Hinduism,
serving as foundational texts for its followers.
5. Through the exploration of basic concepts in Hinduism, one can gain insight into the
Hindu view of life and its philosophical underpinnings.
6. Hinduism offers three paths or methods of obtaining salvation, known as Margas:
● Karma-marga
● Bhakti-marga
● Jnana-marga
These paths offer devotees various avenues to pursue spiritual growth and ultimate
liberation.

HINDUISM AND CHRISTIANITY

Hinduism and Christianity differ on fundamental beliefs such as heaven, hell, and reincarnation.
From the Hindu perspective, heaven (Sanskrit varga) and hell (Neraka) are temporary places
where souls reside based on their deeds, with no concept of permanent hell. After experiencing
their due punishment or rewards, souls re enter the cycle of life and death. Permanent heaven
is known as Akshardham.

Despite these differences, significant similarities exist in Christian and Hindu theology,
particularly in their presentation of a Trinitarian view of God. The Holy Trinity of Christianity is
sometimes analogized to the Trimurti of Hinduism, consisting of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva,
considered the three principal manifestations of Brahman or the Godhead.

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Christian-Hindu relations are complex. While Hinduism tends to acknowledge the divine basis of
various religions and revere their founders and saints, perceptions of aggressive proselytism by
some Christian groups have led to occasional incidents of anti-Christian violence, often fueled
by nationalist political parties.

In summary, this unit has introduced Hinduism as a distinct religion with its own unique
characteristics, differentiating it from revealed religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.
Through the study of this unit, you have gained insight into Hindu scriptures and the basic
tenets of Hinduism. It is essential to thoroughly grasp these concepts before proceeding to the
next unit.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Adams, C.J. (ed) (1965) A, Readers Guide in the Great Religions, New York: Free Press.
Aletrino, L. (1968): Six World Religions: London: SCM Press.

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 BUDDHISM

EARLY LIFE OF BUDDHA

The early life of Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, dates back to approximately 563 B.C. He
proclaimed himself as the last of the 550 reincarnations. Born into luxury and ease, Buddha was
sheltered in a palace to shield him from the harsh realities of life. However, he grew dissatisfied
with palace life and became deeply troubled by human suffering. Breaking free from the
confines of his home, he embarked on a quest for answers to life's mysteries.

Buddhism made its way to China during a time when intellectuals were eager for new ideas, but
it faced significant challenges. Rooted in Indo-European metaphysics and epistemology,
Buddhism struggled to resonate with Chinese intellectuals. The prevailing discourse of Neo-
Daoist "abstruse learning" offered some common ground, focusing on metaphysical concepts
such as being and non-being, albeit superficially related to the puzzle of Nirvana.

During his quest, Buddha encountered a dead man, a suffering old man, and a begging monk,
fulfilling a prophecy that prompted him to leave home. Under the guidance of two Brahmin
hermits, Alara and Uddaka, Buddha delved into ancient wisdom but found their teachings
lacking in providing a solution to the cycle of rebirth.

Turning to five other ascetics for further instruction, Buddha remained unsatisfied, considering
their teachings as mere delusions. Venturing into prolonged meditation and extreme asceticism,
he claimed to have attained enlightenment. Emerging from his spiritual journey, Buddha
proclaimed a message centred on the Four Noble Truths, declaring it a message that the world
must heed.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this study, you should be able to:
● Get familiar with the origin of Buddhism as a religion.
● Understand Buddha’s teaching on the truth of life.
● Explain eight steps to Buddhahood.
● Explain the basic concepts of Hinduism rejected by Buddha and his followers.

MAIN CONTENT

THE FOUR TRUTHS TO LIFE

The truths are that: suffering is omnipresent; suffering is caused by the desire for possession
and self-enjoyment; suffering ceases when desire ceases; the Eightfold path that leads to the
extinction of desires can only be found in a disciplined mind.

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 1. First Truth: The first truth simply asserts that suffering is omnipresent in the world. It is
involved in the very nature of life; all forms of existence are subject to it. This is what
makes life basically a successor of suffering experiences.

2. Second Truth: The second truth deals with the cause of suffering. Buddha felt that the
sole cause of suffering is a desire for possession and self-enjoyment of every kind. But a
more important factor is the desire for the individual to acquire wealth by all possible
means. To Buddha, therefore, suffering would continue unless the deep, inner craving
for possession is forgotten because this cannot ultimately be satisfied.

3. Third Truth: The third truth states that suffering ceases when desire ceases. At this
point, the selfish craving for possession and the lust for life would have been renounced.
Then, genuine peace is found because at this stage, all human passions have been
completely extinguished.

4. Fourth Truth: The fourth truth is the path which leads to the cessation of suffering. It is
the Eightfold path. This Eightfold path leads to the extinction of man's insatiable desire. It
also results in moral perfection. The Eight steps in the path are:
i. Right views
ii. Right aspirations
iii. Right speech
iv. Right conduct
v. Right mode of livelihood
vi. Right effort
vii. Right awareness
viii. Right concentration

Such is the way put forward by Buddha. According to the Four Truths, it is only when the mind is
pure and the heart is soft that the divine seed of wisdom grows. Such wisdom means the power
of seeing things as they really are and perceiving the right way to peace.

THE EIGHTFOLD PATH

According to the teachings of Buddha, there are eight steps to Buddhahood. The Eight steps
are as follows:

i. Right Views: This involves acceptance of the Four Truths and a resolute rejection both
of incorrect philosophical positions regarding such things as the self and its destiny and
of unworthy attitudes which result in covetousness, lying, and gossiping.

ii. Right Aspirations: Freeing one's thoughts from such things as lust, ill-will, and cruelty,
one should have a firm resolve to achieve the highest goals.

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 iii. Right Speech: A man must speak plainly and truthfully and abhor lying or vain talk.
Works must be gentle, soothing to the ear, penetrating the heart, rightly timed and
according to the facts.

iv. Right Conduct: This includes charity and abstinence from killing any living being.

v. Right Mode of Livelihood: A man's life must be free from luxury. Each must take up
work which will give scope to his abilities and make him useful to his fellowmen.

vi. Right-Effort: Always pressing on and particularly in four directions. First, there is the
effort to avoid the uprising of evil. Second, the effort to overcome evils; third, the effort to
develop meritorious conditions such as detachment, investigation of the law and fourth,
to maintain the meritorious conditions which have already arisen and to bring them to
maturity and perfection.

vii. Right Awareness: This involves contemplation of the feelings of oneself and others, the
contemplation of the mind and the contemplation of aiming at the complete mastery of
one's mental processes.

viii. Right Concentration: This amounts to complete one-pointedness of thought,

concentrating the mind on a single object, all hindrances having been overcome. It leads
into trances where the devotee is purified from all distractions and evils and is filled with
rapture, happiness, and later passes to the highest possible state of perfection. Such is
the way according to Gautama Buddha. It is a combination of morality, concentration,
and wisdom which consist in the long spiritual processes leading to Buddhahood.
According to the way, it is when the mind is pure and the heart is soft that the divine
seed of wisdom grows. Such wisdom means the power of seeing things as they really
are and perceiving the right way of peace.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF HINDUISM REJECTED BY BUDDHA AND HIS FOLLOWERS

Writers on the comparative study of religion have pointed out that Buddhism is an aristocratic
revolt against Hinduism. According to their findings, Buddhism is an aristocratic revolt against
Hinduism, its Brahmin concept, and the supporting Caste system. It is quite true to say that
Buddhism is to Hinduism what Islam is to Christianity. It is a movement of religious thought
which runs counter to Hinduism, denying most if not all that Hinduism affirms and stands for.

Perhaps Buddha’s social background had prepared the way for this. He belonged to the
Ksatriya class, the War Lords and Aristocracies. But this group was superseded by the
Brahmins. Buddha curiously observed the suffering of the lower classes, Vaisyas, Sudras, and
the outcastes. He then organised an aristocratic religious revolt which gave rise to a dialectical
process. Here below are some basic concepts of Hinduism rejected by Buddha and his
followers:

1. The concept of God

16
 The concept of God is one of the prominent features of every religion. Hinduism believed
that there is a supreme being called Brahma who governs the universe. Buddha did not
concern himself with this concept. He neither affirmed nor denied the existence of
Brahma. The question of whether God exists or not is out of his thought. Rather, his
interest was based on morality which is expected of everybody.

2. Denial of Spiritual Beings, Angels, Sacrifices, Temples, Relics, etc.

In Hinduism, gods are represented by statues or images. To Hindus, God is the most
high and transcendental. This God could, however, be viewed in human form. God is
then represented by various images. The result is that the Hindus concentrated so much
on the worshipping of the gods, building of temples, and incarnation so much that they
almost forgot about God. The concept of God was therefore ineffective in their lives.
Instead, they imagined supernatural forces in the phenomenon of nature. They have a
large number of gods such as Indra, the god of cloud, lightning, and thunder; Shiva, the
god of destruction; and Vishnu, the god who creates and preserves life.

Buddha vehemently denied those gods. He maintained that they have been postulated
to safeguard the exploitative position of the Brahmins over the supporting Castes.

3. The institution of Priesthood

The institution of priesthood or Brahmin is the most influential and privileged caste. This
is because the Brahmins were the keepers of the Hindu scripture. The Brahmins
prescribed the rules and conduct for the other groups. They institutionalised the Caste
system to safeguard their interest and elevate themselves. The Caste to which they
belonged, the Brahmin, was tied down to heritage, no social mobility. No matter how
highly placed, once born a Sudra, one must die a Sudra, once a Brahmin, always a
Brahmin. To further complete their exploitation of the masses, no ritual could be held
without a Brahmin, and an individual was not free to worship unless a Brahmin presided
over that ceremony. Lastly, the Brahmins believed that only people of their caste could
achieve salvation, Moksha, unto becoming Brahmin. Those belonging to other Castes
were to go on suffering transmigration.

In Buddhism, however, the priesthood received a frontal attack. Buddha declared that
man does not need the help of a priest to achieve salvation. Buddhists rejected the
Caste system, and in its place came ‘Sangha’ the order of the Monk.

4. Reincarnation
Hinduism has the concept of Karma, meaning duty and action. According to this
concept, one's soul is not empirical but ‘as man’ goes into a higher or lower class when
reborn according to how one lived and obeyed the Karmic and dharmic laws of
liberation. If one wants to change the position of the Brahmins, one would have to
destroy both the religion and the Caste system.

17
 Buddha rejected this concept of reincarnation because it was intolerable for people of
other castes to stomach, especially by the Kshatriyas. The overall effect was the revolt
of the self-impressing nature of the religion.

CONCLUSION
From the discussion so far, you have learned the following:
1. The genesis of Buddhism as one of the ancient religions.
2. That Buddha's main concern was to search for the truth of life.
3. That there are eightfold paths to Buddhahood.
4. That each of the eightfold paths gives one direction or the other as to the right path to
life.
5. That Buddhism objected to certain basic concepts of Hinduism.

SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to the origin of Buddhism. In addition, you have been
acquainted with its teachings on the four truths to life. Also you are able to realise that
Buddhism teaches the eight paths that lead to the extinction of man's insatiable desires.
Through this unit again, you are led to understand the stand of Buddha on certain basic
concepts of Hinduism.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Conze E. (1959). Buddhism: Its Essence and Development. New York, Harper and Row.
Suzuki, D.T (1957). The Essence of Buddhism: London: Lazak and Company. Mollier C (2008)
Buddhism and Taoism face to face: scripture, Ritual and
Konographic exchange in Medieval, China, University of Hawaii Press.
Prebish, C. (1975) Buddhism: A modern perspective Peen, state press.

18
 SHINTOISM
INTRODUCTION
Shintoism is the ancient traditional religion of Japan. The religion is as old as Japanese history
itself. Shintoism has no founder, rather the religion was as a result of the reaction of the elites
which led to the reformation, compilation and documentation of Japanese ancient traditional
religion to become what is now known as Shintoism. The religion originated in Japan, it
developed among them with all the beliefs, customs and practices and other underlying
elements that go to support such practices. Shintoism has got no dogma, no scripture and no
canon. There are no systematic practices and no permanent ideologies. It also varies from clan
to clan.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
● Familiarise yourself with the origin of Shintoism
● Understand the varieties of Shinto in Japanese tradition.
● Learn the moral values embedded in Shinto mythology
● Learn the mode of worship in Shintoism and familiarise yourself with its festivals and
celebrations.

MAIN CONTENT

VARIETIES OF SHINTO
Shintoism can be classified into categories:

1. Folk Shinto: This type of Shinto practice mainly occurs in shrines. Various shrines are
constructed throughout Japan for worship, each housing different Kamis. Due to the
multitude of shrines and their varying practices, Folk Shinto lacks a universal doctrine or
moral standard, making it elusive. This flexibility allows adherents to utilise the religion
for both good and evil purposes.

2. Domestic Shinto: Rituals in Domestic Shinto are performed in private homes. A "Kami
Dana," or god-shelf, is constructed to house the local god, typically containing simple
symbols, green sakaki twigs, and water. Daily prayers are murmured, and hands are
clapped, with special occasions involving family gatherings for prayers and lighting
candles. Shinto is inherently a religion tied to a specific people, emphasising the
Japanese and their ancestors rather than seeking to spread beyond Japan.

3. Sect Shinto: This form of Shinto exists in organised groups with historical founders,
canonical scriptures, organised membership, systematised doctrines, and specific
rituals.

19
 4. Shrine Shinto: These are various shrines located across Japan where people offer
sacrifices to specific Kamis associated with each shrine.

Shinto Mythology and Its Moral Values to the Japanese

According to Shinto mythology, the creation involved two Kamis, Isanagi and Isanami, who
begat other Kamis representing various natural elements. Isanami died while birthing fire,
leading to Isanagi's disobedient act of viewing her beauty, angering the inhabitants of the land
of the dead. Isanagi escaped and purified himself, leading to the birth of other Kamis, including
the Sun goddess Amateresu Mikami, the Moon god Tsykiyomi, and the god of Storm, Susano.
Susano's disruptive behaviour caused the Sun goddess to withdraw into a cave, resulting in
darkness until other Kamis induced her to emerge, banishing Susano to the land of darkness.

MORAL VALUES
Shinto mythology reflects Japanese morality, with both positive and negative attributes mirrored
in human behaviour. Goodness is associated with beauty, brilliance, light, excellence, harmony,
and conformity, exemplified by Kamis like Isanami. The myth emphasises:

1. The importance of acting in ways that promote order and harmony in society.
2. The belief in the inherent goodness of humanity and the necessity of maintaining
goodness.
3. The purity of humanity, tainted by sickness and death, requiring ritualistic purifications
due to contact with evil spirits and ceremonial laxity.

WORSHIP IN SHINTO RELIGION

Worship in the Shinto religion involves reverence and respect for Kami or other spiritual beings.
There are two main settings for worship:

1. Domestic Altars: Known as "Karma Dana," these altars are typically shelves protruding
from walls with a small roof to protect the object of worship, the Kami.

2. Public Shrines: These are situated in locations conducive to Kami worship, often
featuring natural elements like rocks, mountains, and seas as representations of the
Kami.

MATERIALS FOR WORSHIP

● A bowl of water for purification is commonly found at Kami shrines.
● Large offering boxes are placed at shrine entrances.
● A bell is rung to arouse the Kami for worship or to drive away evil spirits.
● Symbolic representations of Kami, such as salt, mirrors, stones, and beads, are located
in the inner sanctuary.

ELEMENTS OF WORSHIP

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 1. Purification: The first step in Shinto worship involves washing the mouth and hands
before approaching the Kami. Ritual cleanliness is essential, and those with illness or
evil spirits should not participate.

2. Prayer: Prayers in Shinto worship are typically said inwardly, limited to petitions or
reporting to the Kami. Offerings and prayers may be made by a fully dressed priest on
behalf of worshipers.

3. Sacred Meals: Meals are shared with the Kami, symbolising communion between the
Kami and worshipers and fostering fellowship among worshipers.

SHINTO FESTIVALS
● Festivals are significant occasions for Shinto worship and are held at various times
throughout the year, often before planting seasons.
● Worshippers purify themselves before festivals, sometimes with the Shakaki tree, amid
songs and dancing.
● Offerings of food and wine are made, prayers are said, and worshippers bow before the
Kami.
● Sacred dances and processions, often featuring portable shrines containing pictures of
Kami, are central to festival celebrations.
● Festivals are also held during the enthronement of the Emperor, Japanese New Year,
Harvest festivals, and the Grand Purification Ceremony, performed twice a year to
cleanse people and land from evils.

CONCLUSION
Shinto worship is deeply rooted in Japanese culture, emphasising rituals, festivals, and
communion with Kami. It focuses on this world and does not include a personal invitation to
repentance.

From this unit, you've learned that:

1. Shintoism is an ancient traditional religion of Japan.
2. Shintoism has no founder; it evolved through the compilation and documentation of
Japanese traditions.
3. Shinto varieties include folk and domestic Shinto.
4. Shinto mythology provides insight into Japanese morality.
5. Worship in Shinto religion is unique and includes elements such as purification, prayer,
and sacred meals.
6. Japanese Shinto festivals are celebrated in distinctive ways.

SUMMARY
This unit introduced you to the history and varieties of Shinto, highlighting the moral values in
Shinto mythology and the Japanese worship practices. You also learned about the materials
used in worship and the unique celebrations of Shinto festivals. Make sure to grasp these key
points before moving on to the next unit.

21
22
REFERENCE AND FURTHER READINGS
Fasching, D.J dechant .D. (2001) Comparative Religious Ethics. A Narrative approach,
Blackwell Publishing.
Fine gan .J. (1966): The Archaeology of World Religions, Princeton University press. Fisher M.
(1997) Living Religious; Encyclopedia of the World’s Faiths, I.B. Tauris. Kraemer, K, (1986)
World Scriptures: An introduction to comparative Religions,
Paulist, press.

23
 CONFUCIANISM

INTRODUCTION
Confucius (551 BCE - 479 BCE) was a sage and social philosopher of China whose teachings
have deeply influenced East Asia, including China, Korea, and Japan for two thousand five
hundred years. However, the relationship between Confucianism and Confucius himself is
tenuous. Confucius' ideas were not widely accepted during his lifetime, and he often lamented
his lack of employment by any feudal lords.

Similar to other prominent figures like Jesus, Socrates, and Buddha, Confucius did not leave
behind any writings to articulate his ideas. Instead, only texts with recollections by his disciples
and students are available. This was further complicated by the 'Burning of the Books and
Burying of the Scholars,' a massive suppression of dissenting thought during the Qin Dynasty,
more than two centuries after Confucius' death.

However, from the fragments that remain, we can outline Confucius' ideas. He was a man of
letters concerned about the troubled times he lived in, travelling from place to place to spread
his political ideas and influence the many kings contending for supremacy in China.

MAIN CONTENT
Confucianism refers to the complex system of moral, social, political, and religious teachings
developed by Confucius based on ancient Chinese traditions. It has been perpetuated as the
state religion in China down to the present day. Confucianism aims to cultivate not only virtuous
individuals but also individuals of knowledge and good manners. The ideal person must embody
the qualities of a saint, scholar, and gentleman. Confucianism is characterised by a lack of
positive revelation, minimal dogmatic teaching, and its popular worship primarily involves
offerings to the deceased, extending the notion of duty to encompass almost every aspect of
daily life.

NAMES FOR CONFUCIANISM

In Chinese, several names exist for Confucianism, including "School of the Scholars",
"Teaching of the Scholars", "Study of the Scholars", and "Teaching of Confucius". Three
out of these four names utilise the Chinese character Ru, meaning "scholar," highlighting the
figure or idea of the Confucian scholar. However, the suffixes jia, jiao, and xue carry different
implications regarding the nature of Confucianism itself.

● Rujia, containing the character jia, is interpreted as "school of thought" and is also used
to name other philosophical schools contemporary to Confucianism.
● Rujiao and Kongjiao, containing the character jiao meaning "teach" or "education," are
used to construct the names of religions in Chinese.
● Ruxue, containing xue meaning "study," is akin to "-ology" in English and is used to
name academic fields.

24
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
● Understand the origin of Confucianism.
● Be familiar with the themes in Confucian thought.
● Comprehend Confucian texts.
● Evaluate whether Confucianism qualifies as a religion.

Themes in Confucian Thought

1. Governance:
● Confucianism emphasises self-governance as a prerequisite for governing others
effectively. The king's personal virtue spreads positive influence throughout the
kingdom, fostering social harmony.
● This concept aligns with the Taoist idea of "wuwei" or non-action, where the
king's calm leadership allows things to function smoothly without interference.

2. Ritual:
● Rituals in Confucianism encompass secular ceremonial behaviour and everyday
politeness, aiming to shape societal norms and behaviours.
● Confucius himself sought to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties, and rituals
are considered integral to shaping a content and healthy society.

3. Relationship:
● Confucianism emphasises the importance of understanding one's place in
relationships and fulfilling duties accordingly.
● Individuals are expected to fulfil different roles, such as juniors respecting seniors
and seniors showing benevolence and concern towards juniors, fostering social
harmony.

4. Filial Piety:
● Filial piety, or respect towards parents and ancestors, is regarded as a
fundamental virtue in Confucianism.
● Duties prescribed by Confucianism extend to both the living and the dead, with
specific obligations outlined for various relationships.

5. Loyalty:
● Loyalty is considered akin to filial piety but on a broader scale, encompassing
duties towards rulers, family, spouse, and friends.
● Confucius emphasised the importance of loyalty based on moral rectitude,
though it was often subverted by autocratic regimes.

6. Humanity:

25
 ● Confucius emphasised individual development within the context of human
relationships, with rituals and filial piety reflecting a fundamental attitude of
humanness.
● The concept of "ren" or humanness underlies Confucian political theory,
emphasising the ruler's moral responsibility towards their subjects.

7. The Gentleman:
● The ideal of the "gentleman" or "perfect man" (Junzi) is central to Confucianism,
representing a combination of moral integrity, scholarship, and nobility.
● Gentlemen are expected to cultivate themselves morally, exhibit filial piety and
loyalty, and promote humanity and benevolence in society.

8. Xiaoren:
● In contrast to the Junzi, the Xiaoren represents qualities such as narrow self-
interest, greed, superficiality, and materialism, viewed negatively in
Confucianism.

These themes collectively form the core principles of Confucian thought, shaping individual
behaviour, societal norms, and governance structures.

THE CONFUCIAN TEXTS

Confucianism, in its broad sense, encompasses not only Confucius' immediate teachings but
also traditional records, customs, and rites endorsed by him, forming the foundation of
Confucian thought. These texts are categorised into two groups known as the "King" (Classic)
and the "Shuh" (Books). The texts of the "King," considered the most significant, are commonly
referred to as five, although sometimes six.

The first of these is the "Shao-king" (Book of History), a religious and moral work tracing divine
providence through significant historical events, emphasising the importance of virtuous rule for
the prosperity of the people.

The second "King" is the "She-King" (Book of Songs), comprising short lyric poems from the
Shang and Zhou dynasties, reflecting various aspects of life and emotion.

The third "King" is the "Y-king" (Book of Changes), an enigmatic treatise on divination using
hexagrams, with explanations dating back to the founders of the Zhou dynasty.

The fourth "King" is the "Li-Ki" (Book of Rites), a compilation of rules governing religious
worship, court ceremonies, social interactions, and other aspects of daily life. It includes sayings
attributed to Confucius and reflections of his teachings.

The fifth "King" is the "Hiao-king" (Book of Filial Piety), attributed to Confucius but likely the
work of his disciples.

26
Additionally, the "Four Books" (Sze-shuh) include the "Lun yu" (Analects), recording
Confucius' sayings and actions, and the "Book of Mencius," containing the teachings of
Mencius, a prominent Confucian scholar. The "Great Learning" and the "Doctrine of the
Mean" are also part of the "Shuh," representing key Confucian texts on moral and philosophical
topics.

Early knowledge of these texts came through the efforts of Jesuit missionaries in China during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, who translated and studied them extensively.
Scholars like Fathers Premare Regis, Lacharme, Noel, and Ignacio da Cost made significant
contributions to understanding Confucian thought. Later scholars such as Father Zottoli and
Henri Cordier continued their work, paving the way for modern scholarship. Professor Legge's
translations, including "The Chinese Classics" and "The Sacred Books of the East," have made
these texts accessible to English readers.

CONFUCIANISM: A “RELIGION” OR NOT?

Most religions can be defined as having a set God or a group of gods, an organised priesthood,
a belief in life after death, and organised traditions. Thus, it is debatable whether Confucianism
should be called a true “religion”. While it prescribes a great deal of ritual, little of it could be
construed as worship or meditation in a formal sense. However, Tian is sacred to many
Confucians. Confucius occasionally made statements about the existence of otherworldly
beings that sound distinctly agnostic and humanistic to European and American ears. Thus,
Confucianism is often considered a secular ethical tradition and not a “religion”. It is best
described as a philosophy with special rituals and beliefs.

Its effects on Chinese and other East Asian societies and cultures have been en masse and
parallel to effects of religious movements seen in other cultures. Those who follow the teachings
of Confucius say that they are comforted by it. It includes a great deal of ritual and, in its Neo-
Confucian formulation, gives a comprehensive explanation of the world, of human nature, etc.
Moreover, regions in Chinese culture are not mutually exclusive entities; each tradition is free to
find its specific niche, its field of specification. One can practise religions such as Taoism,
Christianity, Judaism, Sikhism, the Baha’i faith, Jainism, Islam, Shinto, Buddhism, or
Zoroastrianism and still profess Confucian beliefs.

Although Confucianism may include ancestral worship, sacrifice to ancestral spirits, an abstract
celestial deity, and the deification of ancient kings and even Confucius himself, all these
features can be traced back to non-Confucian Chinese beliefs established long before
Confucius and, in this respect, make it difficult to claim that such rituals make Confucianism a
religion.

Generally speaking, Confucianism is not considered a religion by Chinese or other East Asian
people. Part of this attitude may be explained by the stigma on many religions as superstitious,
illogical, or unable to deal with modernity. Many Buddhists say that Buddhism is not a religion,
but a philosophy, and this is partially a reaction to its negative popular views of religion.
Similarly, Confucians maintain that Confucianism is not a religion, but rather a moral code or

27
philosophical worldview. Many “religions” in East Asia, such as Buddhism and Taoism, can be
considered as “not religions”. There is a much blurred line between religion and philosophy in
non-Western thought.

CONCLUSION
From the discussion, you have learned the following:

1. Confucius was a sage and social philosopher of China whose teachings deeply
influenced East Asia for two thousand five hundred years.
2. Confucianism is an ancient tradition of China and transformed into the state religion
down to the present day.
3. Confucianism is a religion without positive revelation, with a minimum of dogmatic
teaching.
4. Its popular worship is centred on offerings to the dead.
5. Several names for Confucianism exist in Chinese, such as School of the Scholars,
Teachings of the Scholars, Study of the Scholars, and Teachings of Confucius.
6. There are specific themes in Confucian thought which shed more light on the tenets and
aspirations of Confucianism.
7. Confucian Texts are divided into two broad senses, the Classics and the Books.
8. Confucianism is often considered a secular ethical tradition and not a “religion” but its
effect on Chinese and other East Asian societies and cultures has been immersed and
parallels the effects of religious movements seen in other cultures.

SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to the teachings of Confucianism through various themes in
Confucian thought and texts. Additionally, you are made to understand that Confucianism is not
a religion in totality but rather a philosophical ideology of the Chinese traditional moral code.
You are therefore advised strongly to master these facts before you go to the next unit.

REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Eliade, M. (1984) A History of Religious Ideas, vol2, Chicago, University of Chicago Press
Hucker, C.O. (1995) China Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture,
Stanford University Press.
Trevor, L. (1968) A History of Religion East and West: An Introduction and Interpretation,
London Macmillan Press.

28
 ZOROASTRIANISM

INTRODUCTION
Zoroastrianism is an ancient Persian religion based on the worship of a single god, founded by
the prophet Zoroaster, also known as Zarathustra, in the 6th century BC. The term
"Zoroastrianism" was first attested by the Oxford English Dictionary in 1874 in Archibald Sayce’s
Principles of Comparative Philology. The earliest surviving reference to Zoroaster in Western
scholarship is attributed to Thomas Browne (1605-1682), who briefly mentions the prophet in his
1643 work Religio Medici. The OED records 1743 (Warburton, Pope’s Essay) as the earliest
reference to Zoroaster.

The term "Mazdaism" (pronounced / mæzdeɪɪzəm/) is a typical 19th-century construct, taking

"Mazda" from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix "ism" to suggest a belief system.
The Zoroastrian name of the religion since ancient Persian times is Mazdayasna, which
combines "Mazda-" with the Avestan language word "yasma," meaning "wisdom worship" or
"devotion to wisdom." A practitioner of the Mazdayasna religion is referred to as a Mazdayasni,
a "wisdom worshipper."

In the English language, an adherent of the faith commonly refers to themselves as a

Zoroastrian or, increasingly more common, a Zarathustrian. An older, but still widespread
expression is Behdin, meaning "follower of Daena," for which "Good Religion" is one translation.
In Zoroastrian liturgy, the term Behdin is also used as a title for an individual who has been
formally inducted into the religion.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

● Account for the origin of Zoroastrianism.

● Explain the basic beliefs of Zoroastrianism.
● Discuss other characteristics of Zoroastrianism.
● Account for the religious tests of Zoroastrianism.
● Explain other principal beliefs in Zoroastrianism.

MAIN CONTENT

BASIC BELIEFS
Zoroastrianism revolves around the worship of one universal and transcendental God, Ahura
Mazda, which means "The Supreme Wisdom" and represents the one Uncreated Creator to
whom all worship is ultimately directed. The term "Ahura Mazda" was constructed by Zoroaster
as a combination of a masculine and a feminine word, underlining the divinity's lack of a specific
gender, distinguishing it from pre-Zoroastrian polytheistic deities. Reflecting Zoroastrianism's

29
geographical and cultural origins between the monotheistic religions of the Middle East and the
monotheistic and pantheistic faiths of South Asia, contemporary interpretations of Ahura Mazda
cover a spectrum ranging from monotheism to pantheism. Despite theological differences,
dualist and pantheist interpretations of Zoroastrianism have coexisted throughout history within
the same organisational framework.

Ahura Mazda's creation, evident as asha (truth and order), is opposed by chaos, evident as druj
(falsehood and disorder). This conflict involves the entire universe, including humanity, which
plays an active role.

Active participation in life through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds is essential to
ensure happiness and combat chaos. This active participation is central to Zoroaster's concept
of free will, and Zoroastrianism rejects all forms of monasticism.

Zoroastrians believe that Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail, leading to a cosmic renovation
and the end of time (Zoroastrian eschatology). In this final renovation, all of creation, including
the souls of the dead, will be reunited with Ahura Mazda. Malevolent forces are represented by
Druj, the "Destructive Principle," while benevolent forces are represented by Asha, the
"Bounteous Principle" of creation. Through spenta Mainyu, Ahura Mazda is immanent in
humankind and interacts with the world.

Zoroastrian cosmology holds that Ahura Mazda articulated the Ahura Vairya formula, indicating
the ultimate triumph over Druj. As expressions of creation, Ahura Mazda emanated seven
"sparks," the Amesha Spentas ("Bounteous Immortals"), each representing one aspect of
creation and assisted by a league of lesser principles, the Yazatas.

DEATH RITUALS
Zoroastrians believe that the human soul leaves the body four days after death. Traditionally,
the dead were placed atop open-topped enclosures called Towers of Silence, where vultures
and the weather would clean the flesh off the bones. In India, burial and cremation have
become increasingly popular due to the decline in the vulture population. Some Parsis have
developed solar concentrators to aid in cremation.

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
Fire symbolises the energy of the creator in Zoroastrianism, representing endurance, radiance,
purity, and life sustenance. Zoroastrians often pray in front of fire or any source of light, using it
as a symbol and point of focus.

Zoroastrians generally do not proselytise, but communities in Iran, Europe, and the Americas
have become more tolerant of conversion in recent years. Inter-faith marriage is encouraged,
although some Parsis in India hold stricter views on eligibility for inclusion in the faith based on
gender. These views are increasingly debated within the community due to societal changes
and a globalised world.

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31
RELIGIOUS TEXTS
The Avesta: The Avesta is the collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. While the texts are
ancient, the compendium as known today is primarily the result of a redaction thought to have
occurred during the reign of Shapur II (309-379 CE). However, some portions of the collection
have been lost since then, particularly after the fall of the Sassanid Empire in 651 CE, when
Zoroastrianism was supplanted by Islam. The oldest existing copy of an Avestan language text
dates to 1288 CE.

The most ancient texts of the Avesta are in Old Avestan, but the majority are from a later period,
likely from the Achaemenid era (648-330 BCE), with a few being even younger. These texts
were transmitted orally for centuries before being written down, and in existing copies, the
Avestan language words are written in the Pahlavi script, an invention of the Sassanid era (226-
651 CE).

The texts of the Avesta are generally divided into topical categories, though these categories
are not fixed or canonical. Some scholars prefer to group the texts into two categories: liturgical
and general.

The Yasna, the primary liturgical collection, includes the Gathas, thought to have been
composed by Zoroaster himself, as well as the Visperad, Yashts, and Vendidad. There are also
shorter texts and prayer collections, such as the Nyaishes, Siroze, and Afringans, some of
which are collected in the Khorda Avesta, or "Little Avesta," for daily lay use.

The texts of the Avesta are supplemented by several secondary works of religious or semi-
religious nature, which, though not sacred or used as scripture, have a significant influence on
Zoroastrian doctrine. These works date from the 9th to the 17th centuries.

PRINCIPAL BELIEFS
Faravahar (or Fravashi) is one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the
depiction of a guardian spirit.

Ahura Mazda is the creator of everything, visible and invisible, the Eternal, the Pure, and the
only Truth. Zoroaster himself acknowledged devotion only to Ahura Mazda, as stated in the
Gathas.

Daena (Din in modern Persian) is the eternal Law revealed to humanity through the Mathra
Spenta ("Holy Words"). Daena encompasses religion, faith, law, and duty, similar to the Hindu
and Buddhist concept of Dharma.

Asha, the equitable law of the universe, governs life and creation. Violations of asha are
violations against Ahura Mazda and creation itself, representing chaos, decay, or falsehood.

Mortal beings play a critical role in defending order against chaos. Zoroaster emphasises deeds
and actions, rejecting asceticism and emphasising moral choice and responsibility.

32
Predestination is rejected, and individuals are accountable for their actions and their
consequences.

Zoroastrian morality can be summarised as "good thoughts, good words, good deeds" (Humata,
Hukhta, Hvarshta), maintaining asha and keeping druj in check.

Additional beliefs, such as the opposition between Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu (good and
evil spirits), were introduced later and became widely accepted, influenced by Western concepts
and historical developments within Zoroastrianism.

CONCLUSION
From the discussion in this unit, you have learned:

1. The historical background of Zoroastrianism as an ancient religion of Persia.

2. The basic beliefs in Zoroastrianism.
3. Other characteristics of Zoroastrianism.
4. The religious texts, which are divided into six divisions: The Avesta, The Yasna, Gathas,
The Visperad, The Yashts, and The Vendidad.
5. Additional principal beliefs in Zoroastrianism, such as the belief in Faravahar as the
guardian spirit, Ahura Mazda as the creator, and Daena as the eternal law.

SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to the origin of Zoroastrianism as an ancient religion
founded by Prophet Zoroaster in the 6th century BCE in Persia. The religion encompasses
distinct beliefs and practices, with its own set of sacred texts. Certain beliefs are considered
fundamental in Zoroastrian doctrine. It's essential to grasp these concepts before proceeding to
the next unit.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Aletrino . L. (1968). Six World Religious, London; SCM press
Anyacho, E.O (1994) Essential Themes in the study of Religions, Markeurdi, Onalv printing and
publishing company Ltd.
Trevor . L. (1968) A History of Religion, Earth and West, An introduction and Interpretation
London, Macmillan Press.
William A. and Vagt, E.Z (1972) Reader in comparative religion, An Anthropological Approach,
New York, Harpy and Row press.

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 TAOISM

INTRODUCTION
Taoism (pronounced as Daoism) refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious
traditions and concepts that have influenced East Asia for over two millennia and the West for
over two centuries. The word Tao (or Dao, depending on the Romanization scheme) means
‘path’ or ‘way’, although in Chinese folk religion and philosophy it has taken on more abstract
meanings. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasise the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion,
moderation, and humility. Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the correspondence
between humans and the cosmos, health, longevity, wu wei (action through inaction), liberty,
and spontaneity.

“Without going out of your door, you can know the ways of the World. Without peeping through
your window, you can see the way of Heaven. The further you go, the less you know. Thus, the
Sage knows without travelling, sees without looking, and achieves without struggle.” - Lao Tse.

“Different Chinese Philosophers, writing probably in the 5th or 4th centuries B.C., presented
some major ideas and a way of life that are nowadays known under the name of Taoism, the
way of correspondence between man and the tendency or the course of the natural world.” -
Alan Watts, from his book: “Tao: The Watercourse Way.”

“We believe in the formless and eternal Tao, and we recognize all personified deities as being
mere human constructs. We reject hatred, intolerance, and unnecessary violence, and embrace
harmony, love, and learning, as we are taught by Nature. We place our trust and our lives in the
Tao, that we may live in peace and balance with the Universe, both in this moral life and
beyond.” - Creed of the Reform Taoist Congregation.

“For more than two thousand years, Daoism has evolved in close interaction with the other
major traditions of China Confucianism, Buddhism, ethnic creeds, and popular religion – and
adapted many of their features. To the present day, Daoism consists of a multiplicity of beliefs
and practices, and continues to develop, as it has for the past millennia, through the interaction
between differentiation and integration – the move to change in accordance with political,
cultural, and economic developments versus the urge to create stability through belief systems,
lineage lines, rituals, and myths.” - From the Amazon.com review of the book “Daoist Identity:
History, lineage, and ritual.”

Tao (pronounced “Dow”) can be roughly translated into English as path or the way. It is basically
indefinable. It has to be experienced. It “refers to a power which envelops, surrounds, and flows
through all things, living and non-living. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes
balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony of opposites (i.e., there would be no love
without hate, no light without dark, no male without female).”

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The founder of Taoism is believed by many religious historians to be Lao-Tse (604-531 BCE),
whose life overlapped that of Confucius (551-479 BCE) (Alternative spellings: Lao Tze, Lao Tsu,
Lao Tzu, Laozi, Laotze, etc.). However, other historians suggest that he is a synthesis of a
number of historical figures. Still others suggest that he was a mythical figure. Lao-Tse was
searching for a way that would avoid the constant feudal warfare and other conflicts that
disrupted society during his lifetime. The result was his book: Tao-te-Ching (a.k.a Daodejing).
Taoism started as a combination of psychology and philosophy but evolved into a religious faith
in 440 CE when it was adopted as a state religion. At that time, Lao-Tse became popularly
venerated as a deity. Taoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism, became one of the three
great religions of China. With the end of the Ch’ing Dynasty in 1911, state support for Taoism
ended. Much of the Taoist heritage was destroyed during the next period of warlordism. After
the communist victory in 1949, religious freedom was severely restricted. “The new government
put monks to manual labour, confiscated temples, and plundered treasures. Several million
monks were reduced to fewer than 50,000” by 1960. During the cultural revolution in China from
1966 to 1976, much of the remaining Taoist heritage was destroyed. Some religious tolerance
has been restored under Deng Xiao-ping from 1982 to the present time. Taoism currently has
about 20 million followers and is primarily centred in Taiwan. About 30,000 Taoists live in North
America; 1,720 in Canada (1991 census). Taoism has had a significant impact on North
American culture in areas of acupuncture, herbalism, holistic medicine, meditation, and martial
arts. Reverence of ancestor spirits and immortals are also common in popular Taoism.
Organised Taoism distinguishes ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some
professional Taoists (Daoshi) view as debased. Chinese alchemy (including Neidan), astrology,
cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, feng shui, immortality, and
many styles of qigong breath training discipline have been intertwined with Taoism throughout
history.

CATEGORIES OF TAOISM
There is a wide debate on whether and how Taoism should be subdivided. In his article:
"Exploring Taoism: What Is Taoism?" Eva Wong highlighted the main categories of Taoism
which include:

1. Philosophical Taoism: This branch focuses on the philosophical teachings found in the
Tao Te Ching and other classical Taoist texts. It emphasises concepts such as the Tao
(the Way), wu wei (non-action or effortless action), naturalness, simplicity, and harmony
with nature. Philosophical Taoism is more concerned with personal cultivation, ethical
living, and spiritual development rather than religious rituals or practices.

2. Religious Taoism: Also known as Taoist religious traditions, this branch incorporates
religious beliefs, rituals, and practices alongside Taoist philosophy. It includes rituals for
ancestor worship, deity veneration, ceremonial magic, alchemy, and the cultivation of
immortality. Religious Taoism often involves temples, priests, rituals, and festivals
dedicated to various Taoist deities and practices aimed at spiritual attainment and
longevity.

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 3. Alchemical Taoism: This branch focuses on the pursuit of immortality and spiritual
transformation through alchemical practices, including inner alchemy (neidan) and
external alchemy (waidan). Inner alchemy involves practices such as meditation,
breathing exercises, visualisation, and energy cultivation to refine and purify the body
and mind. External alchemy, on the other hand, involves the use of herbs, minerals, and
elixirs to promote physical health, longevity, and spiritual enlightenment.

4. Martial Arts Taoism: Taoist principles have also influenced the development of various
martial arts styles in China, such as Tai Chi, Baguazhang, and Xingyiquan. These
martial arts emphasise principles of balance, flexibility, adaptability, and the harmonious
integration of mind, body, and spirit. Practitioners often incorporate Taoist philosophy,
meditation, and energy cultivation techniques into their training to cultivate both physical
and spiritual well-being.

These categories are not mutually exclusive, and many Taoists may incorporate elements from
multiple branches into their practice. Additionally, Taoism has evolved and diversified over time,
resulting in a rich tapestry of beliefs, practices, and traditions within the broader umbrella of
Taoist spirituality.

Taoism does not fall strictly under an umbrella or a definition of an organised religion like the
Abrahamic traditions, nor can it purely be studied as the originator or a variant of Chinese folk
religion, as much of the traditional religion is outside of the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.
Robinet asserts that Taoism is better understood as a way of life than as a religion, and that its
adherents do not approach or view Taoism the way non-Taoist historians have done. Henri
Maspero noted that many scholarly works frame Taoism as a school of thought focused on the
quest for immortality.

A Taoist Temple in Taiwan, showing elements of the Jingxiang religious practice and sculptures
of Dragon and Lion guardians. Taoism has never been a unified religion, but has rather
consisted of numerous teachings based on various revelations. Therefore, different branches of
Taoism often have very distinct beliefs. Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that nearly
all the schools share.

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

Tao is the first cause of the universe. It is a force that flows through all life. “The Tao surrounds
everyone and therefore everyone must listen to find enlightenment. Each believer’s goal is to
harmonise themselves with the Tao. Taoism has provided an alternative to the Confucian
tradition in China. The two traditions have coexisted in the country, region, and generally within
the same individual.

The priesthood views the many gods as manifestations of the one Dao, “which could be
represented as an image or a particular thing.” The concept of personified deity is foreign to
them, as is the concept of the creation of the universe. Thus, they do not pray as Christians do;

36
there is no God to hear the prayers or to act upon them. They seek answers to life’s problems
through inner meditation and outer observation.

In contrast with the beliefs and practices of the priesthood, most of the laity have “believed that
spirits pervaded nature … The gods in heaven acted like and were treated like the officials in
the world of men; worshipping the gods was a kind of rehearsal of attitudes towards secular
authorities. On the other hand, the demons and ghosts of hell acted like and were treated like
the bullies, outlaws, and threatening strangers in the real world; they were bribed by the people
and were ritually arrested by the martial forces of the spirit officials.”

Time is cyclical, not linear as in Western thinking. Taoists strongly promote health and vitality.
Five main organs and orifices of the body correspond to the five parts of the sky: water, fire,
wood, metal, and earth.

Each person must nurture the Ch’I (air, breath) that has been given to them.

Development of virtue is one's chief task. The Three Jewels to be sought are compassion,
moderation, and humanity.

Taoists follow the art of “wu wei,” which is to let nature take its course. For example, one should
allow a river to flow towards the sea unimpeded; do not erect a dam which would interfere with
its natural flow.

One should plan in advance and consider carefully each action before making it.

A Taoist is kind to other individuals, in part because such an action tends to be reciprocated.

Taoists believe that “people are compassionate by nature… left to their own devices (they) will
show this compassion without expecting a reward.“

The Yin Yang symbol:

This is a well-known Taoist symbol. “It represents the balance of opposites in the universe.
When they are equally present, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is
confusion and disarray.” One source explains that it was derived from astronomical
observations which recorded the shadow of the sun throughout a full year. The two swirling
shapes inside the symbol give the impression of change – the only constant factor in the
universe. One tradition states that Yin (or Ying; the dark side) represents the breath that formed
the earth. Yang (the light side) symbolises the breath that formed the heavens.

One source states: “The most traditional view is that ‘yin’ represents aspects of the feminine:
being soft, cool, calm, introspective, and healing … and “yang” the masculine: being hard, hot,
energetic, moving, and sometimes aggressive. Another view has the ‘yin’ representing night and
‘yang’ day.

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Another source offers a different definition: a common misconception in the west is that” … yin
is soft and passive and yang is hard and energetic. Really it is yang that is soft and yin that is
hard, this is because yang is energetic and yin is passive. Yin is like a rock and yang is like
water or air, rock is heavy and hard and air is soft and energetic.”

Alan Watts, describes the yin and yang as negative and positive energy poles: “The ideogram
indicates the sunny and shady sides of a hill… they are associated with the masculine and the
feminine, the firm and the yielding, the strong and the weak, the light and the dark, the rising
and the falling heaven and earth, and they are even recognized in such everyday matters as
cooking as the spicy and the bland.”

However, since nothing in nature is purely black or purely white, the symbol includes a small
black swirl.

Ultimately, the ‘yin’ and ‘yang’ can symbolise any two polarised forces in nature. Taoists believe
that humans often intervene in nature and upset the balance of Yin and Yang.

Taoism or Daoism
There are two commonly used systems for translating the Mandarin Chinese language into
Roman letters: Wade Giles: This system is commonly used in Taiwan and the U.S. The Chinese
character for “Way” becomes “Tao,” which leads to the English word “Taoism.”

Hanyu pingyin or Pinyin: This system was developed by the Chinese people and is now finding
increased use worldwide. The “Way” becomes “Dao,” which leads to the English word “Daoism.”
The “Dao” is pronounced like the “Dow”.

Based on the appearance of each of the terms when searched on the internet, “Taoism” spelling
is adopted. A Google search for “Taoism” returned circa 245,000 hits, whereas a search for
“Daoism” returned only about 35,000 hits.

Tai Chi
There is a long history of involvement by Taoists in various exercises and movement
techniques. Tai chi in particular works on all parts of the body. It “stimulates the central nervous
system. Lowers blood pressure, relieves stress and gently tones muscles without strain. It also
enhances digestion, elimination of wastes, and the circulation of blood. Moreover, tai chi's
rhythmic movements message the internal organs and improve their functionality.” Traditional
Chinese medicine teaches that illness is caused by blockages or lack of balance in the body’s
“chi” (intrinsic energy). Tai Chi is believed to balance this energy flow.

TAOIST THEOLOGY
Taoist theology emphasised various themes found in the Daodejing and Zhuangzi, such as
naturalness, vitality, peace, “non-action” (wu wei) emptiness (refinement) detachment, flexibility,
receptiveness, spontaneity, the relativism of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding
behaviour.

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TAO
“Tao” is usually translated as road, channel, path, way, doctrine, or line. Wing-tsit Chan stated
that Tao meant a system of morality to Confucianists, but the natural, eternal, spontaneous,
indescribable way things began and pursued their course to Taoists. Hansen disagrees that
these were separate meanings and attributes. Cane asserts Tao can be roughly stated to be the
flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order, equating it with the influence that
keeps the universe balanced and ordered. Martinson says that Tao is associated with nature,
due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao. Tao is compared to what it is not, which
according to Keller is similar to the negative theology of Western scholars. It is often considered
to be the source of both existence and non-existence. La Fargue asserts that Tao is rarely an
object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concepts of atman and dharma.

Tao is also associated with the complex concept of De “power; virtue; integrity’, that is, the
active expression of Tao. De is the active living, or cultivation, of that “way” .

Wu wei (simplified Chinese: traditional Chinese: pinyin: wuwei) is a central concept in Taoism.
The literal meaning of wu wei is “without action”. It is often expressed by the paradox wei wu wi,
meaning “action without action” or “effortless doing”. The practice and efficiency of wu wei are
fundamental in Taoist thought, most prominently emphasised in Taoism. The goal of wu wei is
alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by
Taoists that masters of wu wei can observe and follow this invisible potential, the innate in-
action of the way.

In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature. Water is soft
and weak, but it can move earth and carve stone. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe
works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts his will against the world,
he disrupts that harmony. Taoism does not identify man’s will as the root problem. Rather, it
asserts that man must place his will in harmony with the natural universe.

Pu (simplified Chinese: traditional Chinese: pinyin: pu, pu; Wade-Giles: p’u; lit. “uncut wood”) is
translated “uncarved block”, “unhewu log”, or “simplicity”. It is a metaphor for the state of wu wei
and the principle of jian. It represents a passive state of receptiveness. Pu is a symbol for a
state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. In this state, Taoists believe everything
is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion.
Pu is usually seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of tao. It is believed to be the true
nature of the mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences. In the state of pu, there is no
right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There is only pre experience, or awareness, free from learned
labels and definitions. It is this state of being that is the goal of following wu wei.

Taoists believe that man is a microcosm for the universe. The body ties directly into the Chinese
five elements. The five organs correlate with the five elements, the five directions and the
seasons. Akin to the Hermetic maxim of “as above, so below,” Taoism posits that man may gain
knowledge of the universe by understanding himself.

39
In Taoism, even beyond Chinese folk religions, various rituals, exercises, and substances are
said to positively affect one's physical and mental health. They are also intended to align
oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys. These concepts
seem basic to Taoism in elite forms. Internal alchemy and various spiritual practices are used by
some Taoists to improve health and extend life, theoretically even to the point of physical
immortality.

The traditional Chinese religion is polytheistic. Its many deities are part of a heavenly hierarchy
that mirrors the bureaucracy of imperial China. According to their beliefs, Chinese deities may
be promoted or demoted for their actions. Some deities are also simply exalted humans, such
as Guan Yu, the god of honour and piety. The particular deities worshipped vary according to
geographical regions and historical periods in China, though the general pattern of worship is
more constant.

There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon. Popular Taosim
typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual (“elite”) Taoists, such
as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, “Lord Lao”) and the Three Pure
Ones at the top of the Pantheon of deities.

While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and o a lesser
extent in the Tao Te Ching, these have generally not become the objects of worship. Traditional
conceptions of Tao are not to be confused with the Western concepts of theism and
monotheism. Being on what the Tao does not indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu
sense, but rather living in accordance with nature.

Compared to a traditional Western perspective, the Taoist view of sexuality is considerably

more at ease. The body is not viewed as a dangerous source of evil temptation, but rather as a
positive asset. Taoism rejects Western mind-body dualism; mind and body are not set in
contrast or opposition with each other. Sex is treated as a vital component to romantic love,
however Taoism emphasises the need for self-control and moderation. Complete abstinence is
frequently treated as equally dangerous as excessive sexual indulgence. The sexual vitality of
men is portrayed ad limited, while

the sexual energy of women is viewed as boundless. Men are encouraged to control ejaculation
to preserve this vital energy, but women are encouraged to reach orgasm without restriction.
Taoists believe that a man may increase and nourish his own vitality by bringing a woman to
orgasm, thereby “activating” her energy and attuning it with himself. This is considered to be
beneficial to both partners.

The Tao Te Ching, or Daodejing, is widely regarded as the most influential Taoist text, holding a
foundational status in Taoism and serving as a ritual text throughout its history. However, its
precise date of authorship remains a subject of debate, with estimations ranging from the 6th
century BC to the 3rd century BC.

40
Taoist scholars have extensively analysed the opening lines of the Tao Te Ching, which are
widely discussed in both academic and mainstream literature. A common interpretation aligns
with Korzybski’s observation that “the map is not the territory.” The opening lines, with both
literal and common translations, are:

Tao, literally meaning “path” or “way,” can figuratively signify “essential nature,” “destiny,”
“principle,” or “true path.” The philosophical and religious concept of Tao is viewed as infinite,
transcendent, and formless, defying categorization or naming. Even the term “Tao” itself is seen
as potentially limiting, presenting a temptation to constrain the boundless essence it represents.

Although the Tao Te Ching lacks a thematic order, its main themes are repeatedly expressed
through varied formulations, often with subtle differences. These themes primarily revolve
around the nature of Tao and methods to attain it, emphasising its ineffability and the
achievement of greatness through modest means. The choice of English translation for the Tao
Te Ching and the preferred translation methodology spark significant debate and disputes, often
reflecting deeply entrenched views.

In addition to the Tao Te Ching, several ancient commentaries on the text hold significance. The
Heshang Gong commentary, likely dating back to the second century AD, stands as one of the
oldest commentaries and contains the edition of the Tao Te Ching passed down to the present
day. Other notable commentaries include the Xiang’er commentary and Wang Bi’s commentary.

Another important Taoist text is the Zhuangzi, named after its author, who appears as a
character within its narrative. Unlike the aphoristic style of the Tao Te Ching, the Zhuangzi
comprises a collection of stories featuring Laozi and Confucius among its cast of characters.

The Daozang, also known as the Treasury of Tao, is often referred to as the Taoist canon.
Initially compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties, the surviving Ming dynasty version
comprises nearly 1500 texts. The Daozang is divided into three dong, or “caves,” arranged
hierarchically.

Daoshi, or Taoist priests, typically select or inherit texts from the Daozang rather than consulting
published versions directly. These texts, passed down through generations, hold immense
significance in Taoist practice and belief. The Shangqing School, for example, emphasises
scriptural study as a path to Taoist understanding, with certain texts believed to confer
immortality upon frequent recitation.

While the Tao Te Ching stands as the most renowned Taoist text, other significant works exist
within traditional Taoism. Texts like the Taishang Ganying Pian and the Tai Ping Jing delve into
topics of morality, sin, and longevity, while others such as the Bao Pu Zi contain early
alchemical formulas thought to lead to immortality.

The roots of Taoism can be traced back to prehistoric folk religions in China, evolving over time
into a formal tradition associated with Laozi in the mid-second century AD. Taoism gained

41
official recognition in China during the Tang Dynasty, with subsequent imperial support during
the Song Dynasty. However, the Qing Dynasty favoured Confucian classics over Taoist works,
leading to a decline in Taoist influence. Today, Taoism is one of five recognized religions in the
People's Republic of China, regulated by a state bureaucracy, the China Taoist Association.

ADHERENTS OF TAOISM
The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining
Taoism. The number of people practising Chinese folk religion is estimated to be under four
hundred million. Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by
Taoist tradition. Estimates for the number of Taoists world wide range from twenty to over fifty
million.

Taoism as with other religions in China have been oppressed and discouraged during the
Cultural Revolution, thus the number of Taoists today greatly declined from the pre-Communist
China.

Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland

China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and various Chinese diaspora communities. Taoist
literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Organised Taoism
seems not to have attracted a large non-chinese following, except in Korea (e,g. see Kouk Sun
Do ) and Vietnam, until modern times. In Taiwan 7.5 million people (33% of the population)
identify themselves as Taoists. In Singapore, 8.5% of the population identify themselves as
Taoists. There are also small numbers of Taoists in the Western world.

At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the gods and/or spirits of the departed,
such as during the Qingming Festival. This may include slaughtered pigs and ducks or fruit.
Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper or Hell Bank Notes, on the
assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear not as a mere image, but as
the actual item – in the spirit world, and be available for the departed spirit to use. At other
dates, fasting or a vegan diet may be practised.

Also at certain dates, street parades take place. There are lively affairs which invariably involve
firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. Street parades may also
include lion dances and dragon dances; human – occupied puppets (often of the “seventh Lord”
and Eighth Lord”), jitong male “Mediums”) who mutilate their skin with knives; Bajiajiang which
are Kungfu- practising honour guards in demonic makeup; and palanguins carrying god-images.
The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the god in
question.

Fortune-telling – including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination – has long been
considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered. We may
distinguish between martial forms of mediumship (like the aforementioned jitong) and X spirit-
writing, typically through the practice of fuji (planchette writing).

42
Many Taoists also participated in the reading and writing of books. Taoists of this type tend to
be civil servants, elderly retirees, or in modern times, university faculty. While there is
considerable overlap with religious Taoism, there are often important divergences in
interpretation. Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and
Yijing) was in fact a Confucian.

A number of martial arts traditions, particularly Tai Chi Ch’uan, Bagua Zhang, Wing Chun, Won
Yuen Yat Hey Jueng, Bak Mei Pai, Bok Fou Pai, Yaw Gong Moon and Xing Yi Quan, embody
Taoist principles to a greater or lesser extent, and some practitioners consider their art to be a
means of practising Taoism.

Taoist symbols and images

The Taijitu (“yin and yang”) symbol as well as the Bagua (“Eight Trigrams”) are associated with
Taoist symbolism. While almost all Taoist organisations make use of the yin and yang symbol,
one could also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan- chinese. The yin and yang make a
backwards “s” shape, with yin (black or red) on bottom. One is likely to see this symbol as
decorations on Taoist organisation flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes.
According to Song Dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century. Previously, yin and
yang were symbolised by a tiger and dragon.

Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or
diagrams and are intended to fulfil various functions including providing guidance for the spirits
of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span etc. Other flags and banners may be those
of the gods or immortals themselves.

One sometimes sees a zigzag with seven stars, representing the Big Dipper (or the “Bushel”,
the Chinese equivalent). In the Shang dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while
during the Han dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.

Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which
feature Chinese dragons and phoenixes made from multi-colored ceramic tiles . They also stand
for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming
pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a
Celestial Master. But in general, Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that
distinguish it particularly from other structures.

Relations with other religions and philosophies

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men
laughing by a river stream, 12th century Song Dynasty.
The terms Tao and De are religious and philosophical terms shared between Taoism and
Confucianism. The authorship of the Tao Te Ching is assigned to Laozi, who is traditionally held
to have been a teacher of Confucius. However, some scholars believe the Tao Te Ching arose
as a reaction to Confucianism. Zhunagzi, reacting to the Confucian – Mohist ethical disputes in

43
his “history of thought”, casts Laozi as a prior step o to the Mohists by name and the Confucians
by implication.
Early Taoist texts reject the basic assumptions of Confucianism which relied on rituals and
order, in favour of the examples of “wild” nature and individualism. Historical Taoists challenged
conventional morality, while Confucians considered society debased and in need of strong
ethical guidance.

CONCLUSION
From this unit you have learnt the following:
● The origin of Taoist in China
● Categories of Taoist in China
● Beliefs and Practices about Taoist
● What Taoist theology all about
● The Toast Texts

SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to the background history of Taoism as a religion in China.
Also that Taoism could be divided into three which include in
1. Philosophical Taoism
2. Religious Taoism and
3. Complete Reality.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Alan .W. Tao te Chin, “The Nature of Polarity Divine Tao” com, at : http://divine tao com/
Arthur P. Wolf, “Gods, Ghosts, and Ancestress” In Judith A. Berlin “Taoism or the way” at:
https://www askasia.org/
“Our Beliefs” Reform Taoist Congregation at: https://www. Reformtaosm.org/ “Our Creed” at:
https://www.Reformtaoism.org
Stephen L and Eichmans (2000) Taoism and the Arts of Clins, Chicago, Arts Institute of
Chicago
"Exploring Taoism: What Is Taoism?" by Eva Wong, ThoughtCo, May 13, 2021,
www.thoughtco.com/what-is-taoism-3183223

44
ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

45
 JUDAISM

INTRODUCTION
Judaism, as both a religion and a historical narrative of the Jewish people, is intricately
intertwined with the pages of the Old Testament. The culmination of Jewish history as depicted
in the Old Testament is marked by the expectation of the coming Messiah. Throughout their
journey, the Jews faced numerous challenges that tested their faith in Yahweh, leading up to the
New Testament era and the emergence of Christianity, during which the Jews of Palestine
struggled for survival.

Early and Later Formations

Judaism traces its origins back to the time of the Babylonian exile when the Jews were forcibly
taken captive and relocated to Babylon. Initially, Judaism was primarily practised by the Jews
alone, with the belief that Yahweh had chosen only the Israelites.

Early Formation: The roots of Judaism can be traced back to Abraham, the first of the
Patriarchs, who received a divine call to leave Ur of Chaldea and journey to the land of Canaan,
where his descendants would become a great nation (Genesis 12). This promise was passed
down to Isaac and Jacob, Abraham's son and grandson, respectively.

However, Jacob and his family later settled in Egypt due to famine, where they multiplied in
numbers and became a significant presence. Eventually, they fell into servitude under the
Pharaohs. Moses, a Jew, led them out of Egypt at the command of Yahweh, revealing Himself
as their Redeemer and Liberator at Mount Sinai, where He established a covenant with them
and provided laws for them to follow. This marked the foundational period of Judaism.

Later Formation: Following Moses, Joshua assumed leadership over the Jews, succeeded by
various Judges, and later by Saul, David, and Solomon, each contributing to the propagation of
Judaism in their respective eras. After Solomon's reign, the kingdom of Israel split into the
Northern and Southern Kingdoms, both of which eventually fell to the Assyrians between 721
and 587 B.C. Jerusalem was destroyed, and many Jews were exiled, particularly to Babylon.

In Babylon, lacking the Jerusalem Temple, the Jews unified as a people practicing Judaism.
They established synagogues for worship and the study of Torah, the Jewish law, thereby
solidifying Judaism as a religion. This period also saw Judaism come into contact with other
cultures and regions.

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
● Explain the formation of Judaism.
● Discuss the distinctiveness of Judaism.
● Describe the central doctrines of Judaism.

46
 ● Examine Jewish festivals and their significance.

MAIN CONTENT

JEWISH DISTINCTIVENESS
Both young and old Jews strongly uphold the belief in the distinctiveness of the Jewish race.
What sets them apart from other races are numerous factors, chief among them being the
exodus event and the Sinai episode. This distinctiveness is evident in Jewish attitudes towards
people of other religions and beliefs.

Key Aspects of Distinctiveness

● At the age of 15, a Jewish boy becomes a "son of the commandment" and is called up to
read the Torah on the Sabbath following his birthday. During this ceremony, he is
instilled with the belief that the Israelites are the chosen people of God, and the Torah is
given to them alone.
● Additionally, Jews hold the belief that while all peoples and nations are God's creations
through Adam, only Jews are His chosen children through Abraham.
● Jews consider themselves a redeemed community and the covenanting partners of God.
As a symbol of their distinctiveness, circumcision is considered obligatory. This act is
seen as the supreme sign of loyalty and adherence to Judaism, as enjoined upon
Abraham and his descendants in Genesis 17:10-12. It symbolises the covenant sealed
in the flesh, making every Jew a beneficiary of the promise as Abraham's seed.

Central Doctrines of Judaism

Finding a universally accepted authoritative statement binding to all Jews is extremely difficult, if
not impossible. However, the following teachings on certain central doctrines of Judaism are
generally acknowledged by the majority of Jews:

1. God and Man: In Jewish conception, God is a complete personality, the Creator who
made man in His image. God is free from limitations and imperfections, serving as the
heavenly father who concerns Himself with man's fate. Man, as a creature of God,
shares in God's eternal spirit and maintains a cordial relationship with Him. This
relationship is disturbed when man fails to act in accordance with God's will but can be
restored through atonement.

2. Atonement: Jews teach that perfect reconciliation with God is achieved through
repentance, prayer, and active kindness. A repentant sinner receives pardon and
forgiveness from God, symbolised in the Day of Atonement when Israelites resemble
angels, free from sins and united in love and peace.

3. Messiah: The term Messiah, meaning "God's anointed," originated among Jews in exile,
signifying belief in a divinely appointed deliverer who would liberate Israel and bring
about peace, freedom, and justice.

47
 4. Future Life: Judaism embraces the belief in resurrection or future life, with the concept
gaining prominence during the Persian rule. The Book of Daniel provides insight into this
belief, which became a fundamental doctrine, especially among the Pharisees, despite
opposition from groups like the Sadducees.

5. Scriptures: Jews regard the Holy Scriptures as the authoritative words of God, holding
varying degrees of importance for different sections. The Torah, followed by the
prophets and writings, is considered most authoritative, with every letter and phrase
believed to bear the mark of divine origin.

6. Good and Evil: Judaism, being monotheistic, grapples with the problem of good and
evil, acknowledging that everything created by God is inherently good. Evil entered the
world due to human misuse of free will, affecting the Divine plan. Despite the presence
of evil, life holds unique significance and worth, serving as preparation or apprenticeship
for a future life.

In conclusion, Judaism views evil not only as a threat but also as a challenge to human
existence, emphasising the importance of maintaining a close relationship with God through
repentance and righteous deeds.

Torah: The Torah encompasses the entire body of written and moral law, representing the
mystery and tangible expression of God to the Jewish people. According to Jewish teachings,
Moses received the Torah on Mt. Sinai and passed it down through generations to ensure its
preservation. It serves as the source of life for the Jewish people, as emphasized in the Book of
Joshua 1:8. Adherence to the Torah is a requirement for every Jew, distinguishing them from
others.

Talmud: Often referred to as the "Sayings of the Fathers," the Talmud consists of discussions
and decisions by Jewish scholars and Rabbis on matters related to the Torah. It serves as a
compilation of commentary materials, reflecting the scholastic activities of Rabbis from the 3rd
to the 5th century AD. The Talmud outlines fundamental axioms that define Jewish belief,
including the existence and unity of a creator, the incorporeality and eternity of God, and belief
in prophecy, among others. Like the Torah, the Talmud has been a significant influence in the
lives of Jews, serving as a refuge during periods of persecution and ghettoization.

Jewish Festivals: The origin of various Jewish festivals dates back to the early history of the
Israelites, when they were organised into a Tribal Confederacy and made pilgrimages to the
central sanctuary. Three festivals commemorate these pilgrimages, coinciding with the three
main crops of the Holy Land: Passover during the barley harvest, Pentecost during the wheat
gathering, and Tabernacles during the fruit season. Passover, the most important of these
festivals, commemorates the Exodus from Egypt and signifies the special relationship between
the Israelites and God. Originally a nomadic feast observed by shepherds, Passover was
reinterpreted by the Israelites to symbolise God's intervention on their behalf. The festival

48
involves rituals such as the selection and sacrifice of a one-year-old lamb, the consumption of
unleavened bread and bitter herbs, and the consecration of households with sacrificial blood.

Comparison of Islam and Judaism

The historical interaction between Islam and Judaism dates back to the 7th century with the
origin and spread of Islam. Despite their differences, there are several common aspects
between Islam and Judaism, making Islam the major religion closest to Judaism compared to
Christianity, which has different origins.

Similarities
1. Fundamental Religious Outlook: Both Islam and Judaism share fundamental religious
outlooks, structures, jurisprudence, and practices. Many traditions within Islam originated
from traditions within the Hebrew Bible or from post-biblical Jewish traditions.

2. Abrahamic Tradition: Both religions trace their origins back to the Abrahamic tradition.
They share common patriarchs, prophets, and foundational narratives, including the
story of Abraham, Moses, and other figures.

3. Acceptance of Previous Revelations: Islam accepts many aspects of Judaism as part

of its faith, considering the Quran as the final revelation from God that completes all
previous revelations, including the Hebrew Bible. Both religions believe in the
importance of divine guidance and revelation.

Differences
1. Final Revelation: While Islam regards the Quran as the final revelation, Judaism does
not recognize the Quran as scripture and continues to adhere to the Hebrew Bible
(Tanakh) as its primary sacred text.

2. Interpretation of Divine Law: Although both religions have legal traditions derived from
divine law, there are differences in interpretation and application. Islamic Sharia law and
Jewish Halakha may have similarities but also distinct differences in their legal
frameworks.

3. Messianic Beliefs: While both religions have messianic beliefs, they differ in their
interpretations of the concept. Islam awaits the return of Jesus (Isa) as a major sign of
the Day of Judgment, while Judaism awaits the coming of the Messiah who will usher in
an era of peace and redemption.

CONCLUSION
Through this unit, you have learned that Judaism is intertwined with the history of the Jewish
people and is marked by distinctiveness, adherence to central doctrines, and the observance of
festivals that reflect their heritage.

49
In summary, while Islam and Judaism share significant historical and theological connections,
they also have distinct differences in their beliefs, practices, and interpretations. Understanding
these similarities and differences can foster greater appreciation and dialogue between
adherents of both religions.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Aletrino, L. (1986). Six World Religions, London, SCM Press.
Schwarz, J. (2000). Christian Faith, Minneapolis, Bethany HousePublishers.
Trevor, L. (1968). A History of Religion East and West: An Introduction and Interpretation,
London, MacMillan Press..

50
CHRISTIANITY FROM EARLY FORMATION TO THE CHURCH
OF THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES (474 – 800)

INTRODUCTION
The history of Christianity encompasses the Christian religion and the Christian church, tracing
from the ministry of Jesus and his Twelve Apostles to contemporary times and denominations.
As an Abrahamic religion, Christianity's fundamental distinction lies in its belief that Jesus Christ
is God the Son. The majority of Christians adhere to the doctrine of the Trinity, which views God
as consisting of three distinct persons: God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
However, theological differences persist among Christians regarding the nature of Jesus and
the triune nature of God.

In many Christian denominations, "The Church" is understood as the institution founded by

Jesus for the salvation of humankind. While this theological understanding is shared between
Catholic and Orthodox traditions, Protestant churches vary in their interpretation. Some
emphasise the personal relationship between believers and Jesus Christ, while others view the
church as the gathering of believers, both individually and collectively, throughout history.

Christianity originated in the 1st century AD in Jerusalem and quickly spread throughout the
Near East. It eventually became the state religion of various regions, including America,
Ethiopia, Georgia, and the Roman Empire. During the Age of Exploration, Christianity expanded
globally, becoming the world's largest religion.

Throughout its history, Christianity has experienced schisms and theological disputes, resulting
in various distinct churches. The major branches of Christianity include the Roman Catholic
Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, and Protestant churches.

Religious scholars generally agree on the basic details of Jesus' life, ministry, and crucifixion.
According to Christian belief, Jesus was born to a Jewish mother named Mary, began his
ministry around the age of thirty, and was eventually crucified in Jerusalem under the Roman
Governor Pontius Pilate. Christians believe that Jesus rose from the dead three days after his
crucifixion, and this event forms the basis of the Christian faith.

The primary sources of information about Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical
Gospels, supplemented by the Acts of the Apostles and the writings of Paul. Central to
Christianity's popularity is the belief in Jesus' death and resurrection as God's sacrifice for
human sins.

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain the formation of Christianity from the ministry of Jesus Christ to the Apostolic
era.

51
 2. Discuss the Canonicity of the Bible.
3. Describe the spread of Christianity up to AD 325.
4. Account for ecumenical councils.
5. Discuss the church of the Early Middle Ages (476).

MAIN CONTENT

EARLY CHRISTIANITY (33 – 325)

Early Christianity spans from its inception as a 1st-century Jewish sect to the end of imperial
persecution after the ascension of Constantine the Great in AD 313 and the First Council of
Nicaea in 325. This period can be divided into two phases: the apostolic period, led by Jesus'
apostles, and the post-apostolic period, marked by the emergence of Episcopal structures.

Apostolic Church
The apostolic church, also known as the primitive church, was led by Jesus' apostles and his
relatives. Following the Great Commission, the disciples spread Jesus' teachings globally. Acts
of the Apostles provides a historical account of the Church, from Pentecost to the establishment
of the Jerusalem Church, Paul's conversion, and eventual house arrest in Rome.

Initially, the first Christians were predominantly Jewish or Jewish Proselytes. However, the issue
of Gentile converts sparked debates within the early Christian community, ultimately addressed
by the Council of Jerusalem. The apostles' teachings brought the early church into conflict with
Jewish authorities, leading to their expulsion from synagogues and the emergence of
Christianity as a distinct identity.

Worship of Jesus
Early Christian beliefs, rooted in the gospels and New Testament Epistles, emphasise Jesus'
resurrection. Creeds and hymns from this period express belief in Jesus' resurrection and serve
as foundational elements of Christian faith. These beliefs originated within the Jerusalem
Church shortly after Jesus' death and continue to shape Christian theology.

Jewish Continuity
Early Christianity maintained some Jewish doctrines and practices while rejecting others. They
regarded Jewish scripture as authoritative, incorporating the Septuagint or Targum translations
into their religious texts. Practices such as baptism, liturgical worship, and adherence to a
religious calendar were retained, while circumcision was rejected as a requirement.
Modifications to Sabbath observance and the rejection of Quartodecimanism reflected
Christianity's evolving identity.

Post-Apostolic Church
The post-apostolic period saw the emergence of bishops as overseers of Christian
communities, with structures based on Apostolic Succession. Presbyters and deacons also

52
played crucial roles in the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Despite persecutions, including martyrdoms
under Roman authorities, Christianity continued to spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin.

Ecclesiastical Structure
By the late 1st and early 2nd centuries, a hierarchical Episcopal structure had developed, with
bishops overseeing urban Christian populations. Presbyters and deacons assisted bishops,
reflecting the organisational structure of Jewish communities. Apostolic Succession, through the
laying on of hands, established bishops as spiritual successors to the apostles, ensuring
continuity and authority within the Church.

Early Christian Writings

As Christianity spread, it attracted members from educated circles in the Hellenistic world, some
of whom became bishops. These individuals produced theological and apologetic works aimed
at defending the faith and refuting arguments against Christianity. Notable early church fathers
include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus of Lyons, Tertullian, Clement of
Alexandria, and Origen of Alexandria.

Canon of the Bible

The biblical canon refers to the set of books considered divinely inspired and constituting the
Christian Bible. While the early church used the Old Testament according to the Septuagint
(LXX) canon, there was initially no defined set of new scriptures. The New Testament
developed gradually over time.

The writings attributed to the apostles circulated among early Christian communities, with the
Pauline epistles being widely distributed and collected by the end of the 1st century AD. By the
early 2nd century, references to the "memoirs of the apostles" (i.e., the Gospels) were made,
and a four-gospel canon was established by the time of Irenaeus around 160 AD.

Although there was debate over certain books' canonicity, by the early 3rd century, Origen of
Alexandria had listed the same 27 books recognized in the modern New Testament. The
Muratorian fragments, dated to around 200 AD, also indicate a similar collection of Christian
writings, including the four Gospels.

By the 4th century, there was widespread acceptance of the New Testament canon, as
evidenced by Athanasius' list of exactly the same books as the modern canon. Councils such as
the African Synod of Hippo (393) and Council of Carthage (397, 419), under the authority of
figures like St. Augustine, affirmed the New Testament canon.

In the West, Pope Damasus I's Council of Rome in 382 and his commissioning of the Latin
Vulgate Bible in 383 were instrumental in establishing the canon. Pope Innocent I's letter to
Bishop Exsuperius of Toulouse in 405 further confirmed the sacred books' list.

While various councils and figures affirmed the New Testament canon, it wasn't until the Council
of Trent (1546) for Roman Catholicism, the Thirty-Nine Articles (1563) for the Church of

53
England, the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) for Calvinism, and the Synod of
Jerusalem (1672) for the Greek Orthodox that a full dogmatic articulation of the canon was
made.

SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY TO AD 325

Christianity's journey from its origins to AD 325 saw significant developments, including its
legalisation, doctrinal disputes, and the establishment of ecclesiastical structures.

Legalisation of Christianity
In the early 4th century, Emperor Constantine's ascension marked a turning point for
Christianity. Previously persecuted, Christianity gained legal recognition and support. In 311,
Galerius issued an edict permitting Christian practices, followed by Constantine and Licinius's
Edict of Milan in 313, which granted toleration to Christianity. Constantine's embrace of
Christianity marked a significant shift, leading to its eventual adoption as the state religion under
Theodosius I in 391.

Ecumenical Councils
The period up to AD 325 witnessed the convening of several Ecumenical Councils, primarily
addressing Christological disputes. The Councils of Nicaea (325, 382) condemned Arianism and
produced creeds, while the Council of Ephesus affirmed Mary as Theotokos and condemned
Nestorianism. The Council of Chalcedon affirmed Christ's dual nature, refuting Monophysitism.
However, not all denominations accepted these councils, leading to splits and disputes over
doctrinal issues.

The Council of Trent

In the 16th century, the Council of Trent addressed various ecclesiastical corruptions and
reaffirmed traditional doctrines in response to Protestant challenges. It emphasised clerical
celibacy, sacraments, transubstantiation, veneration of relics and saints, purgatory, and the
necessity of faith and good works for salvation. The council also promoted education for parish
priests to improve pastoral care, setting standards for the clergy.

Church of the Early Middle Ages (476-800)

The Early Middle Ages witnessed the transformation of the Roman world and the emergence of
distinct Western and Eastern Christian traditions. The decline of imperial control in the West led
to the rise of rural power centres and changes in ecclesiastical dynamics. The Bishop of Rome
(the Pope) navigated complex relationships with barbarian rulers, while the Eastern Church
maintained allegiance to the Eastern Emperor. Despite challenges, Christianity continued to
evolve, setting the stage for developments in the later Middle Ages.

CONCLUSION
In summary, the period leading up to AD 325 was a pivotal time in the history of Christianity.
Here are some key takeaways:

54
 1. Expansion and Legalisation: Christianity experienced significant growth and eventually
gained legal recognition under Emperor Constantine in 313 AD. This marked a turning
point in its status and allowed for further expansion and influence.

2. Persecutions and Challenges: Despite its growth, Christianity faced persecutions and
challenges, particularly in the post-Apostolic era after the death of the apostles. These
trials tested the faith of believers but also contributed to its resilience and endurance.

3. Ecclesiastical Structure: As Christianity spread, ecclesiastical structures were

established to organise and govern the growing community of believers. These
structures helped maintain order and unity amidst various challenges.

4. Early Christian Writings and Biblical Canon: The introduction of early Christian
writings and the formation of the biblical canon were crucial for solidifying the faith's
doctrinal foundation and protecting it from heretical teachings.

5. Ecumenical Councils: Ecumenical councils played a vital role in addressing doctrinal

disputes and standardising beliefs within the Christian community. These councils
brought together church leaders to resolve theological controversies and maintain unity.

COMPARING CHRISTIANITY AND JUDAISM

Historically, the relationship between the two has been strained, to say the least. The Jewish
conception of the Messiah holds certain similarities to that of Christianity, yet there are
substantial differences. According to Jews, the Hebrew scriptures contain a small number of
prophecies concerning a future descendant of King David who will be anointed as the Jewish
people's new leader and will establish the throne of David in Jerusalem forever. In the Jewish
view, this fully human and mortal leader will rebuild the land of Israel and restore the Davidic
Kingdom. This subject is covered in the section on Jewish eschatology.

Summary
You have been exposed to the formative periods of Christianity, the worship pattern in
Christianity, as well as the experience of persecutions after the apostolic era. You also learned
that the ecclesiastical structure was based on the doctrine of apostolic succession. The early
Christian writings were embarked upon for the purpose of establishing the true Gospel of Jesus
Christ from the mouths of the eyewitnesses before they all died. Also, it was written to stem
down heretical movements' activities on one hand and also to strengthen the faith of faithful
Christians at different locations and destinations. It was also discovered that the canonization of
the Bible was targeted for the standardisation of the Bible from being polluted. The legalisation
of Christianity was championed by Emperor Constantine the 1st in 313 AD, which repositioned
Christianity as a top world religion. It was also observed that the inauguration of Ecumenical
Councils was convened for the purpose of formulating certain rules and regulations aimed at
strengthening the activities of the then Christian bodies. Protestantism and the Church
Reformation came into being in response to the displeasure of Christian youths over various
abuses noted in the practices and lives of church leaders, while the Counter-Reformation was

55
said to be the reaction of Catholicism to Protestantism. You are therefore encouraged to master
the salient issues before moving on to the next unit.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Grudem, W. (1999). Bible Doctrine: Essential Teachings of the Christian Faith, Grand Rapids,
Zondervan.
Jefferey, P. (2001). Christian, Handbooks. A Straightforward Guide to the Bible. Church History
and Christian Doctrine, Bryntrion, Wales, Brytiri on Press.
Schwarz, J. (2000). Christian Faith, Minneapolis, Bethany House Publishers. Toynbee, A. J.
(1957). Christianity among the Religions of the World. New
York Charles Scribner’s Sons.

CHRISTIAN FROM PROTESTANT REFORMATION TO ECUMENISM

ERA (152 – 159)

INTRODUCTION
To understand the Reformation of the Christian church, one must begin with the deformation.
The Reformation was an attempt to recover a lost golden age of primitive purity as set forth in
the Bible. Why and how did the Reformation occur? The answer to this question is what we call
the deformation.

Partly because of the initial success of Christianity and in order to gain more converts, the
church had to accommodate itself to the modes of thought, language, and behaviour of the
people she wanted to convert. Eventually, when they became converts, they brought with them
much of their former paganism. This was true in the Roman world where Christianity was
spread chiefly through the conversion of individuals, but much more in the German lands where
entire tribes embraced the faith at the insistence of their rulers. The ancient gods then survived
either as demons or by having their functions transferred to Christian saints.

Another success was in the realm of government. With the fall of the empire under the barbarian
impact, the church took over many government functions and became involved in political
complications, particularly with the success of the Gregorian reform of the 11th and 12th
centuries. The churchmen who initiated the reform were resolved not to withdraw from the
world, not to collaborate with the world, but to dominate the world through the church itself had
to be reformed. The clergy must put away their wives. But the enforcement of clerical celibacy
resulted in widespread clerical concubinage. The general belief at the time was that those who
administered the saving sacraments, ministering to man’s eternal salvation, have an authority
superior to that of rulers dealing with man’s temporal welfare. It therefore follows that in the 13th
century, the papacy was solely responsible for regulating the behaviour of rulers. This was done
at the expense of pitting one power against another and of becoming so enmeshed in political
manipulations as to approach the verge of secularisation. The result was that the international

56
role of the papacy eventually called for financial levies on local churches, which the faithful
resented especially when the money was squandered on luxurious living.

In the realm of theology, the urge to turn from universals to particular made Christians initiate
sects composed of those committed to the practice of the ideal. This was done in defiance of
the church as an organised structure. And for well over 300 years prior to the Reformation, the
sects swarmed in Southern France and Northern Italy. Typical examples of these sects were the
Hussite Movement in England and that of John Wycliffe and his followers – the Lollards. The
performance of these groups centred on the ethical teachings aimed at correcting abuses in the
church.

It will then be seen that long before Martin Luther pressed the bottom which sparked off the fire
of the reformation, the factors just examined above had paved the way for the revival and
renewal of the Medieval church.
Here are some Revivalists involved

Peter Waldo
Peter Waldo, the leader of the Revivalist known in the history of church Reformation as
Waldensians, strongly believed in Reformation by the Word of God. To this effect, he translated
the Bible into the vernacular and raised up lay preachers. Taking a cue from our Lord, Waldo
sent out seventy disciples who spread their message into Southern France, Italy, Spain, and the
Rhine Valley.

His attacks on the worldliness of the church provoked great opposition. An appeal for
ecclesiastical recognition at the Lateran Council in 1179 failed, and in 1184, Pope Lucius III put
the Waldensians under ban. They organised themselves as a separate body, appointed their
own ministers, and administered the Eucharist once a year.

John Wycliffe (1320 – 1384)

John Wycliffe, the ‘Morning Star’ or ‘Grandfather’ of the Reformation, was born in 1320 in a
hamlet in Yorkshire. Like Waldo, he was a biblical reformer; he graduated in Theology at Oxford
and oversaw the first English translation of the Bible. It appears that his political, not theological
views led him to criticise the papal system, especially its methods of appointments and taxation.
He became convinced, as a result of his biblical studies, that the church was not what it should
be and must be brought back to apostolic purity of life and doctrines. He taught that the
possession of secular power by the clergy was incompatible with true religion and the teachings
of Christ the Savior. He issued a series of pamphlets advocating, among other things, the view
that the State must intervene and take control of the Church’s properties in the interest of the
poor.

Wycliffe asserted that the Bible is the law of God, distinguished from papal renouncements and
traditions. He inferred that the true church is one and indivisible, with Christ as its only Head, not
the Pope. The Babylonian captivity of the Popes at Avignon (1309 – 1377) had undermined
popular confidence in papal authority. The true apostolic church, he held, is not to be identified

57
with the visible institution but is made up of the elect, who have been predestined to be its
members. Salvation depends upon predestination and grace rather than upon baptism and
membership in the visible church. Royal power derives from God, for the purpose of protecting
the weak and administering justice, and must be accounted for on the Last Day. Hence the King
is their superior in all civil matters, and they hold their temporalities by his consent. The Pope
deserves reverence only when he lives and acts in a Christ-like manner; the church can exist
without him. Property is the result of sin; Christ and the apostles had none. Wicked men are not
entitled to property, and the state must see that they are deprived of it. The clergy and the
monks must be compelled to live in apostolic poverty. He condemned the “miracle of the Mass,”
image worship, prayer for the dead, worship of the Virgin Mary and the Saints, and the
worldliness and laziness of the clergy. He challenged the theory that the Pope could not err in
teaching revealed truth. Both the nobility and the middle class readily accepted this principle,
but the bishops and the well-endowed religious orders vigorously objected. Wycliffe was later
charged to appear first before the Bishop of London and later before the Archbishop of
Canterbury (1378). He was accused of heretical teachings. Parliament protected him when he
was later condemned by Pope Gregory XI (1380). Although he died two years later, his spirit
lived on in Britain and on the continent. His itinerant preachers, whom he named “Poor Priests,”
and whom posterity knows as Lollards, kept a true flame clearly burning through the long night
which only ended at the Reformation.

John Huss (1369 – 1415)

John Huss was born at Hussinetz, a little town south of Bohemia, in 1369. He rose to become
Professor of Philosophy at the University of Prague. Like his predecessor, Huss wanted to
reform the church by leading his contemporaries back to the Bible. He became the leader of a
reform movement which spread across Bohemia. His movement was soon opposed by the
Pope, who felt that his position was being threatened. Though he had the support of the entire
nation in his church reform, he was excommunicated by the Pope. The charge against him was
that he was spreading Wycliffe’s doctrine, which the church had earlier declared as heresy.
Eventually, John Huss was brought before the Council of Constance.

John Huss was condemned as a heretic and burnt at the stake in 1415. Seven bishops
performed the mockery of degrading him from the priesthood. His clerical garments were taken
from him; the cup of Eucharist, for the restoration of which to the laity he had striven, was
plucked from his hands. “We take from the condemned Judas the cup of salvation.” However,
the Council of Constance’s attempt to destroy heresy by burning Huss was a complete failure.
Rather, the death of their leader did not dismay his followers. After suffering a period of
persecution, the eclipse of the ideas for which Huss stood was only temporary. His ideas were
to revive again shortly after his death.

Erasmus Desiderius (1466 – 1536)

Erasmus Desiderius was born out of wedlock in Rotterdam. He was cared for by his mother but
he soon lost her and his father in the plague. As a child, he was put to school in Deventer and
had part of his education through the Brethren of the Common Life.

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His poverty caused him to enter the monastery of the Augustinian Canons at Steyen, but he had
no taste for monastic life, nor did he have for the priesthood for which he was ordained in 1490;
he later became the secretary of the Bishop of Cambrai. Then he studied in Paris, Italy,
England, and Germany. Although he obtained the degree of Bachelor of Divinity (BD) in 1498,
he had no love for scholastic theology. However, his friend John Colet directed him to the Bible
and urged him to study Greek. He was in Italy gathering knowledge by studying the primary
sources of ancient literature and deepening his conception of Christ humanism. His study of the
Bible was to make him more critical of clergy and civil rulers.

Erasmus was a sincere Christian and wished for the reform of the church. He wished to see the
church purged of superstition through the use of intelligence and a return to the ethical
teachings of Christ. He desired to break with the existing Catholic practices; he initiated no
innovation in doctrine or worship. Rather, he pleaded for ethical living, and in a politically divided
Europe, racked by chronic wars, he urged for peace. His approach to changes was rational. He
believed that through the appeal to man’s reason, both church and society could be improved.
He did this through his writings.

One such writing was his Handbook of the Christian Soldier. The book was meant to be a guide
to Christian living, depreciating formalities and ceremonies and emphasising morals. There was
also “The Praise of Folly,” a satirical description of current life from the Pope and cardinals down
through kings, nobles, monks, preachers, philosophers, and merchants to the lower strata of
society. “The Complaints of Peace,” in which he praised peace and condemned war, and his
“Familiar Colloquies,” in which he held up to ridicule what he deemed the corruptions in the
church and the monasteries.

His moral earnestness and his attempt to stress the New Testament, combined with the wide
readership enjoyed by his writing, did much to incite people to ask for reform in the church.

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain the Protestant Reformation.
2. Account for the efforts of the preliminary Reformation revivalists.
3. Account for the contributions of Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other revivalists to the
Reformation.
4. Explain the Counter-Reformation.
5. Discuss the period of Revivalism in the Christian church.
6. Discuss Ecumenism.

MAIN CONTENT

PROTESTANT REFORMATION (1521 – 1579)

In the early 16th century, movements were begun by two theologians, Martin Luther and Ulrich
Zwingli, that aimed to reform the Church; these reformers are distinguished from previous ones
in that they considered the root of corruptions to be doctrinal (rather than simply a matter of

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moral weakness or lack of ecclesiastical discipline) and thus they aimed to bring contemporary
doctrines into accord with what they perceived to be the “true gospel”. The word

Protestant is derived from the Latin “protestatio” meaning declaration which refers to the letter of
protestation by Lutheran princes against the decision of the diet of Speyer in 1529, which
reaffirmed the edict of the Diet of Worms against the Reformation. Since that time, the term has
been used in many different senses, but most often as a general term referring to Western
Christianity that is not subject to papal authority. The term “Protestant” was not originally used
by Reformation-era leaders; instead, they called themselves ‘evangelical’ emphasising the
‘return to the true gospel’ (Greek: evangelion).

The beginning of the Protestant Reformation is generally identified with Martin Luther and the
posting of the 95 Theses on the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany. Early priests were
against corruption such as simony, Episcopal vacancies, and the sale of indulgences. The three
most important traditions to emerge directly from the Protestant Reformation were the Lutheran,
Reformed (Calvinist, are also columnists), and Anglican traditions, though the latter group
identified as both “Reformed” and “Catholic”, and some subgroups reject the classification as
“Protestant”. The Protestant Reformation may be divided into two distinct but basically
simultaneous movements, the Magisterial Reformation and the Radical Reformation. The
Magisterial Reformation involved the alliance of certain theological teachers such as Luther,
Zwingli, Calvin, Cranmer, etc., with secular magistrates who cooperated in the reformation of
Christendom. Radical Reformers, besides forming communities outside state sanction, often
employed other extreme doctrinal changes, such as the rejection of tenets of the Councils of
Nicaea and Chalcedon. Often, the division between magisterial and radical reformers was more
violent than the general Catholic and Protestant hostilities.

The Protestant Reformation spread within the confines of Northern Europe but did not take hold
in certain northern areas such as Ireland and parts of Germany. By far the magisterial reformers
were more successful and their changes more widespread than the radical reformers. The
Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation is known as the Counter-Reformation, or
Catholic Reformation, which resulted in a reassertion of traditional doctrines and the emergence
of new religious orders aimed at both moral reform and new missionary activity. The Counter-
Reformation reconverted approximately 33% of Northern Europe to Catholicism and initiated
missions in South and Central America, Africa, Asia, and even China and Japan. Protestant
expansion outside of Europe occurred on a smaller scale through the colonisation of North
America and areas of Africa.

Martin Luther
Martin Luther was an Augustinian friar and professor at the University of Wittenberg. In 1517, he
published a list of 95 Theses, or points to be debated, concerning the ineffectiveness of selling
indulgences. Luther had a particular disdain for Aristotelian philosophy, and as he began
developing his own theology, he increasingly came into conflict with scholastic scholars, most
notably Cardinal Cajetan. Soon, Luther had begun to develop his theology of justification, or
process by which one is “made right” (righteous) in the eyes of God. In Catholic theology, one is

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made righteous by a progressive infusion of grace accepted through faith and cooperated with
through good works. Luther’s doctrine of justification differed from Catholic theology in that
justification rather meant “the declaring of one to be righteous”, where God imputes the merits of
Christ upon one who remains without inherent merit. In this process, good works are more of an
unessential by-product that contributes nothing to one’s own state of righteousness. Conflict
between Luther and leading theologians led to his gradual rejection of the authority of the
Church hierarchy. In 1520, he was condemned for heresy by the papal bull Exsurge Domine,
which he burned at Wittenberg along with books of canon law.

Ulrich Zwingli
Ulrich Zwingli was a Swiss scholar and parish priest who was likewise influential in the
beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Zwingli claimed that his theology owed nothing to
Luther, and that he had developed it in 1516, before Luther’s famous protest, though his
doctrine of justification was remarkably similar to that of the German friar. In 15178, Zwingli was
given a post at the wealthy collegiate church of the Grossmunster in Zurich, which he would
remain until his death at a relatively young age. Soon he had risen to prominence in the city,
and when political tension developed between most of Switzerland and the Catholic Habsburg
Emperor Charles V. In this environment, Zwingli began preaching his version of reform, with
certain points as the aforementioned doctrine of justification, but others (with which Luther
vehemently disagreed) such as the position that veneration of icons was actually idolatry and
thus a violation of the first commandment, and the denial of the real presence in the Eucharist.
Soon the city council had accepted Zwingli’s doctrine and Zurich became a focal point of more
radical reforming movements, and certain admirers and followers of Zwingli pushed his
message and reforms far further than even he had intended, such as rejecting infant baptism.
This split between Luther and Zwingli formed the essence of the Protestant division between
Lutheran and Reformed theology. Meanwhile, political tensions increased; Zwingli and the
Zurich leadership imposed an economic blockade on the inner Catholic states of Switzerland,
which led to a battle in which Zwingli, in full armour, was slain along with his troops.

John Calvin
John Calvin was a French cleric and doctor of law turned Protestant Reformer. He belonged to
the second generation of the Reformation, publishing his theological tome, the Institutes of the
Christian Religion, in 1536 (later revised), and establishing himself as the leader of the
Reformed Church in Geneva, which became an ‘unofficial capital’ of Reformed Christianity in
the second half of the sixteenth century. He exerted a remarkable amount of authority in the city
and over the city council, such that he had (rather ignominiously) been called a “Protestant
Pope”. Calvin established an eldership together with a ‘consistory’, where pastors and the
elders established matters of religious discipline for the Genevan population. Calvin’s theology
is best known for his doctrine of (double) predestination, which held that God had, from all
eternity, providentially foreordained who would be saved (the elect) and likewise who would be
damned (the reprobate). Predestination was not the dominant idea in Calvin’s works, but it
would seemingly become so for many of his Reformed successors.

Counter Reformation

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The Counter Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was the Catholic Church's response to the
Protestant Reformation. It emphasised a renewed commitment to traditional practices and the
preservation of Catholic doctrine as the foundation for ecclesiastical and moral reform, aiming to
halt the spread of Protestantism. This response included the establishment of new religious
orders like the Jesuits, the creation of seminars for priestly training, expanded missionary efforts
worldwide, and the development of new yet orthodox forms of spirituality. The Council of Trent
played a central role in this renewal by clarifying doctrine, issuing dogmatic definitions, and
producing the Roman Catechism. While various regions such as Ireland, Spain, and France
played significant roles, the heart of the Counter Reformation was in Italy, where initiatives like
the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (list of prohibited books) and the Roman Inquisition were
established under the leadership of popes of the time. The papacy of St. Pius V (1566 – 1572)
focused not only on combating heresy and abuses but also on promoting popular piety to
counter the appeal of Protestantism. His pontificate began with extensive charitable works, and
he actively supported missionaries. As Diarmaid MacCulloch noted, the rediscovery of ancient
Christian catacombs in Rome coincided with these efforts, serving as an inspiration for many
Catholics in their devotion and missionary zeal.

Revivalism (1720 – 1906)

Revivalism encompasses the Calvinist and Wesleyan revival, known as the Great Awakening, in
North America. This movement led to the development of evangelical Congregationalist,
Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist Churches. After its initial phase, revivalism gave rise to
new Restorationist movements.

Great Awakening
The first Great Awakening (1730 – 1740) ignited religious fervour among Protestants in the
American colonies, emphasising Godly preaching, simple liturgy, and personal redemption
through Christ. It was part of a broader Protestant revival that also included Pietism in Germany
and the Evangelical Revival in England. The Second Great Awakening (1800 – 1830) targeted
the unchurched, focusing on individual salvation experienced through revival meetings. It also
spurred the emergence of Restorationist groups like the Mormons and the Holiness movement.
The third Great Awakening, starting in 1857, extended the movement globally, especially in
English-speaking countries. Pentecostalism, originating from Methodist, Wesleyan, and
Holiness roots, emerged in 1906 on Azusa Street, Los Angeles, as the final outcome of these
awakenings, later giving rise to the Charismatic movement.

Restorationism
Restorationism encompasses various movements that viewed contemporary Christianity as a
departure from original Christianity and sought to "restore" it based on the early Church, often
drawing inspiration from the Book of Acts. These movements emerged from the Second Great
Awakening and are distinct from the Protestant Reformation in that they aim to recreate a lost
Church rather than continuously reform an existing one. Restorationism includes groups like the
Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and the Jehovah’s Witness Movement.

Ecumenism

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Ecumenism broadly refers to movements among Christian groups aimed at achieving a degree
of unity through dialogue. The term "ecumenism" comes from the Greek word "oikoumene,"
meaning "the inhabited world," suggesting a sense of universal oneness. The movement can be
categorised into Catholic and Protestant movements, with the latter characterised by a
redefined ecclesiology of "denominationalism," which some, including the Catholic Church,
reject.

Catholic Ecumenism
In recent centuries, efforts have been made to reconcile the schism between the Catholic
Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches. While progress has been made, issues such as
papal primacy and the autonomy of smaller Orthodox churches have hindered a final resolution.

Pope Leo XIII's Apostolic Letter Orientalium Dignitas in 1894 emphasised the importance of
Eastern traditions for the entire Church. In 1965, a Joint Catholic-Orthodox Declaration by Pope
Paul VI and Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I lifted the mutual excommunications dating
back to 1054.

Challenges in Catholic relations with Eastern Churches include doctrinal differences (such as
the Filioque controversy) and concerns about the preservation of Eastern ecclesiastical identity
within the larger Catholic Church.

Efforts have also been made to improve relations with Protestant communities, including
establishing commissions for dialogue and producing documents like the Joint Declaration on
the Doctrine of Justification with the Lutheran World Federation in 1999.

Ecumenism within Protestantism

Within Protestantism, ecumenical movements aim to identify essential doctrines and practices
shared among Christian groups, granting them a more or less equal status. This approach
challenges traditional notions of "the Church'' and instead views each group as a subgroup of a
broader Christian Church.

This denominationalism asserts that any group meeting essential Christian criteria is part of a
larger Christian Church, though this concept is abstract and lacks direct representation.
Essential criteria typically include belief in the Trinity and the salvific role of Jesus Christ.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the Protestant Reformation set the stage for the efforts of revivalists to address
abuses within the 16th-century Church. Figures like Peter Walde, John Wycliffe, John Huss, and
Erasmus Desiderius laid the groundwork for early Reformation ideals.

Martin Luther and other prominent reformers led the charge in establishing the Reformation
movement, giving rise to Protestantism. The Counter Reformation, while seeking to contain
Protestant influence, also prompted reforms within the Catholic Church.

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The Ecumenical Movement strives for unity among divided churches and denominations,
seeking to expand the Gospel message of Jesus Christ.

ZOROASTRIANISM AND CHRISTIANITY COMPARED

Similarities between Zoroastrianism and Christianity can be observed in their conceptualizations
of divine figures. For instance, Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism shares similarities with God the
Father in Christianity, both being considered the supreme deity. Similarly, Mithra in
Zoroastrianism can be compared to Christ the Logos in Christianity, representing divine wisdom
and mediation. Additionally, parallels exist between Vohu Manah (Good Mind) in Zoroastrianism
and the Holy Spirit in Christianity, both symbolically associated with water.

Both Zoroastrianism and Christianity identify as monotheistic religions, emphasising the worship
of one God. However, they highlight specific aspects or energies of the divine without
considering them as separate deities. Both traditions also include the concept of guardian
angels or fravashi, which are created beings distinct from the divine energies or emanations.

Various theories have been proposed regarding the potential relationships between these
aspects of Zoroastrianism and concepts found in esoteric Christianity, Jewish Kabbalah, Islamic
mysticism (Sufism), as well as other religious systems such as Gnosticism, Yazidism, and the
Druze.

SUMMARY
This unit has provided an overview of the preliminary attempts at reformation, the establishment
of the decisive reformation order, and the subsequent Counter Reformation. It has been
highlighted that Protestantism emerged as a result of the reformation order, signalling a
movement away from established church practices.

The Great Awakenings, occurring amidst various churches and Christian believers, were
manifestations of revival within Christian communities. These movements led to the restoration
of various purposes within Christian circles, fostering expansion among existing churches and
paving the way for the emergence of new denominations and movements.

Protestantism and the church reformation were responses to discontent among Christian youth
regarding perceived abuses within the church leadership. The Counter Reformation, on the
other hand, was the Catholic Church's response to Protestantism.

With these key points in mind, you are encouraged to thoroughly grasp the issues discussed
before proceeding to the next unit.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Clark, C. P.S. (1968). Short History of the Christian Church. London: Longman Ltd. Fiend, W. H.
C. (1965). The Reformation. London: Longman Group Ltd.
Henry, C. (1978). The Early Church. New York: Penguin Books Ltd.
Latowrette, K. S. (1953). A History of Christian. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers.

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Lindsay, T. M. (1964). A History of the Reformation. Edinburgh: T & T Clark.

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 ISLAM

INTRODUCTION

THE HISTORICAL ORIGINS OF ISLAM: ARABIA BEFORE ISLAM

Arabia, the expansive western peninsula of Asia, spans an area of approximately 1,230,000
square miles. Its name is thought to have originated from Araba, a location in Tihama, southern
Arabia, where Ya’rub ibn Qahtan, the progenitor of the Arabs, also derived his name.

The Arabian Peninsula is bounded by water on three sides: the Euphrates in the northeast, the
Arab Gulf in the east, the Indian Ocean in the south, and the Red Sea in the west.
Characterised by vast seas of sandy deserts and ranges of rocky mountains, Arabia
experiences severe climatic conditions, with the exception of the southwestern corner where
Yemen lies. In Yemen, rain occasionally falls during the winter season, nourishing patches of
grass for livestock and facilitating the cultivation of orchards and cereals in oases sustained by
wells.

The majority of the people in central and northern Arabia were nomadic, migrating in search of
water and pasture. However, the inhabitants of Mecca and Yathrib (later known as Medina)
were more settled. These settled communities undertook two annual journeys: one to Yemen in
winter and another to Syria in summer, as referenced in the Quran in the Surah of Quraysh. In
contrast, the southern regions of Arabia were more civilised, with established kingdoms such as
the kingdom of Saba. Migration from southern Arabia to the north occurred following the
collapse of the Ma’rib Dam, leading to settlements in central Arabia and beyond.

Beyond the borders of Arabia, two powerful empires, the Byzantine Empire and the Persian
Empire, exerted influence. These empires were engaged in conflict for centuries prior to the
advent of Islam. Two Arab tribes, the Ghassanids in Syria and the Lakhmids in Iraq, established
buffer kingdoms aligned with Byzantine and Persian interests respectively.

The pre-Islamic era in Arabia was characterised by a lack of civilization, rampant superstition,
and idolatry. Practices such as infanticide and human sacrifices were common, and tribes
engaged in perpetual warfare due to the absence of stable governance. Despite the introduction
of Christianity and Judaism by Christians and Jews who settled in Arabia, idolatry persisted, and
the preaching of these religions had limited success.

The period preceding the advent of Islam is referred to in Islamic tradition as the Age of
Ignorance, denoting a state of lawlessness and deviation from pure monotheism. The Prophet
Muhammad denounced idolatry and sought to restore the monotheistic faith of Abraham and
Ishmael.

OBJECTIVES

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By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
● Explain the origins of Islam.
● Describe the life of Prophet Muhammad.
● Discuss the significance of Hijrah.
● Explain Islamic beliefs.
● Describe the importance of prayer in Islam.
● Discuss the concept of Zakat (almsgiving).
● Explain the significance of fasting in Islam.
● Discuss the rituals of pilgrimage (Hajj) in Islam.

MAIN CONTENT

THE LIFE OF PROPHET MOHAMMAD

His Infancy: Muhammad, born in Mecca on Monday 12th of Rabi’ Awwal (April 20, 571 AD),
was the son of a distinguished Arab family renowned for their religious and political influence.
His father passed away before his birth, and according to Arab custom, Muhammad spent his
early years in the desert under the care of a wet nurse, Halimah. In the desert, he learned
patience and the skills of tending sheep and goats. At the age of four, he returned to his
mother's care, and at six, following the death of his mother, he was entrusted to the care of his
grandfather, ‘Abdul-Muttalib, and later his uncle, Abu-Talib.

His Childhood: Muhammad shared a strong bond with his uncle, accompanying him on
caravan journeys. At the age of twelve, during a trip to Syria, they encountered a Syrian monk
named Bahira, who recognized prophetic qualities in Muhammad and advised his uncle to
protect him from potential harm. Muhammad spent much of his youth working as a shepherd, a
common occupation among prophets. He abstained from pagan practices and earned the
nickname al-Amin, meaning the honest and reliable one, due to his exemplary character.

His Marriage: At the age of twenty-five, Muhammad married Khadija, a wealthy widow highly
regarded in Meccan society for her beauty and character. Their marriage was marked by mutual
respect and love, and Khadija bore him six children. Despite the loss of all but one child during
his lifetime, Muhammad maintained a close and loving family life.

His Manhood: Muhammad's integrity and wisdom were demonstrated on several occasions,
including his arbitration in the placement of the Black Stone during the rebuilding of the Ka’bah.
His dissatisfaction with the prevailing superstitions and pagan practices led him to seek solitude
in the cave of Hira, where he devoted himself to the worship of God according to the religion of
Abraham. At the age of forty, Muhammad experienced a transformative divine event that
marked the beginning of his prophetic mission and forever changed the course of history.

THE MISSION OF ISLAM

The first sign of Muhammad's prophetic calling was his vivid dreams, which manifested in
waking life exactly as he had seen them. While contemplating in the cave of Hira’, outside

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Mecca, Muhammad pondered over the wonders of creation: the sun, the moon, the stars, the
seas, the winds, and all living creatures.

On the 17th of Ramadan (February, 610 AD), Muhammad received his first revelation. It came
in the form of a dialogue between teacher and pupil, between the Archangel and Muhammad.
"Read," insisted Gabriel. "But how shall I read?" asked the astonished pupil. "Read," insisted
Gabriel. "What shall I read?" asked the solitary hermit.
Gabriel then recited the first five verses of the surah of al-Alaq (the Clot), which are: "Read: in
the name of your Lord who creates. Creates man from a clot. Read, and your Lord is the most
generous. Who teaches by the pen. Teach man that which he knew not."

This was the initial fragment of the Qur’an. After reciting, the angel disappeared, leaving
Muhammad overwhelmed and feverish. Upon returning home, he asked his wife to cover him.
Khadija, his devoted wife, comforted him with wise and consoling words, assuring him that God
would not harm him, for he had always been truthful and just.

Seeking further reassurance, Khadija took Muhammad to her cousin, Waraqa Ibn Nawfa, who
was familiar with the scriptures. Upon hearing the story, Waraqa declared Muhammad to be the
awaited Prophet foretold by Jesus. He warned Muhammad of the persecution he would face, as
no one before him had delivered such a message without hostility.

Convinced of the reality of his visions, Muhammad awaited further calls. After about three years,
he received a revelation appointing him as the Messenger of God, tasked with delivering the
divine message to humanity. Gabriel conveyed his responsibility: "Oh you, who cover yourself
carefully, get up, and spread your announcement" (surah 74:1, 2).

Thus began Muhammad's role as the Messenger of Islam, a mission that spanned twenty years,
with ten years in Mecca before the Hijrah (the migration to Medina) and ten years in Medina
before his death. He initially preached discreetly, gradually gaining followers, including his wife
Khadija, his cousin Ali, and others.

Despite opposition and persecution from the Meccans, Muhammad's message slowly gained
traction. His teachings emphasised the oneness of God and called for an end to idol worship,
challenging the beliefs and traditions of the Meccan elite. As the number of Muslims grew, so
did the resistance from the Meccans, leading to increased violence and persecution.

To escape persecution, Muhammad allowed some of his followers to seek refuge in Abyssinia,
where they were welcomed by the Christian king. Muhammad himself faced conspiracy and
suffered personal losses, including the deaths of his uncle Abu-Talib and his wife Khadija.
These hardships marked what Muhammad called the "Year of Suffering."

Realising the need for allies, Muhammad sought support from other tribes, finding success with
the people of Medina. They embraced his message and converted, eventually inviting

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Muhammad to Medina. This marked a turning point, as Muhammad received support and
protection in Medina, laying the foundation for the growth and spread of Islam.

The Hijrah (Migration from Mecca to Medina) (622 A.D.)

Before the Hijrah, Muslims did not constitute a nation or even a community. They lacked a
majority in Mecca. Muhammad prepared for migration to Medina after being invited by its
people, who pledged support and commitment to Islam. When God sanctioned the Hijrah,
Muhammad instructed his followers to migrate in small numbers. Suspecting the plan, the
Quraysh held an emergency meeting, deciding to kill Muhammad. Abu Jahl proposed selecting
a strong man from each tribe for the execution.

When warriors attacked Muhammad's house, they found Ali Ibn Abi Talib instead. Following
footprints, they reached the cave of Thawr, but seeing cobwebs at the entrance, abandoned
their search. Muhammad and Abu Bakr hid in the cave for three days before secretly travelling
to Yathrib. On September 24, 622, Muhammad and his followers arrived in Yathrib, where they
received a warm welcome. The Prophet established a mosque and a home beside it.

Meccans who migrated to Yathrib were called al-Muhajirin (the emigrants), while Yathrib
residents were known as al-Ansar (the helpers). From the outset, a strong bond formed
between the two groups. The Ansar shared their wealth and lived in harmony with the Meccans.
Muhammad's authority in Medina was unique, blending absolute power with consultation,
theocratic rule with socialism, and divine commandments with general principles.

THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

The Five Pillars of Islam represent the core principles and practices that form the foundation of
Muslim life and worship. These pillars serve as a framework for religious observance, spiritual
growth, and community engagement. Here's an overview of each pillar:

1. Shahada (Declaration of Faith): The first pillar of Islam is the declaration of faith,
known as the Shahada. It is a simple proclamation affirming the oneness of God (Allah)
and the prophethood of Muhammad. The Shahada is recited by Muslims as a testimony
to their belief and commitment to Islam. The declaration is: "La ilaha illallah,
Muhammadur rasulullah," meaning "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the
Messenger of Allah."

2. Salah (Prayer): Salah, or prayer, is the second pillar of Islam. Muslims are required to
perform five daily prayers at specific times: Fajr (dawn), Dhuhr (noon), Asr (afternoon),
Maghrib (sunset), and Isha (night). These prayers serve as a means of spiritual
connection, reflection, and submission to Allah. Prayer involves physical gestures,
recitation of Quranic verses, and supplication, and it is considered essential for
maintaining a close relationship with the Divine.

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 3. Zakat (Almsgiving): Zakat, or almsgiving, is the third pillar of Islam. It entails the
obligation for Muslims to give a portion of their wealth to those in need, typically
calculated as 2.5% of one's savings and assets annually. Zakat serves as a means of
social welfare, wealth redistribution, and solidarity within the Muslim community. It aims
to alleviate poverty, support charitable causes, and promote economic justice.

4. Sawm (Fasting during Ramadan): Sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan, is
the fourth pillar of Islam. Muslims abstain from food, drink, smoking, and other physical
needs from dawn until sunset throughout the lunar month of Ramadan. Fasting is not
only a test of self-discipline but also a means of spiritual purification, empathy with the
less fortunate, and increased devotion to prayer and Quranic recitation. Ramadan
concludes with the celebration of Eid al-Fitr, a festive occasion marking the end of
fasting.

5. Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca): Hajj, the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca in Saudi
Arabia, is the fifth pillar of Islam. It is obligatory for Muslims who are physically and
financially able to undertake the journey at least once in their lifetime. Hajj occurs
annually during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah and involves a series of rituals
commemorating the experiences of Prophet Abraham and his family. The pilgrimage
culminates in the celebration of Eid al-Adha, which commemorates Abraham's
willingness to sacrifice his son Ismail as an act of obedience to Allah.

ISLAMIC BELIEFS
A person demonstrates acceptance of Islamic beliefs and commitment to its regulations by
proclaiming, "I acknowledge that there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His Messenger."

1. Belief in Allah
The cornerstone of Islam is belief in Allah—His existence, unity, and perfection. The
Qur’an presents rational and intuitive evidence for this belief, urging reflection on the
universe's wonders and the inner consciousness's recognition of a supreme Creator.

2. Belief in Angels
Islam requires belief in Angels, Jinn, and the Soul. Angels are described as supernatural
beings who carry out divine commands and communicate with prophets.

3. Belief in Messengers
God sent messengers to guide humanity, including Muhammad, the last prophet.
Muslims honour and respect all prophets mentioned in the Qur’an, recognizing their role
in delivering God’s message.

4. Belief in the Scriptures

Scriptures are God's messages to mankind, guiding them in faith and conduct. Muslims
believe in all Scriptures revealed through God's messengers, including the Qur’an, which
is considered the final revelation.

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 5. Belief in the Last Day
The Last Day, or Day of Resurrection, marks the afterlife. Every individual will be judged
based on their deeds in this world. Belief in the Last Day motivates people to seek
righteousness and prepare for the Hereafter.

6. Belief in Destiny for Good and Evil

Muslims believe in destiny but also affirm free will. While individuals choose their
actions, God guides them. Belief in destiny does not negate personal responsibility but
provides assurance that outcomes align with God's plan.

PRAYER
Prayer, or Salah, stands as a cornerstone of Islamic worship, embodying both physical and
spiritual devotion. Instituted one year prior to the Hijrah from Mecca to Medina, it serves as a
profound connection between the individual and the Divine. Muslims are called to engage in
prayer five times daily, each session marked by specific timings and rituals. This regular
observance fosters a continuous awareness of God's presence and nurtures spiritual growth.

Prayer in Islam transcends mere physical acts; it symbolises submission, gratitude, and
communion with Allah. Whether performed individually or in congregation, Salah offers believers
an opportunity to express reverence, seek guidance, and reflect on their spiritual journey. It
serves as a reminder of one's purpose and responsibilities in the world.

The significance of prayer is underscored in both the Qur’an and the Sunna. In Surah An-Nisa
(4:103), believers are commanded to observe prayer at designated times, highlighting its
centrality in Islamic practice. Additionally, the teachings of Prophet Muhammad emphasise
prayer as one of the five pillars of Islam, emphasising its indispensable role in a Muslim's life.

Muslims are instructed never to neglect prayer, regardless of circumstances. Even those unable
to stand are encouraged to perform Salah in whatever manner possible, reaffirming the principle
of unwavering devotion. Deliberate omission of prayer is considered a grave transgression,
reflecting a lack of faith and commitment to Islamic principles.

The types of prayers in Islam encompass various categories, each serving a distinct purpose
and significance:

1. Obligatory prayers: These include the five daily prayers (Fajr, Dhuhr, Asr, Maghrib,
Isha), Friday prayer (Jumu'ah), and the funeral prayer (Janazah). Obligatory prayers are
foundational to the Muslim's spiritual routine and serve as pillars of daily devotion.

2. Emphatic Sunna prayers: These prayers are recommended but not obligatory and
include rituals such as the Witr prayer, the two Eid prayers, prayers for celestial events
like solar or lunar eclipses, rain prayers, congregational prayers, and prayers during
travel. While not mandatory, these prayers hold spiritual merit and are encouraged as
acts of piety.

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 3. Supererogatory prayers (Nafl): These are voluntary prayers performed beyond the
obligatory and emphatic Sunna prayers. They include acts such as the Duha prayer
(performed after sunrise), Tarawih prayer (offered during Ramadan), mosque salutation
prayer, pre-dawn prayer (Tahajjud), and prayers for specific occasions such as lunar
eclipses.

Each type of prayer in Islam serves to deepen the believer's connection to Allah, fostering
spiritual growth, and nurturing a sense of devotion and mindfulness in everyday life.

ZAKAT (RELIGIOUS TAX)

Zakat, often referred to as the religious tax, constitutes the third form of worship in Islam. It
serves as a fiscal obligation by which Islam mandates the affluent to attend to the needs of the
underprivileged and contribute towards public welfare initiatives such as hospitals, educational
institutions, and defence forces.

It embodies a sacred duty for the affluent to allocate a portion of their surplus wealth, beyond
their own needs and those of their dependents, as stipulated by Islamic law. This act of giving is
not only a religious obligation but also a means of fostering societal well-being, nurturing
compassion, and fostering a culture of mutual support and cooperation. Through Zakat,
communities safeguard themselves against tyranny, poverty, and crime, while nurturing
democratic values, prosperity, and productivity. Additionally, Zakat serves as a safeguard
against exploitation resulting from the concentration of wealth, ensuring equitable distribution
and social justice.

The Quran underscores the importance of Zakat in purifying and sanctifying wealth, stating,
"Take alms of their wealth, whereby you may purify and sanctify them" (Quran, sura 9: 103).
Additionally, in the Sunna, the Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) delineated Zakat as one of the
five pillars of Islam, emphasising its significance alongside prayer, acknowledgment of faith,
fasting, and pilgrimage.

Fasting Before Islam

Fasting predates Islam and has historical roots in various religious traditions, including
Christianity, Judaism, and ancient civilizations like Egypt and Greece. This ancient practice
served as a form of worship recognized across diverse cultures and faiths, highlighting its
enduring significance in spiritual discipline and self-restraint.

Significance of Fasting
Fasting in Islam serves as a voluntary act of abstaining from certain permissible indulgences,
aiming to test and strengthen one's resolve, foster empathy with the less fortunate, and cultivate
self-discipline. By experiencing hunger and deprivation, Muslims cultivate compassion,
hospitality, and solidarity with the impoverished, fostering a sense of communal responsibility
and social consciousness.

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Types of Fasting
Fasting in Islam encompasses various forms, including obligatory fasting (Fard) such as fasting
during Ramadan, fasting of expiation or atonement (Kaffarah), and voluntary fasting (Tatawwu’).
Each type of fasting carries its own significance and serves as a means of spiritual purification
and devotion.

Fasting in the Month of Ramadan

Ramadan fasting involves abstaining from food, drink, smoking, and sexual relations from dawn
until sunset throughout the lunar month of Ramadan. This obligatory fast serves as a
manifestation of obedience to divine commandments and a means of spiritual reflection, self-
discipline, and gratitude. The Quran and Sunna emphasise the importance of Ramadan fasting,
underscoring its role in spiritual renewal, guidance, and gratitude.

Certain conditions govern the obligation of fasting in Islam, including maturity and the ability to
fast. Those who are exempted from fasting include individuals facing health challenges,
travellers, and nursing or pregnant women, among others. While some exemptions require
making up missed fasts later (Qada’), others entail offering fidya (ransom) or feeding the needy
in lieu of fasting.

PILGRIMAGE (AL-HAJJ) AND THE LESSER PILGRIMAGE (‘UMRA)

The literal meaning of pilgrimage (Hajj) is to set out towards a definite objective. In Islamic law, it
means to set out for the Ka’bah, the Sacred House, and to fulfil the pilgrimage rites. “Umra"
means a visit. In Islamic law, it means visiting the Sacred House.

Distinction between Hajj and ‘Umra

Pilgrimage is obligatory and performed in the well-known months (Sawwal, Dhul- Qi’dah, and
Dhul-Hijjah).

The Significance of Pilgrimage

Pilgrimage is one of the five fundamental principles of Islam. It was instituted in the sixth year of
Hijrah. It is also a form of physical or external worship in Islam. It is an annual form of
congregational worship in which all Muslims who are able to make the trip assemble all over the
world at Mecca, the home of revelation for Muhammad (peace be upon him). It is a public
worship expressing the full equality among Muslims gathered from all over the world with
common objectives, all performing the same actions, all seeking to gain God’s favour. Abu
Huraira reported that the Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) said: “He who performs
pilgrimage without committing any sin during his journey, returns home as if he were just born.
At Mecca, pilgrims are spiritually levelled whether rich or poor, rulers or ordinary people,
scholars, or labourers. There, all of them, wearing similar white, seamless robes and shorn of
class distinctions, assemble around a single centre which inspires them with a strong sense of
unity. There their views and aims are unified, and their resolution is strengthened to work
cooperatively for the fulfilment of general good.

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To Whom Pilgrimage is Obligatory
Pilgrimage is incumbent upon the adult Muslim in full possession of his faculties, provided he is
able to perform it. It is not to be demanded from anyone other than Muslims, not from children or
lunatics; in accordance with the words of the Prophet: “The pen is withdrawn from three persons
i.e. The pen which records human acts pending divine judgement, the sleeper till he awakes,
the child till he grows up, and the lunatic till he is cured from his insanity”. The ability here
means meeting the expenses of travel and the provision for the pilgrim and his family at home.
Those, of course, do not concern the inhabitants of Mecca or its vicinity. If children accompany
their families when performing the pilgrimage, it is considered by the children as a laudable
action which does not exempt them from the obligation of pilgrimage when they become of age.
The parents or guardians of such children may carry out all the rites of pilgrimage for them. He
who dies without performing pilgrimage is acquitted of his obligation if his descendant carries
out pilgrimage in his name and with his own money, or if they provide a substitute to do this by
proxy. The person who is incapacitated by old age or an incurable disease may choose
someone to perform pilgrimage on his behalf. Pilgrimage by proxy is not valid unless the person
designated has himself already performed it as an obligation.

The state of Ihram makes all men and women stand upon one plane of equality, all wearing the
same very simple dress and living the same simple conditions. All distinctions of rank and
colour, of wealth and nationality, disappear: and the prince is now indistinguishable from the
peasant. The whole of humanity assumes one aspect, one attitude, before the Master. Thus, the
greatest and noblest sight of human equality is witnessed in that wonderful desert plain called
“Arafat”. The lower connections have all been cut off, and all the comforts of this world have lost
their attraction for the Lord. The pilgrim, indeed, represents the last stage of spiritual
advancement, and by his outward condition and his movements, the pilgrim only announces to
the whole world how all the lower connections must be cut off to reach the great goal of human
perfection and nearness to God, which can only be attained by holding true communion with the
Unseen Divine Being.

COMPARING CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM

Islam shares a number of beliefs with Christianity. They share similar views on monotheism,
judgement, heaven, hell, spirits, angels, and a future resurrection. Jesus is acknowledged and
respected by Muslims as a great prophet. However, while Islam relegates Jesus to a lesser
status than God in the Quran, mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity believes quite firmly and
without question that Jesus is God, the Son, one of the three Hypostases of Christianity's Holy
Trinity, equally God as God the Father and the Holy Spirit. However, an Islamic parallel to the
Christian Trinity could be seen as the ‘beautiful Name’ of God, which represents distinctly
manifest qualities of the one God (Allah), rather than ninety-nine distinct gods. The religions
both share a belief in the virgin birth of Jesus, his miracles and healings, and that he ascended
bodily into heaven. However, Jesus is not accepted as the person of the Son within the Trinity
by Muslims except in the sense of being someone loved by God. They believe in God as a
single entity, not as the Trinity accepted by the vast majority of Christians, nor do Muslims
accept Jesus' crucifixion. Since Muslims believe only in the worship of a strictly monotheistic
God, who never assumed human flesh, they do not accept the use of icons and see this as shirk

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(idolatry). Muslim influence played a part in the initiation of iconoclasm, and their conquests
caused the iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire. For the same reason, they do not worship or
pray to Muhammad, Jesus, or any other prophets except to God (Allah).

Adherents of Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among
others) as people of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to
have divine origin. Christians, however, neither recognize the Quran as a genesis book of divine
revelation nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as a mere prophet. Muslims, for their part,
believe that parts of the Gospel, Torah, and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten,
misinterpreted, or distorted by their followers. Based on that perspective, Muslims reject belief in
the Trinity or any other expression of the divinity of Jesus as incompatible with monotheism. Not
surprisingly, the faiths have often experienced controversy and conflict. At the same time, much
fanciful dialogue has occurred as well. The writings of Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas
frequently cite those of the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, as well as Muslim thinker
Averroes. On May 6th, 2001, Pope John Paul II, the first Pope to pray in a mosque, delivered an
address at Omayyad Mosque in Damascus, saying: “It is important that Muslims and Christians
continue to explore philosophical and theological questions together in order to come to a more
objective and comprehensive knowledge of each other's religious beliefs. Better mutual
understanding will surely lead, at the practical level, to a new way of presenting our two religions
not in opposition, as has happened too often in the past, but in partnership for the good of the
human family.” In countries dominated by Islam, Christians typically practise their faith under
severe restrictions. Proselytising to Muslims is often a criminal act, and any Muslim who
converts to Christianity would likely face severe censure from family and friends, if not also legal
repercussions. In contrast, Muslims in countries dominated by Christians are generally allowed
to worship unhindered.

CONCLUSION
From the discussions in this unit, you have learned about:
● The origins of Islam.
● The Life of Prophet Mohammad.
● The Hijrah.
● Islamic Beliefs.
● Prayer.
● Zakat.
● Fasting.
● Pilgrimage.

SUMMARY
In this unit, you have become familiar with the historical background of Islam, the life and call of
Prophet Mohammad, the events that led to the Hijrah, as well as Islamic beliefs. Also, the study
has afforded you to know what Prayer, Zakat, Fasting, and Pilgrimage mean in Islam. You are
advised to master the main issues in this unit before you move to the next one.

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REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Bashir. S. M. (1980). Islamic Religions Knowledge for West African School Certificate books 1
and 2, Lagos, Islamic Publication Bureau.
Trimingham, J. S. (1975). A History of Islam in West Africa, London, Oxford University Pres.

Richard, T. (1990). Approaches to Islam, London, John Murray.

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 BAHAISM

INTRODUCTION
The word Bahai derives from ‘Baha’ (glory, splendour) and signifies a follower of Bahá'u'lláh.
The Bahai faith is a religion founded by Mirza Husayn Ali. The religion stemmed from the Babi
faith founded in 1844 by Mirza Ali Muhammad of Shiraz, known as the Bab. The religion
emphasised the forthcoming appearance of “Him Whom God shall Make Manifest” – a new
prophet or Messenger of God. The Babi faith, in turn, springs from Shia Islam, which believed in
the return of the 12th Imam – a successor of Muhammad. This Imam would renew religion and
guide the faithful.

On May 22, 1844, in Shiraz, Persia, a young descendant of Muhammad, Siyyid Ali Muhammad,
proclaimed to a learned Shaykhi divine, Mulla Husayn-I-Bushrui, that he was the expected
Qa'im. Because of this declaration, Mulla Husayn became the first disciple of Siyyid Ali
Muhammad, who assumed the title of the Bab (Gate; or Channel of grace from some still veiled
from the sight of men).

Soon the teachings of the Bab, the principal of which was the tidings of the coming of “Him
Whom God shall make Manifest”, spread all over Persia, provoking strong opposition on the
part of the clergy and the government. The Bab was arrested and after several years of
incarceration, condemned to death. In 1850, he was brought to Tabriz, where he was
suspended by ropes against a wall in a public square. A regiment of several hundred soldiers
fired a volley. When the smoke cleared, the large crowd that had gathered at the place of
execution saw ropes cut by bullets but the Bab had disappeared. He was found unhurt in an
adjacent building calmly conversing with a disciple. The execution was repeated, this time
effectively. There followed large-scale persecution of the Babis in which more than 20,000
people lost their lives.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
● Account for the origin of Bahaism.
● Explain how Bahaism was spread.
● Discuss the religious and social tenets of the Bahai faith.
● Discuss how Bahaism is being practised.
● Account for the organisation and administration of the Bahai community.

MAIN CONTENT

**The Spread of the Faith**

Bahá'u'lláh, who had been an early disciple of the Bab, was arrested in connection with an
unsuccessful attempt on the life of the Shah of Persia, Nasiri-Din (1852), by two Babis. The two

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Babis were said to have wanted to avenge the death of their master. Bahá'u'lláh was thrown into
the Black Pit, a notorious jail in Tehran. While in jail, he became aware of his mission as a
messenger of God. After his release in 1853, he went to Baghdad where he revived the Babi
community. The Persian government was alerted, and Bahá'u'lláh and his followers were forced
to move further away from Persian borders.

After spending twelve days in his hideout, Bahá'u'lláh declared to a small number of Babis that
he was the messenger of God whose advent had been prophesied by the Bab. He made a
public proclamation of his mission in letters (tablets) which he addressed to the rulers of Persia,
Turkey, Russia, Austria, as well as to the Pope and to Christian and Muslim clergy collectively.
The majority acknowledged Bahá'u'lláh’s claim and henceforth, became known as Bahais.
Before his death in 1892, Bahá'u'lláh saw his religion spread to many parts of the world. Before
his death, Bahá'u'lláh appointed his eldest son, Abdul-Bahá (servant of the glory) 1844-1921, as
the leader of the Baha'i community and the authorised interpreter of his teachings. Abdul-Bahá
not only administered the affairs of the movement from Palestine but also actively engaged in
spreading the faith, travelling in Africa, Europe, and America from 1910 to 1913.

RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL TENETS OF BAHA'I FAITH

During the course of his teachings, Bahá'u'lláh had proclaimed that this religion was the newest
religion on earth. According to him, the Baha'i faith is the fulfilment of all world religions. For a
Christian, the prophecy concerning the return of Christ in the glory of the Father has been
fulfilled. His new name on this day is Bahá'u'lláh, the glory of God. For those who hold to the
Jewish faith, the prophecy of the coming of the Lord of Hosts has been fulfilled in Bahá'u'lláh.
For Muslims, the prophecy concerning the ‘Great Announcement’ has been fulfilled in the
appearance of Bahá'u'lláh. Similarly, the Buddhist prophecy concerning the return of Krishna
has at last been fulfilled by the same prophet, Bahá'u'lláh. For a Zoroastrian, Bahá'u'lláh fulfils
the awaited coming of the Shah Bahram. With the advent of Bahaism, God has released the
spiritual power which will unite all mankind in one universal faith and establish peace and
brotherhood in the person of Bahá'u'lláh. Followers of all religions must, therefore, turn to
Bahá'u'lláh for spiritual guidance. He further pushed his argument forward with the following
religious and social tenets:

1. God is Unknowable: Bahá'u'lláh teaches that God is unknowable and beyond every
human attribute such as corporal existence, ascent and descent, egress and regress. No
tie of direct intercourse can possibly bind Him to His creatures. No sign can indicate His
presence or His absence. Rather, God has chosen to reveal Himself through his
messengers, among them Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus Christ,
Muhammad, and the Bab, who were one and all exponents on earth of Him who is the
centre of the universe.

2. God is the Creator: In Bahai teachings, God is the Creator; Man was created through
God’s love. The purpose of man’s existence, as taught by Bahá'u'lláh, is to know and to
worship God and to carry forward an ever-advancing civilization. Man, Bahá'u'lláh
taught, is the noblest and most perfect of all created things and is endowed with an

79
 immortal soul, which, after separating from the body, enters a new form of existence. To
fulfil God’s purpose, man must recognize the messenger of God within whose
dispensation he lives.

3. The Oneness of Mankind: Unity or oneness is found in everything. There is only one
God unit found in every part of His creation from the very smallest thing to the infinitely
large universe of suns, stars, and planets. There must be unity in the human family. This
means the unity of classes, of races, of religions, and of nations. According to
Bahá'u'lláh’s teaching, the unity of races, religions, and nations will be accomplished in
the Baha'i era. It is the plan of God and He will bring it into existence. The ignorance and
prejudice of man may delay it, but they cannot prevent it.

4. Oneness of Religion: Bahá'u'lláh says the oneness of religion helps to bring peace,
unity, and happiness to the world. The peoples of the world, whatever race or religion,
are subjects of one God. The difference between the ordinances under which they abide
should be attributed to the varying requirements and urgent needs of the age in which
they were revealed. All religions are reflections of His Will and purpose.

5. Elimination of Prejudice: Prejudice is deciding about something before we know the

true facts about it. It comes from our emotions or feelings and not from our minds. It is
always unjust to someone or something. Many kinds of prejudice are found in all
countries and among all people. This includes dislike or hatred of people of other nations
or tribes; prejudice between the followers of the great religions of the world; racial
prejudice between the White and the Black; and class prejudice. To study and follow the
Bahai faith is the surest way to cure prejudice. The Bahai teaching replaces prejudice
with love, unity, and justice.

6. The Harmony of Science and Religion: Religion comes to man through Divine
Revelation. Science comes through observation and investigation. But Bahá'u'lláh says
that the beginning of all knowledge is the knowledge of God. So, scientific knowledge as
well as religion is therefore a manifestation of God. True science and true religion are
therefore two parts of divine truth. They cannot disagree when properly understood since
man’s progress depends on the two. Some hundreds of years ago, science and religion
really fought each other when the church was the authority then. It was considered
wrong to use the power of reason (science) which is God’s greatest gift to man. Things
have changed for the better. The Baha'i Faith is the link which unites true science and
true religion.

7. Equality of Men and Women: Humanity is like a bird whose two wings represent men
and women. Unless the wings are equally strong, the bird of mankind cannot fly well. It is
therefore necessary for men and women in the world to receive education on an equal
basis. If it is impossible for both boys and girls in a family to go to school, it is more
important for the girls to receive education. The reason for this is that the mother is the

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 first and most important teacher of the children. Children of an ignorant mother have a
poor start in life.
PRACTICES IN BAHAI FAITH
Membership in the Bahai community is open to all who profess faith in Baha'u'llah and accept
his teachings. There are no initiation ceremonies, no sacraments, and no clergy. Every Bahai,
however, is under the spiritual obligation to pray daily; fast 19 days a year, going without food or
drink from sunrise to sunset; to abstain totally from narcotics, alcohol, or any substances that
affect the mind; to practise monogamy; to obtain the consent of parents for marriage; and to
attend the Nineteen Day Feast on the first day of each month of the Baha'i calendar. The
Nineteen Day Feast, originally instituted by the Bab, brings together the Baha'is of a given
locality for prayer, the reading of scriptures, the discussion of community activities, and for the
enjoyment of one another’s company. The feast is designed to ensure universal participation in
the affairs of the community and the cultivation of the spirit of brotherhood and fellowship.
Eventually, Bahais in every location plan to erect a house of worship around which will be
grouped such institutions as a home for the aged, an orphanage, a school, and a hospital. In the
early 1970s, houses of worship existed in Illinois, Frankfurt West Germany, Kampala Uganda,
Sydney Australia, etc. In the temples, there is no preaching; services consist of recitation of the
scriptures of all religions.

The Organization and Administration of Bahai Community

The Bahai community is governed according to general principles proclaimed by Baha'u'llah and
through institutions created by him that were elaborated and expanded by his son and
successor Abdul-Baha. These principles and institutions constitute the Bahai administrative
order which the followers of the faith believe to be a blueprint of a future world order.

Organisation and Administration

Local Level: The governance of the Baha'i Community begins on the level with the election of a
local spiritual assembly. The electoral process excludes campaigning, parties or factions,
nomination, and campaigning for office. The Local Spiritual Assembly has jurisdiction over all
local affairs of the Baha'i community.

National level: On the national scale, each year Baha'is elect delegates to a National
Convention that elects a National Spiritual Assembly with jurisdiction over the entire country.

International Convention: All National Spiritual Assemblies of the world periodically constitute
themselves into an international convention and elect the Supreme governing body as the
Universal House of Justice. In accordance with Baha'u'llah’s writings, the Universal House of
Justice functions as the Supreme administrative, legislative, and judicial body of Bahai
commonwealth. It applies the laws promulgated by Baha'u'llah and legislates on matters not
covered in the sacred texts. The seat of the Universal House of Justice is in Haifa, Israel, in the
immediate vicinity of the Shrines of Baha'u'llah at Bahji near Akka.

CONCLUSION
From the discussions you have experienced so far in this unit, you have learned that:

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 ● Bahaism was founded in 1844 by Mirza Ali Muhammed.
● The Spread of Bahaism came into being in 1853 to Persian land and beyond.
● Bahaism was spread with the aid of its religious and social tenets which are seven (7) in
number.
● Bahaism has its own peculiar manner of practising it.
● The Bahai community is governed according to general principles proclaimed by
Baha'u'llah.

CHRISTIANITY AND BAHAI FAITH

The Baha'i faith believes in one God who sends divine messengers to guide humanity
throughout time, a concept known as progressive revelation (Baha’i). This differs from the
Christian belief in progressive revelation. Bahais recognize the divine knowledge and essence
of Jesus, along with other messengers such as Muhammad, Zoroaster, and Moses. While they
accept Jesus' teachings, they hold different views on the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus. In
Bahai belief, prophets possess both human and divine characteristics but are not themselves
God; they are considered "divine manifestations." The Trinity is seen symbolically, with Jesus
and the Holy Spirit as mirrors reflecting the pure light from God. Bahais and Christians share
some views on moral behavior, condemning practices like polygamy, premarital sex, and
homosexuality, while approaching individuals with love, respect, and dignity.

SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learned about the origins of Bahaism as an offshoot of the Islamic religion
through a man named Mirza Ali Muhammad. You have also become acquainted with Bahaullah,
who spearheaded the spread of Bahaism to Persia, Turkey, Russia, Australia, and other parts of
the world. The unit discussed the religious and social tenets of Bahaism that shaped its
activities and programs. Additionally, it outlined the manner in which Bahaism is practised, along
with its organisational and administrative procedures for members.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Aletrino, L. (1968). Six World Religions, London; SCM, Press.
Schwarz, J. (2000). Christian Faith Minneapolis; Bethany House Publishers.
Trevor, L. (1968). A History of Religion East and West: An Introduction and Interpretation,
London, MacMillan Press.

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 AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION AND
RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE
This module examined African Traditional Religion and Religious Dialogue.
The module is divided into two units. They include;
Unit 1: African Traditional Religion from early formation to the Technological Development in the
society.
Unit 2: Nature of African Traditional Religion
Unit 3: Religious Dialogue.

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 AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION: FROM THE EARLY
FORMATION TO THE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN
THE SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION
African traditional religion also known as African Indigenous religion is a term referring to a
variety of religions indigenous to the continent of Africa. African Traditional religions involve
teachings, practices, and rituals that African lend structures to indigenous African societies.
These traditional African religions also play a large part in the cultural understanding and
awareness of the people and their communities. The purpose of the study of African Traditional
Religion is to discover the belief and philosophy of Africans about the Supreme Being and the
supernatural World.

DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN THE STUDY OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

The African Traditional Religion scholars have observed the following obstacles during
research.

1. The content
The African continent was described as a ‘dark continent’ why the size disallows access
to some remote villages despite modern communication gadgets. Researchers gather
local information from a handful of people and use that as a basis of reaching
conclusions to their findings. This is unhealthy for the proper study of their religion.

2. Dislocated population
Owing to many factors like European settlement and inter-tribal invasions, some African
people were either exterminated or dislocated. As a result, some of the people die and
some are eventually absorbed by other people. In cases even where the indigenous
population still live, the memory of their tradition has become distorted and in some
cases, almost forgotten.

3. Indoctrination
The African people were made to believe by the Westerners that their culture and
religion were irrelevant. Africans easily reject their cultural value. It is such people that
eventually lose touch with these traditions.

4. Western Education
The adoption of Western education at the expense of African forms of education had
been responsible for civilization. Africans migrate from their local situations to urban
centres. They lost touch with their traditional values. In some cases, such people find
themselves as heads of the traditional cults and they are ignorant of the significance of
the cult they lead. Information gathered from such sources, can at best be warped.

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 5. Language
Africa is a confluence of innumerable languages, with different dialects. Nigeria has over
250 languages and 400 dialects. The researcher is thus faced with the problem of
analysing the traditions in languages that are foreign to him.

6. Death
The aged people who had first hand information on African Traditional Religion are
dying. The knowledge of the tradition and religion of the people usually perishes with
them. Their children are also victims of Western education and have lost interest in
African traditions. The aged had no reliable successor to hand over to. Today, we have
distortions, exaggerations and gaps in our study of African Traditional Religion.

7. Other Faiths
The African continent had been invaded by external religions. This has resulted in
irreparable damage to the African Traditional Religion in that those people either lose
touch completely or become syncretistic in their approach.

8. Unwritten Records
Since African Traditional Religion relies on oral traditions, the scholars must be patient in
the collection, collation and analysis of these traditions. For objective purpose, the
scholars should interview many adherents of the religion and examine other various
views.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to;
● Explain what African Traditional Religion is all about.
● State the difficulties encountered in describing African Traditional Religion.
● State various terminologies used in describing African Traditional Religion.
● Explain sources of information African Traditional Religion.
● Discuss the identifiable roles of Religion in African society.
● Account for the identifiable roles of religion in African society.
● Explain the sociological dimensions of African Traditional Religion.
● State the sociological dimension of African Traditional Religion.
● Discuss African Traditional Religion and Technological development in the society.

MAIN CONTENT

VARIOUS TERMINOLOGIES USED IN DESCRIBING AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

The Westerner scholars had no grasp of the religion. They coin various terminologies to
describe the beliefs and practices of the Africans. We will examine these concepts.

1. Paganism
Paganism had its root in the Latin word ‘paganus’, which is used for a village dweller,
that is, one that is far away from civilization. The word originally is used by sociologists

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 to distinguish between the civilised and the sophisticated or the rustic, unpolished from
the polished and the educated; hence it has no religious connotation. The word in
African Traditional Religion connotes racial discrimination. It is derogatory terms
imposed by Europeans to describe their superiority over Africans who they believe are
inferior to them.

2. Heathenism
Heathenism is derived from the German language and also means one who dwells
outside the circle of enlightenment. The root word is heath which refers to the outskirts of
the town where vagabonds and outlaws live and the heathen is the one who has the
characteristics of the heath dwellers. The word is a tool in the hands of racial
discriminators.

3. Idolatry
This word is derived from the Greek eidolon. It means something which is false. Since
these representations in African Traditional Religion are mere symbols, it would be unfair
to label African Traditional Religion as counterfeit and lacking originality.

4. Fetishism
This word originates from The Latin factitius. Europeans spelt it as feitico, fetiche, fetish
or faitis and it carries the meaning of an object that has been made beautifully and
neatly. It also carries the meaning of a charm. In the real sense, fetishism is the religion
in which the object of worship is not symbolic but it is worshipped for itself and this kind
of belief is absent in Africa.

5. Animism
The usage of this word was popularised by E.B. Taylor. He defines it as the doctrine of
souls and other spiritual beings in general. Animism is not a monopoly of African
Traditional Religion alone, all religions have a share of the doctrine of animism. The
being of God in any religion is established on the fact that God is Spirit.

6. Polytheism
Polytheism is the belief in two or more gods that are co-eternal, co powerful and equal in
attributes. The divinities that are many are representatives or ministers who have
derived their power and existence from God Himself and are actually nothing apart from
God. The African believes only in one Supreme God.

TOWARDS AN APPROPRIATE TERMINOLOGY

E.G. Parrinder advised that it would be useful to devise a term which would denote religions that
have a supreme God and also worship other gods. One thing that has been established so far in
the structure of African Traditional Religion is that there is a belief in God and He is a little
transcendent and holy, man on his own cannot approach him, hence the need to go through
intermediaries who are the divinities. As a result, many scholars have suggested terms that are
rather descriptive. Professor Osadolor Imasagie recommends the term bureaucratic

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monotheism. This term underscores the fact that there is a belief in one God (monotheism) who
is approached through the divinities. Others also suggest diffused monotheism or implicit
monotheism. This term underscores the fact that there is a belief in one God (monotheism) who
is approached through the divinities. Others also suggest diffused

monotheism or implicit monotheism. Though these terms are good for academic purposes and
scholastic work, what then will the adherents of the religion themselves call their religion?
Definitely, they will feel awkward with these terms. This problem is recognized by Prof. Bolaji
Idowu who called for the use of the local name for God. But the problem, which he also sights
immediately would be a bewildering number of ‘isms’ like Olodumareism (Yoruba), Chukwuism
(Igbo), Onyameism (Akan), Ngewoism (Mende) or Imanaism (Ruanda – Urundi). While it is
desirable to have a name that will aptly describe the African Traditional Religion, it may be very
enigmatic, if not an impossible task, for there are many obstacles like the diversity of language,
culture and the religion itself.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

The main source for the study of African Traditional Religion is from oral traditions. These
include:

1. Myths
The modern day meaning of myth is primitive tale, false beliefs or imaginary but not
really existent. The Greek word muthos actually means ‘anything delivered by word of
mouth’. A myth is a vehicle for conveying a certain fact about his experiences. It
endeavours to probe and answer questions about origins, meanings and purposes and
they are clothed in stories which serve as a means of keeping them in memory as well
as handling them over from generation to generation.

2. Liturgy
Liturgy consists of the pattern and the subject-matter of worship. It is a means of
communion and communication with the Deity within the setting of worship. For the
purpose of study, the following elements in liturgy should be taken into account:

● The Invocation: In invocation, the divine being is called by names and attributes
and is called to attend worship.

● Prayer: This is the means by which the needs of the worshippers and the divine
Being is sought to satisfy them.

From the liturgies of African Traditional Religion, we learn the names and the
attributes of the Deity or the divinities, the confidence and the hopes of the
people, the capability believed to belong to the Deity and the general relationship
between the Supreme Being, the divinities and man.

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 ● Songs: Songs constitute a rich heritage in Africa. The people express their joys
and sorrows, their hopes and fears about the future through their hymns. In each
people group in Africa, there are materials to analyse in the songs of the land.

● Sayings: These include proverbs and adages that are found everywhere in
Africa. They also express the belief of the people about their religion, their
society and the world around them.

IDENTIFIABLE ROLES OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION IN THE AFRICAN SOCIETY

All the societal institutions of Africa are highly influenced by religion and their religion likewise is
influenced by the society. Let's examine some identifiable roles of religion in African society.

1. Religion and Politics

Religion and Politics are bedfellows. It is religion that stabilises politics in the African
setting. In Yoruba land, there is a relationship between religion and politics. The Oba
occupies both the political and the religious office. He acts as the chief-priest and stands
in the gap between the people and God. He is also regarded as holding power in trust
for Olodumare, the Supreme Being; hence he is called the ‘Alase Ekeji Orisa’, (second in
command to the divinity). Despite the influence of Western culture and foreign regions,
the Oba is still regarded as belonging to other religions which aim at promoting peace in
his community. Therefore, no matter the Oba’s religious affiliation before ascending the
throne, he still performs the leadership role in the traditional religious life of the people.

2. African Religion and Corporate Existence

African societies cherish their corporate existence. The individual does not and cannot
exist in isolation. He owes his existence to others, including the past generation and his
contemporaries. Thus, the community makes an individual. The African child goes
through rites continuing throughout his life and ends only at death, when he is even
incorporated into the wider family of the ancestors. At every point in his religious
awareness, he is made to understand the fact that he is just a part of the whole and that
he has certain responsibilities towards himself as well as others.

3. African Religion and Economy

Because of the religious influence over the life of the people, worship and holidays affect
the timing and rhythm of work in the society. The economic value of goods is partly
determined by its religious values. The commodities are expensive on the sixth day of
the Oro festival because on the seventh day, women who form the bulk of commercial
activities would be banned from going out. The distribution of wealth is determined by
religious norms.

SOCIOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

Though traditional religion is not conversion – oriented, and it is diverse in terms of the objects
of worship, the methods and demands placed upon the worshipper, is still an all society affair. In

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order to appreciate this dimension we would examine three elements; the use of oracles,
shrines and taboos.

1. The Use of Oracles

On the personal level, the consultation of an oracle starts immediately when a child is
born. Parents approach a diviner to know the destiny of their child. Again when it is time
for the child to choose a career, the oracle is consulted to know which work would suit
him best. Similarly at marriage, the oracle is again consulted to ensure that he or she
gets a suitable partner. At death, the oracle may be consulted if the circumstance of the
death is mysterious. At the societal level, the oracle is consulted at important phases in
the community’s life. When an Oba is to be appointed, it is the oracle that makes the
final selection. The oracle must also be consulted before the community undertakes a
war. Despite the influence of foreign religion and western culture, people still consult the
oracle when the going gets tough

2. The Use of Shrines

The shrine is the face of the divinity. It therefore serves as a communal place of worship
both at family and societal levels. The shrine then becomes the meeting place of man
and his object of worship. Consequently, important activities take place in this location to
give legal and religious sanction to the decisions taken and make them binding. For
example, the Oba is usually crowned in the shrine, favours are sought from the divinity in
the shrine and their presence guarantees peace and stability in the society. Shrines
serve as a refuge place. Any show of disrespect to the sacred place may have adverse
effects not only on the individual but also the society.

3. The Use of Taboos

The taboos are rules for ethical guidelines of the people. The society entrenches the
taboos into her religious system. The people are educated about them. The proper
knowledge of the taboos integrates an individual into the society. The violation of a taboo
may result in grave consequences to the society and also to the individual. When taboos
are observed, the gods are happy; the society lives in peace and harmony.

AFRICAN RELIGION AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOCIETY

The advent of modern technology sometimes allows undue rationalisation in all matters
pertaining to religion. Since it is a subtle way of preaching man’s self- sufficiency, the feelings of
this independence robbed so many people of their need for devotion to God. Also due to
modern technology, the reality of the life hereafter in denied Humanity sometimes doubts the
authenticity of the judgement of God, hence evil flourishes. It is not only African Traditional
Religion that has suffered the destructive tendencies of technological advancement, it affects all
religions.

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Importance of Religion to African Society
1. It gives understating. It gives a sense of direction even when man is confronted with the
uncertainty of the hereafter. Most Africans have been equipped by their religion to face
life emotionally, intellectually and culturally.

2. Religion answers some questions that nothing else can answer. Where science and
technology stops, religion continues to give solutions to answers on God's existence,
suffering and pain in the world and what happens after death.
3. It provides moral values which regulate and harmonise the human community. Religion
tells man that which is evil and that which is good. In Africa, these morals build the
relationship between people and their world.

4. It gives food for spiritual hunger. Since man is conscious of his spiritual dimension, most
Africans satisfy their spiritual hunger in their religion. The religious ceremony to most of
them serve as channels of contact with the spiritual world.

5. It is also a means of communication. This communication is in two directions. First, there

is social communication and secondly, there is vertical communication. As people meet
together to worship, they communicate and understand themselves better, thus serving
as a social coercion. They also worship God and are psychologically satisfied.

6. African religion is a celebration and affirmation of life. This is seen in the various rituals,
festivals and ceremonies that are carried out. They celebrate life both in joy and sorrow.
Religion teaches that man is created. He must remain dependent on the God that has
created him.

CONCLUSION
From the discussion in this unit you have learnt that African Traditional Religions play significant
cover in the cultural understanding and awareness of the people of African and that:
● There were difficulties in the study of African Traditional Religion.
● European researchers gave various terminologies in describing African Traditional
Religion.
● That there are sources of information on African Traditional Religion.
● That African Traditional Religion plays indefinable roles in African society.
● That there are sociological dimensions for African Traditional Religion.
● Despite modern technology African Traditional Religion is still very relevant.

SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to the concepts and activities of African Traditional Religion.
The difficulties encountered for studying Africa as well as the various terminologies used in
describing African Traditional Religion. It was also established that there are source of
information on African Traditional Religion while it was also discovered that African Traditional
Religion has its identifiable roles in the

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African society. The study also revealed the sociological dimension of African Traditional
Religion and confirmed its relevance to African society despite the threat of modern day
technology.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Awolaluro and Dopamu, P.A. (1979) West African Traditional Religion, Ibadan, Onibonoje
Press.

Idowu, E.B (1973) African Tradition: A Definiiton, London, SCM Press. Idowu, E.B (1975)
Olodumare: God in Yoruba Belief London: Longman press. Imasogie, O. (1985) African
Traditional Religious, Ibadan, University press.
Kofi, A.O (1978) West African Traditional Religion, Accra, FEB.
Mbiti, J.S. (1970) African Religious and Philosophy, London, Heinemann. Parrinder, E.G. (1968)
African Traditional Religion , SPCK Press.

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 WEST AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

INTRODUCTION
Religion is found in every human society. It is a sacred institution which educates persons on
his/her beliefs and practices in relation to the divine being. The Traditional Religion in Africa is
regarded as the cohesive factor in the society. Its aim among others is to foster peace and
harmony and uphold moral values in African society. Hence religion permeates African society.
Culturally, Africans became religious from the cradle unlike Islam or Christianity which
emphasises personal conversion.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
● Explain the nature of West African, African Traditional Religion.
● State the concept of God among West Africans.
● State worships and sacrifices in West African Traditional Religion.
● Explain rites in connection with passage of life.
● Discuss divinities in different African localities
● Explain magic and medicine.
● Discuss witchcraft and sorcery.
● Distinguish between a medicine man and a priest.
● Explain diviners.

MAIN CONTENTS

NATURE OF WEST AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

West African Traditional Religion has the following peculiar features:
1. Beliefs – teaching (dos and don’ts)
2. Practices – ceremonies and festivals which show how people express their beliefs.
3. Religious objects and place – sacred symbols, shrines and signs.
4. Values and morals – the ideals that uphold people in their interpersonal relationship.
5. Religious officials – people who lead in matters of religion.

Let’s examine three characteristics of West African Traditional Religion.

1. It is part of African Heritage
Traditional religion is another legacy bequeathed from the ancestors. West African
Religion is believed to be the product of the thinking and experience of the forebears.
The forebears formulated the religious ethics, observed the ceremonies and rituals, told
proverbs and myths which carried religious meanings and evolved laws and customs
which safeguarded the life of the individuals and his community. This heritage can only
be understood from its religious perspective because there is no dichotomy between the
sacred and the secular in African life.

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 2. It belongs to the people
African Religion has worshippers. The people identify and esteem the relevance of
religion in their lives. Therefore, the religion belongs to each person with which it has
evolved. The people also migrate alongside with their religion.

3. It is a Revealed Religion
It exists as a result of human experiences of the mystery of the universe. Humankind
discovers the existence of the Supreme Being. Thus, the religion evolved through a long
period of time. During this process, the practices and beliefs that are relevant to the
people’s spiritual growth are preserved while those that are not beneficial are dropped.

THE CONCEPT OF GOD AMONG WEST AFRICANS

Some Westerners once had erroneous notions about Africans' belief about God. They felt that
the idea of God was borrowed from the missionaries. A.B. Ellis claimed that the Akan of Ghana
added the belief in Nana Nyankupon (Lord of the Sky) because of the influence of Christian
faith. Gradually, it became an established fact that his belief about God was not foreign to the
African man. William Bosman later observed that the West Africans believed in a High God who
created the universe and they preferred Him before the idol-gods and do pray or offer sacrifices
to Him. The African conception about God is not remote. Consequently, the concept of God in
some ethnic groups would be examined.

The Yoruba concept of God

There are three Yoruba names for God, Olodumare, Olorun and Olofin Orun.
i. Olodumare: Olodumare is made up of Olo means owner or Lord of; Odu means fullness
or very large and Mare means do not go. Thus, Olodumare means a Being who is Lord
and Supreme and who has the added quality of being stable, dependable, and unique in
majesty.

ii. Olorun: Olorun is the common name for God and it is prefixed Olo and suffixed Orun,
which means the owner of heaven. This name signifies the transcendent reality of God.

iii. Olofin-Orun: Olofin-Orun is found mostly in liturgy. It is used as an alternative for

Olodumare. Olofin-Orin indicates God's exalted office as the supreme Ruler who is in
heaven.
ALL the names above are descriptive of God’s character. It confirms that He is real among the
Yoruba people.

The Igbo Concept of God

There are three Igbo names for God; Chukwu, Chineke and Obasi.
i. The most common one is Chukwu. Chi means Source Being or spirit and Uku means
great, immense or superlative. Chukwu then means the Great Sourced Being or The
Great One from whom all beings originate.

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 ii. Chineke is also made up of chi, ne means ‘who’ and ke means ‘Creator’. The name
means ‘The Spirit that Creates’ or 'The Source Being who creates all things’.

iii. Obasi is widely used by the Ibiobio and the derivation has got lost.

The Akan Concept of God

The Akan of Ghana call God by several names.
i. One of such names is Odonmakoma. The first word, Odom, means ‘grace’ or ‘mercy’.

ii. The second Ankoma means ‘plentiful’ or ‘complete’. The name suggests He who is
complete in his grace or mercy.

iii. Onyame is another name. it means one that fills you and makes you satisfied. Thus the
Akan sees God as the dependable One who satisfies all needs of humankind.

ATTRIBUTES OF GOD
1. The creator
The people see God as the Creator of all things. The Yoruba appellation, Eleda, reveals
Him as the owner of creation. The Akan call Him Odomankoma or Borebore (Originator,
Carver) and the Igbo call Him Chineke.

2. Compassionate
God is seen as a benevolent, kind and merciful King. A Yoruba proverb underscores
this: It is the Almighty God that drives away flies for the tailless cow.

3. Immortal
Africans believe that nothing else will remain if the Supreme Being ceases to exist. He is
thus addressed as ‘The Mighty’, ‘Immovable’, ‘Hard’, ‘Ancient Durable Peak’. They
believe that He is the timeless being

4. Trustworthy and Dependable

In expression of His dependability, the Akan say of God as “Twi Aduampon” which
means Lean on a tree do not fall. This signifies firmness, reliability and dependability.
Other attributes are Omnipresence, Omnipotence, Omniscience and the great Judge.

WORSHIP OF GOD AMONG AFRICANS

African sometimes approach God through the divinities. The Yoruba people are classic
examples. They have no direct public worship of God. They believe that God is not an object
that can be confined to a Temple. They have elaborated indirect worship. The Yoruba regard
divinities as the messengers or intermediaries between man and God. Nevertheless, outside
ritual contexts, the people recognize Olodumare’s readiness to intervene directly in human
affairs. They sometimes make direct appeals to Him. Therefore, the people call on God for help.
Also, when one is denied justice, he/she seeks redress from God.

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The Akan in Ghana has shrines and temples for the Supreme Being. There are priests
dedicated to His service for regular worship. Apart from personal altars, every Akon compound
has an altar for Onyame. Daily devotions and offerings are made at this family temple. The
weekly worship of Onyame is held on Saturdays.
The Igbo people also have altars and shrines. Ikenye, the eldest member of the community,
directs the worship. Aja Eze Emu is one such direct worship. It is observed during the dry and
rainy seasons.

WORSHIPS AND SACRIFICES IN WEST AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

There are different types of worship in West Africa as it is explained below:
1. Daily Worship
Daily worship is usually performed in people’s houses. It is a means of saying good
morning to the invisible spiritual beings and committing one's household, the community
and the affairs of the day to the spirits. It is not elaborate. Items of worship are: cold
water, kolanut and bitter-kola. It is usually offered by the family head. After the prayers, a
lobe or two of the kolanut is placed in the shrine. The left- outs are shared among the
family members.

2. Weekly Worship
Weekly worship is more elaborate with large attendance of worshipers. It is led by a
priest or priestess of the particular divinity on the divinity’s sacred day. Prayers are
offered for the health, prosperity and protection of the worshippers. It is usually rounded
off with an eulogy in praise of the divinity.

3. Annual worship
This worship takes place at the central shrine of the divinity. The worship is much
elaborate. It may involve the whole community and visitors. It is a festival period of joy,
thanksgiving and covenant renewal. Worshippers show gratitude for the blessings of the
past year and pray for guidance in the New Year.

4. Special Worship
The worship can be performed at any time apart from regular worships. Sometimes,
people are called to make special worship. The request is as instructed by the oracle.
The priest officiates at the worship.

SACRIFICES
Sacrifice plays an important role in religion. It is almost inconceivable to have a religion without
a form of sacrifice in West African society. Sacrifices are communion between man and the
Supreme Being. Sacrifice helps in gaining favours of the divinity. The following are the
categories of sacrifices.

1. Thanks – offering
This is made in appreciation of blessings from the divinity, or in seeking his favour. It is
accompanied with feasting. The worshippers and the divinity share a common meal. The

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 blessings that follow this are enormous. The requests are granted. The beneficial
relation between man and the divinity is strengthened. The occasion calls for thanks and
offerings, bumper harvests, successful expeditions and when victory is won over
enemies.

2. Votive Offering
The worshipper supplicates to the divinity for favour. The worshipper promises to
sacrifice either his/her properties if the requests are granted. Votive offerings are
accompanied by dancing, music, eating, and drinking.

3. Expiation Offering
This is an atonement sacrifice. It is usually offered when there is crop failure, protracted
illness and sudden death, famine, plague and diseases. The worshipper undergoes self-
abasement. The sacrifice is meant to ward off evils and restore divine blessings. After
this sacrifice is made, the worshipper is transformed from defilement to purity.

4. Foundation Sacrifice
This is made at the beginning of a new venture. The sacrifice makes the business thrive.
Hardly anyone in African society embarks on anything unless the divinity invokes their
blessings.

5. Preventive Sacrifice
It is offered to stop an impending disaster. The worshipper seeks protection through
these sacrifices. The worshipper is allowed to replace his life by sacrificing with specific
items. The victim or items are robbed against the body of the worshipper and treated like
a corpse.

6. Meal and Drink Offering

This type of sacrifice takes place daily but mostly it is offered with what the people eat at
home. Libation is poured after the meal has been offered to the divinity and the rest is
shared among the worshippers as a sacramental feast.

RITES CONNECTION WITH PASSAGE OF LIFE

There are many stages that a man has to pass in life. These are periods when people are
metaphysically and sociologically made new beings with new social roles: children become
adults, men and women are made husbands and wives and the deceased are made ancestors.
The rituals associated with each one of them are called rites of passage. Each of these stages
is distinctive and is observed in West African communities with religious ceremonies. They
include birth rites, puberty rites, marriage rites and funeral rites. Since these rites differ from one
ethnic group to another, we would examine the rites in certain ethnic groups.

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THE YORUBA
1. Birth Rites
Child bearing among the Yoruba is of great importance. They often regard the new child
as the reincarnation of an ancestor. Pregnant women are catered for to ensure safe
delivery. Medicine men provide talismans, amulets and rings to ward off evil forces. The
pregnant woman must also observe certain taboos. She must be indoors during
scorching sun to prevent the spirit of the born-die children from entering her womb.
The first eight days of the baby’s arrival are the most critical. The baby is still regarded
as a visitor whose stay on earth is not yet certain. On the third day, the Ifa oracle,
through the “Esa – n – taye” ceremony finds out what the destiny of the child is. The
naming ceremony of the female child is on the eighth day while the ninth day is for the
male. The parents or grandparents or any other elderly person in the family performs the
naming ceremony. Materials used are honey, salt, sugar (which symbolises the
goodness of earthy), bitter – kola (to symbolise a safe journey through life) and kolanut
(to ward off evil). The materials are for the guests at the ceremony. The name of the
child usually reflects the circumstances of the child’s birth or that of the family at the time
of the birth.

2. Puberty Rites
The major puberty rite in Yorubaland is the circumcision rite. This is carried out when a
boy is twenty years old or before he takes a wife. As a sign of maturity, a female child
may also be circumcised. Tattooing of shoulders, back, trunk and thighs are also done
by girls. Marriage can only be done if this rite has been observed.

3. Marriage
Marriage in the Yoruba culture is a duty, a requirement and a rhythm of life. It is not
optional. Everybody is expected to fulfil this obligation. It is an event that also involves
the whole community.

When a girl is ready for marriage (if she has not been betrothed at birth), a group from the
prospective husband’s house approaches the girl’s family. The wife’s family asks for time of
consideration. They use the period to consult the oracle and carry out secret investigations into
the two families to see if there are any anti-society diseases (insanity or leprosy) among them.
The union and marriage negotiations commence when the report of their investigation proves
positive. The groom’s family understands Idana. They pay the bride price- a token of gratitude
for the care of the girl since childhood and for giving her out in marriage to them. The gift also
legalises marriage. The man that paid the bride price owns the wife and the children born.

Marriage is always a joyous occasion. Prayers are offered for the new bride. The tutelary divinity
is also invoked to bless, protect and guard the girl. At her husband’s house, she would be
introduced and prayed for and welcomed to her new home.

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THE MENDE
1. Birth
An elderly woman midwife's pregnant women among the Mende. Men are not allowed to
be in the house during the labour and delivery time. Naming ceremony is on the fourth
day for males and the third day for females. The child is also named according to the
circumstances obtained at the time of the birth. A boy who is born after the death of
another child is called Gibas while a girl is called Gilo. Both names means “let this one
live”. The Mene has a particular way of christening female children. A woman takes the
child out, faces the sun; spits on the child’s face and give the names. The father, the
father’s brother or any elderly man in the family in the same procedure give name to the
male child.

2. Puberty
Puberty rites are elaborate. The children (boys and girls) at the age of fourteen or fifteen
undergo a period of training and initiation into adulthood. The boy is initiated into Poro
society and the girl into Sande society. They are given new names after the ceremony.

3. Marriage
In most cases, the Mende girl has been betrothed early in life. Proper marriage starts as
soon as she is initiated into the Sande society. Sex is prohibited for the uninitiated. The
boy takes his bridewealth, a lump sum of money and other goods to his father in law.
The parents give them to the girl whose consent would be sought on the proposal. The
answer is usually positive. Two days later, the husband will send an elderly woman to
his parents – in- law for his wife. The girl's mother blesses her by spitting on her hand
and rubbing the saliva on the girl's forehead. The girl leaves for her husband’s house in
the company of dancers.

THE ASHANTI
The pregnant Ashanti woman has many restrictions. She is not allowed to leave the compound
and she is to cover her head and breasts when going out become unavoidable. She must not be
told that she is pregnant. She must not abuse a divinity. She must not see blood or any ugly
thing. Failure to observe these can lead to a miscarriage or an abnormal child. She is kept
indoors for the first three months. She leaves for her parent’s house when the pregnancy
becomes eight months. She stays there till delivery. Female attendants are called in on the
delivery day. No special attention is given to the new child for the first eight days because no
one knows if the child decides to stay on earth. Clothes are provided for the baby and a name is
given after eight days. The child is named in line with the day of birth. A baby boy born on
Friday is called Kofi and the one on Saturday is called Kwame.

1. Puberty
An Ashanti girl marks her puberty rite at the first sign of her menstruation. She informs
her mother as soon as she sees her menses for the first time. The mother informs the
community. She returns home to pour libation to Nyame and the ancestors. The girls
public and armpit hair are shaved. This symbolises a new baby in adulthood. A

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 ceremony is performed. Everybody is given enough to eat and to drink. Then the girl is
ripe for marriage.

2. Marriage
When an Ashanti man decides to take a girl as wife, he presents a gift to his parents –
in- law. It could be clearing the cocoa farm or tobacco, fish or meat. This is done to curry
favour with the girl’s parents. After the parents’ agreement, the ancestors seal the
marriage. The girl is then allowed to follow her husband home.

DIVINITIES IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

Divinities are gods who emanated from Supreme Deity. They have attributes of the Supreme
Being and are in essence His offspring. Thus, the Edo believes Olokun as the son of
Osanobwa, the Akan of Ghana regards Abosom as the son of Nyame. These are a few
examples.

These divinities render service to the theocratic government of the world. For example, Orisa –
Nla was asked to create and equip the solid earth as well as moulding man's physical
structures.

CATEGORIES OF THE DIVINITIES

They can be divided into three categories based on their positions, functions and influence.

1. The Primordial Divinities

These are believed to be the divinities of heaven. They are believed to be in existence
with the Supreme Being before the creation of the universe. They are usually thought of
as parking in the work of creation.

2. Deified Ancestors
These are human beings who are deified because of the extraordinary live they have
lived. The examples are Jakuta and Sango. Jakuta was the original thunder divinity while
Sango was the fourth Alaafin of Oyo. Sango was a powerful figure while on earth. He
spits fire while speaking. At death, he was deified and was given the attributes of Jakuta
and he became the thunder divinity in Yorubaland.

3. Personification of Nature and Phenomena

These groups of divinities are spirits associated with hills, mountains, rivers, brooks,
lakes or thick forest. Whatever is considered the abode of spirits becomes a sacred
place. Examples of these are the Olumo rock at Abeokuta and the Oke-Ibadan at
Ibadan. These two hills are worshipped for having protected the people in times of war.
There is also the Osun River at Osogbo whom the adherents believed to have the ability
of giving children to the barren.

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DIVINITIES IN DIFFERENT AFRICAN LOCALITIES
1. Orisa – Nla
This is the arch-divinities among the Yoruba. He is also called Obatala. He was believed
to have been given the work of creation. He moulds man’s physical form and creates the
deformed person at will. He is often described as the deputy of the son of Olodumare.

● Attribute Purity
Orisa – nla associated with white colour which symbolises purity and
transparency. His whitewashed temple has emblems of white chalk, white
containers and his priests wear white clothes. His sacrificial foods include snail
(bloodless) and shea – butter. The water in his shrine is changed everyday to
retain absolute freshness. The one who draws the water must not talk to anybody
until she has fetched the water from the designated river. He represents the
purity of Olodumare. The adherents are expected to be plain, pure, clean and
men of proven integrity.

● Authority
In recognition of his delegated powers from God, he is usually called Alabalase -
the proposer that wields the sceptre. He passes this sceptre to kings to confirm
them of divine rulership.
Orisa – Nla is worshipped all over Yorubaland and the barren comes to him for
children while the sick come for healing too. They are made to drink from the
water in his shrine at treatment.

2. Orunmila
Orunmila or Ifa is the oracle divinity in Yorubaland. He is one of Olodumare’s principal
representatives on earth. He was said to know when man’s destiny was being
determined. So he is called ‘Eleri-Ipin’ , who is the witness of destiny.
Great wisdom and power are attributed to him and he also tells the priest (Babalawo)
what roots and leaves could be used for healing purposes. Osanyin who is said to be a
brother, friend, partner or servant of Orunmila assists him in discharging duties.

The following are mysterious stories that surround this legendary figure:
● He was sent to earth by Olodumare for being too clever when he outwitted
Olodumare in an argument.
● He had no bones in his body and so he is carried about by others.
● Orumila treated Olodumare’s illness
● Orunmila had no brother or sister until he used 180 palm nuts to divine for his
mother who then gave birth to Osanyin.
● Orunmila descended from heaven and was found amidst a banana plant with an
opele, Ifa palm-nuts, Ifa vessel and an offering consisting of a rat, a fish, snails
and a female goat. He was then brought home after several sacrifices.
● He taught Babalawos the art of divining and healing. Thereafter, he departed to
an unknown place.

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 ● He knows everything about man and gives right counsel; people consult him
throughout the passage of life (birth, marriage, sickness, business ventures and
death). In consulting Orunmila, the diviner makes use of the geomantic form of
divination known as Ifa. The word is at times used synonymously with Orunmila,
but it is used often to refer to the system of divination. There are many stories
connected to each Ifa corpus. The story told by the diviner is identified with the
client’s problem, and he is instructed to do what the character in the story did to
overcome his problems. Orunmila’s worship is widespread in Yorubaland. His
shrine is located in the priest’s house. The white plate that contains palm-kernels,
cowries, and graven elephant tusks is his emblem. The priest makes sacrifices
according to Orunmila’s instruction. A simple sacrifice may involve pouring of
palm – oil and breaking of Kola nuts and bitter – Kola. An elaborate one may
involve killing a fowl or he – goat.

3. Sonpona
He is regarded exclusively as the smallpox deity. He is seen as a short-tempered and
cruel divinity that attacks people with mental illness or smallpox. He has many
appellations like ‘Olode’ that is, the lord of the open or ile-gbona (the hot earth).
He forbids lying, poisoning and bad magic. The punishment must be accepted with
cheerfulness, joy and gratitude. Thus people do not mourn the victims of Soponna. The
victims’ property is confiscated by the priest and the body is taken to the evil forest. He
represents a god of justice.
His shrine is found outside the village. It consists of a mound of earth over which is
placed a wide-moulded clay pot called ‘agbado’. A special broom made from ‘osepotu’
(Sida carpinifolia) which is smeared with cam wood is placed by the side of the agbada.

The cult was prohibited in 1917. It was observed that some intentionally spread the
diseases so that they can inherit the properties of the perceived victims.

4. Ala
This is the arch-divinity in Igboland. She is the earth goddess called Ale, Ane, Ani or Ana
in different parts of the land. As the great mother goddess, she is the spirit of fertility, the
ruler of the underworld and the dearest and closest of all the divinities. She is believed to
be powerful, beneficent and the custodian of morality.

Her status indicates her as carrying a child in her arms or on her knees to indicate her as
the goddess of fertility. Women pray to her for children and farmers pray for good
harvest. As the custodian of morality, she gives and administers moral laws.
Her shrine is found on family and communal levels. The Igbo believe that a group is not
complete without Ala’s shrine because she is the invisible president of the community.
The shrine is a clay pot containing eggs, water or palm-wine placed at the foot of a
cotton tree.
Sacrifices are offered to her before planting commences and before harvesting.
Sacrificial items include palm-wine, yams, eggs, cocoyam, garden eggs and other farm

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 products. In some cases, the items may include a tortoise. It is always an occasion of
merriment.

5. Amadioha or Kamalu
This is the Igbo thunder divinity. He is also called Igwe and Ogufe. Like Sango, he
descends swiftly on offenders and his judgments are fair. It is only the priest of
Amadioha that can bury his victims usually at the spot of the victim’s death. The victim’s
possessions are claimed by the priests. Amadioha is regarded as the giver of rain and
fertility. Prayers are offered to him for good harvest and children.

6. Olokun
Olokun is the Edo arch divinity. The name literally means the owners of the sea. He is
regarded as a beneficent divinity. He has all material wellbeing and he provides as he
wills. People ask for riches, success in trade and all undertakings.
He is the divinity of inspiration and idealism. His adherents are believed to possess a
magnetising mind, overwhelming charm and remarkable accuracy in all things. His
emblems include pots containing water, pieces of white chalk, peeled rods and white
clothes. White fowls, white pigeons and white clothes are used for his sacrifices. The
head of Olokun priests is called the Ohen and he mediates between the people and the
deity.

7. Sokogba
Sokogba is the thunder divinity in Nupeland. He has the characteristics of Sango deity
and he punishes offenders too. He provides for children and such children are dedicated
to him for life. The children he gives enjoy the protection of the divinity.

8. Tano
This is the arch-divinity in Ashanti land and he is associated with River Tano. He is also
called Takora. He is described as a king or great father. He is the creator divinity and his
sacred day is Friday. The main temple is found near the source of river Tano but other
shrines can be found by rivers and fords. The emblems are found in a basket of brass
pan. His adherent observance of certain taboos, for example menstruating women,
should not go near the river. He has no sympathy for women, hence there is no
priestess. His special food includes eggs, fowls and wine. These are offered regularly.

POSITIONS AND DUTIES OF THE DIVINITIES

The divinities have responsibilities. They are ministers with portfolios in the theocratic
government of God. The belief is that God has delegated authority to them.
They are intermediaries. People worship God through them. They are worshipped daily through
sacrifices. They have temples, shrines, priests, priestesses and devotees.
They are also semi-autonomous agents. Each of them is the executive head of his department.
Their adherents see them as a means to an end and not an end in themselves.

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Worship of divinities
Worship is an expression of man’s attitude towards God and other spiritual beings. It is an act of
communication and communion between man and the supernatural world. It is a means of
strengthening the cord of relationship between God and man and a means of restoring broken
communion as a result of sin.
Worship can be regular or occasional. There are also daily worships to adore God for his
protection. The adoration is offered along new requests. It is not always flamboyant when
compared with the communal one. Usually, cold water, kolanut or bitter kola is offered to the
tutelary divinity of the household or compound. The priest of Orunmila, for example, offers kola
nut and pours oil at the shrine before embarking on the day’s activities.

People can worship under special arrangements. Preparations are made in line with the need of
the occasion. The nature of such worship depends on the prescription of the oracle. The annual
festival observed in honour of each divinity is very elaborate and is characterised with
merriment.

Objects of worship
Each divinity has his or her specific sacred objects which can either be symbols or emblems.
The symbols are usually the anthropomorphic images of the divinity while the emblems can be
sacred objects set aside as visual representations. Iron is the emblem of Ogun while the laterite
is that of Esu just external, physical, visual, concrete representation of the internal concept of
spiritual entities. Consequently, these objects can be replaced, removed, or turn into common
use without being of the divinity affected. Other objects usually present in the shrine include
calabashes, stones, carved images, pots, axe-heads, and metal snakes among others.
The emblems are however kept out of profane gaze and must not be touched by ordinary
persons. They are mostly kept in the temple or shrines where the priest and priestesses take
care of them daily.

Relationship with the Supreme Being

1. They are created by God. God relates with them as His sons and daughters.
2. They derive their existence from God. They become lifeless without Him.
3. Each divinity has its own local name in the local language, e.g Jakuta in Yoruba,
Sokogba in Nupe and Amadioha in Igbo all express the wrath of God.
4. They are seen as ministers in charge of various departments of the earth.
5. They are seen as intermediaries between the Supreme Being and man and are only
channels through which man could approach the Supreme Being.
6. The divinities in each locality usually forms a pantheon over which there is an arch-
divine who is more closely related to the Supreme Being like Obatala in Yoruba.
7. The main weakness of this system of belief is that it is crude and usually leads to turning
the means into an end in itself.

MAGIC AND MEDICINE

Magic is a ritual activity which influences human or natural events through access to external
mystical forces. Thus, magic influences people and events. It involved the manipulation of

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certain objects to cause a supernatural being to produce or prevent a particular result
unobtainable ordinarily. Man bends the forces of nature of his will through his means. Also,
man, being a limited being, taps the elemental forces of the universe, to solve the problems
confronting him through the use of magical powers.

FORMS OF MAGIC
There are two kinds of magic: homoeopathic and contagious.

1. Homoeopathic magic
In this type of magic, a magician produces an effect by imitating it with the aid of
supernatural powers. It can be used both positively and negatively. It makes use of
objects similar to its target to represent the target.

For example, a barren woman may be asked to carry a doll on her back in imitation of a
nursing mother. And she eventually gets pregnant. A man with a broken leg may be
asked to produce a fowl whose legs would be broken. The fowl would recover and the
person whose leg is broken recovers too. In cases of severe drought, water is thrown
into the air. The magician then summons rain through incantations. This could also be
done by making a thick black smoke like cloud.

2. Contagious/Sympathetic Magic
It is believed that whatever one does to a material object will affect the one with whom
the object was in contact with. It is widely believed in West Africa that finger nails, hair,
spittle, urine, placenta among others can be used to harm a person. It can also be used
for the good of the society. The teeth of snakes, lions and other wild animals prevent
wild animals from attacking those carrying such totems.

3. Medicine
This is any substance that can be used to treat or prevent illness or diseases. Medicine
is both curative and preventive in African society. It is the art of using available forces of
nature to prevent diseases and to preserve and restore health.

4. Medicine in Africa is closely associated with religion. Since God is the source and author
of medicine, people believe that the medicine man or traditional doctor receives his call
from the tutelary divinity and practices in reference to God.

RELIGION AND MAGIC COMPARED

Similarities
Magic and religion are closely related. It may be difficult to separate them.
Magic and religion recognize the existence of power beyond them.
They have a common root. They arose as a result of man’s sense of need and are man’s
attempt to deal with the mystery of his environment.

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They are both symbolic. There are objects used to represent supernatural entities. A carved
wood may represent a divinity while in magic it may represent the image of an enemy.
They have taboos that are to be observed.
They arose from the desire of man to dominate and have power over others.
Differences
Magic deals with non-human and more arbitrary order of reality while religion seeks to foster
fellowship in human relationship and between man and god.
While magic is used to attain selfish ends most of the time, religion is concerned more with the
good of the community by giving sanctions to common laws and norms. Consequently, while
religion gives inner sense of sanity, peace and self-being, magic cannot.
Magic tends to show man how to obtain certain good things by his own efforts. Through magic,
power is tapped to satisfy man’s needs. Religion on the other hand stresses communion and
communication with the divine with submission and appeal in focus through prayers and
sacrifices. Religion implies trust, dependence and submission while magic implies and self
aggrandisement.
Religion calls for a high moral standard from its adherent to ensure his relationship with the
divine being. Magic on the other hand depends on knowing the right techniques whether you
are morally right or not.
In summary, the two are not mutually exclusive. They have both existed alongside one another
across the centuries.

WITCHCRAFT AND SORCERY

Witchcraft
To most Africans, witchcraft is an ugly reality. Even the scientifically inclined who cannot openly
admit this fact have a tingling sensation when they are confronted with the inexplicable. Those
who have also learnt by experience will not hesitate to say that the scholars who have denied
the reality of witches are suffering from ignorance.

Witches are believed to be people with inherent power. Although some witches acquired these
powers to protect their wards, it is mostly believed that the powers are evil, and anti-social are
not best used to harm people. They are called Aje, Obayifo Aze, Amozu in Yoruba, Twi, Fon
and Igbo respectively. They are mostly women, but men are also found especially at the head of
their guilds. Some are born witches while others acquire it. One may possess this power without
awareness and can also use it destructively out of ignorance. This is what makes the concept of
witchcraft mystifying, appalling and sinister. They operate mainly at night. They attend meetings
spiritually because the body of those at the meeting will still be on their beds at home. During
this outing if anything happens to the astral body with which they have travelled, that will also
happen to the physical body. From confessions, a member ‘donate’ close relations to these
secret societies. This would be regarded as ‘meat’ to be eaten. They also possess power to
render medicines and magic useless in Africa witches are said to be responsible for
misfortunate – accidents, sudden deaths, poverty, bareness and human miseries. Some have
positive contributions to society. They can also protect their families.

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Sorcery
This is the application of evil magic on people or objects. Life and property can be destroyed.
Generally, it is an anti-societal employment of supernatural powers. The following are the deeds
of sorcerers.
A sorcerer may call lighting, elephantiasis, or even apply direct poison on his victim.
He may kill a victim by means of invocation through homoeopathic magic.
He may curse his victim who may becomes insane or commit suicide.
He may send animals (snakes, scorpions) to his victim.
Consequently, they are seen as threats to peaceful coexistence in the society. As a result, most
people resort to diviners and medicine-men for protection. Charms, amulets, medicinal drinks
and ointments are used for protection as prescribed by diviners.

RELIGION LEADERS

Medicine-Men
They are also called herbalists and traditional doctors. In the local languages, they are called
Dibia (Igbo), Samankwafo (Twi) and Onisegun (Yoruba). To the African mind, sicknesses and
misfortunes of this world are spiritual. It requires a religious approach for a lasting solution.
In Africa, medicine is part of God’s creation. It is associated with religion. So a medicine man
does not practise in isolation. He is an intermediary between God and man. The medicine-man
is accessible, and he is a friend of the community. He plays an important role in communal life.

There is no fixed rule governing the ‘calling’ of the medicine-man usually, he is called when he
is younger. Both sexes are represented in the profession, but there are more men. Through
there are individual characteristics, most medicine-men are trustworthy, friendly, willing and
ready to serve at moderate charges (or at no charge if their patient cannot afford it).

Professionally medicine-men usually undergo training. He is taught the medicinal value, the
quality and use of different herbs, leaves, roots, fruits, barks, grasses and other things like dead
insects, bones, feathers, powers, animal excreta and shells. He is also taught the causes, cures
and prevention of common ailments and typical problems. He is trained also to combat witches
and sorcerers and the handling of elemental spirits. After training he is publicly initiated and then
recognized as a medicine-man. It is important to note that the medicine-men works
cooperatively and so training goes on even after formal learning.

Functions of Medicine-Men
They combat witches, sorcerers and other forms of social misfortunes.
They serve as doctors. They cure diseases. They discover the cause of the sickness, diagnose
nature and apply the right treatment. They suggest how to prevent future recurrence.
They also practise divination. When individuals or the community at large want to know the
cause of certain afflictions, the medicine-men are invited.
They aid increased productivity and good results. They advise and assist on how to ensure
success in business. They prepare examination success charms for students. A medicine-man
has the ability of becoming anti-societal. But the medicine-men believe that the one who does

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that cannot be prosperous for life. So generally, they help in moulding societal moral values and
counsel people in distress.

Priesthood in African Society

The priest is the mediator between man and the gods (God). Each tribe has a local name for the
priest. He is called Babalorisa (Yoruba), Obosomofo (Twi), Veduno (Fon) and Atama (Igbo). The
ministers in the temples, shrines, sacred groves and other religious centres. He may be set
apart from birth or called to the service of the god. Both men and women are eligible. There are
two types of priests among the people– the lay priest and professional priest. The lay priest is
the family head. He officiates at the domestic or ancestral shrine. They consult the ancestors on
behalf of the family or clan. Hence they link the living and the dead together. Priesthood in this
category passes on to the most senior person in the family. The professional priest is concerned
with the cult of divinities. The called or the one set apart from birth understudies the priest. He
succeeds the older priest at death or if the divinity chooses him as the next priest. This period of
tutelage may last for several years. While in training, he undertakes a series of training in occult
knowledge and performance of public rituals. He is also subjected to strict taboos. He needs to
be caste, ascetic and abstain from certain foods and clothes. He is usually clothed in white.
Where priesthood is non-hereditary, the priest-elect is singled out with signs which indicate that
the divinity has elected him as a potential priest. This may have involved his disappearance for
seven days without being able to give a coherent explanation for it. After this, a diviner would be
consulted for confirmation after which he would be installed.

There is also the concept of the divine ruler. The king is considered a divine ruler, hence, he is
considered the deputy of the gods on earth. As a result, the king is usually given his staff of
office as of that status. It is with the staff that he performs his priestly duty. He leads in rituals
and ceremonies that involve the whole community. He is the priest of the community.

FUNCTIONS OF PRIEST

1. Intercession
The priest intercedes with the divinity on behalf of the people. The evils in the community
may indicate the ineffectiveness of the priest to be in constant consultation with God.

2. Sacrifices
The priest offers sacrifices and says prayers at the shrine. He leads worship during the
yearly festival of the divinity. As the custodian of the religion, and keepers of religious
treasurers and knowledge, he ensures that the emblem and symbols of the divinity are
suitable and reverently preserved.

3. Custom
He ensures that customs and practices related to the divinity are upheld. He knows the
taboos surrounding the cult and transmits them correctly.

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 4. Divination
He divines for the whole community. He is also an herbalist or medicine man.

5. Kingship Issues
The priest instals the king. He also performs the necessary rites of burial for the dead
king.

6. Counsellor
Since he is an important figure in the community, he is a member of the council of the
community. He advises people. He settles quarrel and enforces morality.

In summary, the priest is essential in the day-to-day running of the community’s affairs. He
presides over meetings and communities and serves as judge in most cases and act as director
with regard to the general well being of the community.

Distinction between the Medicine Men and the Priest

These personalities are important to African society. The people believe that without them, the
community would be in disarray. Despite the similarities of these people, they are still different in
several ways.
There is a difference in ecstasy. The priestly function is fixed while it breaks out in the medicine-
man.
The priest is more functional in social gathering than the medicine-man.
The priest fixes times, places and actions of worship while the medicine-man is controlled by the
spirit.
The medicine-man has the spiritual and physical power and knowledge but has no institution
like a priest. The priest has an established shrine but the medicine- man has none.
The medicine-man operates in practical elements; materials and words (incantation) but the
priest operates with strict rules.
Both the priest and the medicine-man use herbs and charms for the benefits of man.

Diviners
As their names implies, they are primarily concerned with acts of divination. Divination is the
practice of foretelling the future, revealing the unknown or finding out the wish of a divinity or
spirit. In most cases, the diviner combines the roles of a medicine-man and diviner (though
there are some medicine men who are not diviners). Divination is the means by which
individuals and communities find solutions to their problems. The desire to know the will of the
deity in the future of people’s lives makes the role of the diviners very important. They are also
consulted sometimes during incurable disease; the crises of life, when a barren woman desires
children, or, mysterious death or plague.

The Ifa divination, which is associated with the cult of Orunmila among the Yoruba, is the most
widely used. This system has been copied by the Edo, the Fon and the Ewe. Some divine with
stone, gourds and palm-reading. The choice and training of diviners is sometimes hereditary or

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from the personal decision of prospective diviners. It has no age or sex barrier. During training,
the apprentice leans the names, sin of divination figures ceremony before he begins to practise.

The diviner, like a medicine-man, acts as an intermediary between man and the supernatural
world for the sake of their community. They find out hidden secrets and pass them to the
people. They are also custodians of the interest and lives of the people. They interpret the
mysteries of life, convey the messages of the gods to the devotees and settle disputes. As
seers, they unravel the mystery of the universe. Other religious leaders include family and ritual
elders and operators at initiation rites. They act as unofficial religious leaders. Religious leaders
are the symbolic points of contact between the historical and the spiritual worlds. Their presence
makes the life of the community a profound religious one. West African societies would have
lost contact with the religious phenomenon without these religious leaders.

CONCLUSION
From the discussion in this unit you have learnt that:
● Religion is regarded as a cohesive factor in society. Its aim among others is to foster
peace and harmony and uphold moral values in African society.
● West Africans have a concept for God.
● Africans have peculiar ways of worshipping.
● There are rites in connection with the passage of life.
● There is a place for divinities in the theocratic government of God in the African setting.
● Each divinity has its position in the African Traditional Religion.
● Magic and medicine are part of the cultural heritages in Africa.
● Witchcraft and sorcery are powers known to have inherited from the divinities.
● Priesthood is giving a recognition in the activities of the African Traditional Religion.
● There is a distinction between the medicine man and a priest.
● Diviners have their position and function in the scheme of African Traditional Religion.

SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to the nature of West African Traditional Religion. The study
revealed that West Africans believed in a High God thus the conception about God is peculiar to
each locality. It was also discovered that there are different types of worship in West African
Traditional Religion and that there are ways by which sacrifices are offered to God.

It was also learnt that African Traditional Religion recognizes the various stages of human
development with its peculiar rites. The study also revealed that divinities are beings that stand
between man and God in theocratic government of God in African Traditional Religion.

The study also revealed that mysterious powers are recognized as part of the African heritage
and thus, magic, medicine, witchcraft, sorcery and diviners are given due recognition in the
scheme of African Traditional Religion.

REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS

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Awolaluro and Dopamu, P.A. (1979) West African Traditional Religion, Ibadan, Onibonoje
Press.
Idowu, E.B (1973) African Tradition: A Definition, London, SCM Press. Idowu, E.B (1975)
Olodumare: God in Yoruba Belief London: Longman press. Imasogie, O. (1985) African
Traditional Religious, Ibadan, University press.
Kofi, A.O (1978) West African Traditional Religion, Accra, FEB.
Mbiti, J.S. (1970) African Religious and Philosophy, London, Heinemann. Parrinder, E.G. (1968)
African Traditional Religion , SPCK Press.

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 RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE

INTRODUCTION
Dialogue is a conversation on a common subject between two or more persons with differing
views. The primary purpose of dialogue is for each participant to learn from the other so that he
or she can change and grow. Dialogue involves the sharing of understanding and experience. It
is a significant method of building community. Dialogue is also a means of expanding self
knowledge.

Dialogue is defined as “The Natural consequence of the concern by civilised people of all faiths
to eliminate hatred and bigotry (Akinyemi 2001). The objective of dialogue is to prevent and
remove all forms of hatred, suspicion, jealousy and vices that are manifestations of religious
acrimony.

Dialogue was further explained by Mala as a school of thought which is concerned about
person, meeting and encounter and co-operation in work and worship as well as about
sustained mutual involvement in local level contact (Mala 1988). Essentially dialogue can lead
to a common desire for a search for thorough and reciprocal exchange of information and
insight with each other, thus deepening and strengthening our knowledge of each other’s
religious truth. Traditionalists, Muslims, and Christians in Nigeria should remember that Nigeria
is a pluralistic religious society. The non-Muslims cannot afford to view Islam and Muslims
through the eyes of Western Europe, which has an almost unitary belief system (Badmos 1993).

Kenny (1982) enjoined Christians to enter into religious discussion with prudence and charity for
the purpose of positive results. He also advised that while witnessing to non-Christians they
should give due respects to the faith and interest of such people by way of listening and accept
them the way they can reason rather than a cohesive approach that can lead to violence and
unfruitful results.

Pope John Paul II on his visit to Nigeria in February 1982, submitted as follows;
That because of the faith that we have in God, Christianity and Islam have many things in
common: the privilege of prayer, the duty of justice accompanied by compassion and almsgiving
and above all, a sacred respect for the dignity of man
Christians and Muslims can engage in dialogue in order to understand each other to understand
each other better at both the level of scholar and in person-to- person relationship, in the family
and in places of work and play.

We can promote more honesty and discipline in private and public life, greater courage and
wisdom in politics, elimination of political antagonism and removal of discrimination because of
religion.

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Both of us (Christians and Muslims) can spearhead the principle and practice of religious
education of children.
True dialogue and partnership demand a constant reference of fundamental truth about man,
the dignity and equality of human person, individual and as a member of a society (Akinyemi
2001).

OBJECTIVES.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
● Understand what religious dialogue is all about
● Explain the rationale for religious dialogue
● Explain the factors for effective religious dialogue
● Familiarise yourself with the areas of cooperation between the three religions in Nigeria.

MAIN CONTENT

THE NEED FOR RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE

It is a proper mode for discourse with one’s neighbour.
It serves as means of mutual understanding between individual and community
It is a preferable way of preventing clashes and settling conflicts.
It is a mode which is not confined to religious men and women but may be accepted by people
who are motivated by secular ideologies.
It is sober and rational and allows both critical and appreciative approaches.

Inter-religious dialogue operates in three areas; the practical where we collaborate to help
humanity; the cognitive- where we seek understanding the truth and the spiritual- where we
attempt to experience the partner’s religion ‘from within’. In inter-religious dialogue we unlearn
misinformation about each other and begin to know each other as we truly are. Through inter-
religious dialogue, we together begin to explore new areas of reality, meaning and of truth, of
which neither of the participants had not been aware of before. This is possible because of
questions, insights and probing produced in the dialogue.

FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE

For inter-religious dialogue to be effective, the following rules must be observed.
Partners must enter into dialogue so as to learn, change and grow not that we can force change
on the other.
It must be a two-sided project within each religious community and between religious
communities. That is to say each participant enters into dialogue not only with his partners
across the faith line, but with co-religionists, to share with them the fruit of the inter-religious
dialogue.
Each participant must assume complete honesty and sincerity in the other partners. This is so
because absence of sincerity prevents dialogue from happening. Where there is no truth there
is no dialogue.
Each participant must define himself. It is mandatory that each dialogue partner defines what it
means to be an authentic member of his tradition.

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Each participant must come to the dialogue with no hard- and-fast as to where the point of
disagreement is. Rather each partner should listen to the other partners with openness while
still maintaining integrity.
Persons entering into inter-religious dialogue must be minimally self –critical of both themselves
and their own religious traditions. A lack of such self- criticism implies that one’s own tradition
already has all correct answers to the question of religion. Such an attitude makes dialogue
unnecessary and not even impossible.

AREAS OF DIALOGUE AND COOPERATION BETWEEN THE THREE MAIN RELIGIONS IN

NIGERIA
Carefully scrutinising the religious situation, it is apparent that the initial stage of introduction,
Islam and Christianity made only astonishing shallow penetration in converting the men of
Nigeria, with all his historical-cultural roots, social dimensions, self-consciousness and
expectations. Total conversion had been impossible. What exists appears to be an extremely
complex religious picture out of which several current religious experiences could be discerned.
The encounter between Islam and Traditional religion on one hand and between Christianity
and the Traditional religion on the other hand resulted in the process of acculturation producing
half-caste cultures. Originating from different backgrounds the process of partial withholding and
partial rejection becomes glaringly clear. The overall picture tends to be one of unofficial
‘baptising’ of African cultural traditions into the Islamic and Christianity no doubt had little
significance in the little life of Nigerians. But as time passed by, Nigerians began to live in
community with people who are committed to faiths and ideologies other than their own. They
live in families sometimes of mixed faiths. The effect was that there came interaction, co-
operation and relationship between the adherents of the three religions. Here below are some of
these areas.

1. Belief in God
Islam, Christianity and African Traditional religion teach the existence of God, though
different names are accorded HIM. While the Muslims call him Allah, the Christians call
him God and the adherents of African religion address Him as Deity. Holding the belief in
the oneness of God, Muslims accept that Allah is one, the Merciful and the Creator.
Christians also accept God as the creator of all things visible and invisible. Both religions
hold that since God is one, the acts of apostasy with Him could be considered as a great
sin. As the Creator, Lord of Heaven and Earth, no other being could be compared with
Him. Similarly to the above notion, the Traditionalists hold that the Deity is One and
Supreme. Being the Creator and the absolute Ruler of the Universe, the Deity is
immortal and unique. He is the absolute Controller of the Universe. He is the sustainer of
the world. All things are from Him, for Him and responsible to Him. He is the Sovereign
ruler of the world, the King, Omnipotent and Omnipresent. From the above sketch, it
would be observed that the three religions generally recognize the headship of God,
though different approaches are taken to worshipping Him. Morally the three religions
regard the Creator as upholding the law and judging men after death in accordance with
their actions. In this regard the belief is strong that God is closer to people. He is not just
a power but a real Supreme person with life and consciousness. Because He knows all

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 things and He is All-powerful, His existence is clearly common to adherents of the three
religions.

2. Belief in Angels
Occurrence of wonders and philosophical thoughts made man perceive the existence of
angels. These angels are not only the messengers of God; they are believed to be
helping God in administering the world. In Muslims’ conception, these angels are
numerous. They are the servants of Allah and are invisible. The Christians hold that
angels appear to man not in human physical forms but in spirits to give revelations. They
serve as the intermediaries between prophets and God. Similarly the Traditionalists
accept the angels’ theories known as divinities, as the intermediaries between God and
men. Related to the Deity in a unique way, the divinities are not mere creatures but
children of the Deity. The Divinities serve God’s will and assist Him in the theocratic
control and maintenance of the world. From what has been mentioned above, it is clear
that the followers of these religions have a kind insight into the spiritual realities of life.

3. Belief in Holiness of God

To understand their religious ethos and philosophical perception, it is very essential to
consider the concepts of the spiritual elements in relations to those of God. The holiness
of God occupies the highest rung in the ladders of the three religions. Judging by the
belief and practice in Islam and Christianity, God (Allah) is holy. Hence mosques and
churches are made holy before worship. In the same vein, worshippers must be free of
all evil thoughts. God is holy and in holiness must He be worshipped. Equally
acknowledging the ritual and ethical cleanliness, Traditionalists claim that the Deity’s
clothes in white robes and dwells in clean heaven. He impeccable, Utterance of dirty
words is unwelcomed near His shrine. It is required that the minds of those who come to
the shrines must be free of evil thoughts. When this is done worshippers could then
communicate with the Deity. Because of the Deity’s holiness, adherents hold that He
must be worshipped in holiness. Unquestionably, the three religions emphasise holiness’
required of priest’s because of their nearness to God.

4. Belief in Heaven and Hell

The concept of Heaven and Hell has been the focus of worship in African Traditional
religion as well as in Islam and Christianity. In Islam, Heaven is regarded as a place of
joy. It is a place of meeting with Allah for the righteous. Islam perceives Hell as a place
of falling down to a great death for the wicked. But Islam also sees it as a place of
purification. There, the purified will be allowed into the paradise after the repentance. In
Christianity, no one can inherit paradise without performing certain moral obligations
such as love of one another, devotion to God, purity of heart, generosity and absolute
faith in Christ. Christianity is Heaven centred. Many places have been prepared for the
righteous by the Father in Heaven where they would enjoy a sinless life. Everlasting
doom however awaits the unrighteous in hell. Similarly, in African Traditional religion,
Hell has been perceived as a place for the wicked that have not been accorded a place
in Heaven. Such people continue to suffer. But rather than staying in hell, they would

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 ultimately decide to transmigrate. They become dwarf, evil spirits like the born-to-die.
Sometimes they could continue living unstable lives as a cycle without an end. For the
three religions therefore, Heaven could be regarded as a place of reward for the
righteous as Hell could be seen as a place of punishment for the unrighteousness.

5. Belief in the Last Day

Religiously, the Last Day serves as the set objective towards what devotion is directed.
In order to achieve this set goal an individual has to be sinless before the Creator.
Attaching great premium to the justice of the Deity, the Traditionalists hold that He is just
and the Judge of men and the world. Giving every creature a name indicates that He
wants to be recording the deeds of an individual against his name. This record he will
make use of on Judgment day. In the Last Day therefore, the soul will appear before the
Deity for Judgment. The good and the wicked will be given their respective rewards.
Equally convinced of the final judgement of the dead in Christ, Christian’s believe that
every righteous individual would drop the life of flesh and blood and live eternally. This
becomes the day of resurrection as Christ Himself rose from the dead. Because all
things are put under subjection the last to be destroyed would be death. Unquestionably,
believers of the three religions anticipate the last Day when their soul would appear
before God for Judgement.

There is no gain saying the fact that religion remains a potent factor to reckon with in the
scheme of things in Nigeria. Although Islam and Christianity have now penetrated into almost
every facet of Nigerian society, traditional religion has not been completely displaced,
Traditionalism prevails. Christianity and Islam spread. The three religions coexist. Essentially
the basic conventional beliefs held between the three religions have without doubt fostered
understanding among their devotees. Conventional beliefs strengthen harmonious interaction.

Dialogue between the three major religions in Nigeria can be seen as inter religious dialogue. It
is a dialogue that concerns itself with the three groups of people who are of different religious
beliefs.

This kind of dialogue is not meant to compromise one’s faith with the other, but a dialogue that
gives room for mutual understanding and an opening for peaceful co- existence in the
community. This is necessary because Nigeria is multi-religious nation where members of
Christians, Muslims and the African Traditional worshippers are even found within family
settings, in public places, market areas and all over, thus it is imperative that they dialogue
together so as to understand individual feelings, interest and faith for the purpose of living
harmonious life.

Dialogue between these groups of religious beliefs, according to Ishaya (2007) would address
the following:
1. The need to walk together towards the truth.
2. The need to come together to arrest the constant religious crises that characterise
Nigerian society.

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 3. The need to come together to address common problems among them, and issues like
education, youth empowerment, health, light, roads and a host of other social amenities.
4. The issue of leadership in the country, and
5. The question of citizenship. It is a belief that if the above suggestions and ideas are
addressed squarely. Nigeria will be at peace.

CONCLUSION
From the discussion in this unit you have learnt the following:
● That dialogue aims to settle issues of disagreement between two groups or a group of
people in a more mature way to arrive at a logical conclusion.
● Religious dialogue is needful in a pluralistic society like Nigeria for a peaceful co-
existence.
● Certain steps needed to be taken for the effectiveness of religious dialogue.
● That despite the destined differences of the three main religions in Nigeria, there are
areas where the three agreed on the core issues.

SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been able to understand what dialogue is all about and the need for
religious dialogue. In addition you are able to understand that there are factors that aim at an
effective religious dialogue. The study also afforded you the opportunity to realise that the three
main religions in Nigeria agreed on major fundamental issues which boosted the understanding
and morale of their adherents in one and the understanding of the opposite adherents on what
the other religion teaches.

REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Akinyemi D.Y. (2001) Religious Dialogue; A tool for sustaining Democratic Governance in
Nigeria. In Ismaila B.R. et al, challenges of Democratic Governance in Nigeria, Oyo, FCE
School of Arts and Social Sciences Publications, Pp 262-270
Badmos, M.A (1993) Inter-religious Dialogue; The Nigerian Experience, Lagos, Iredo printers
Ishaya, P.Y (2007) Ecumenism and Religious Dialogue, In Wiebe, R.H et al (ed) Essential of
Christian Religious Studies, Vol II, Bukuru, African Christian Textbooks (ACTS)
Kateregga B and Shenk, D (1980) Islam and Christianity, Nairobi, Uzima Press
Kenny, J (1982) Muslim- Christian Relations: A Brief History and some Catholic statements,
Ibadan, University Press.
Mala, S.B (1988) Principles of Dialogue; Texts and Notations on Inter-religious Relations,
Ibadan, University Press
Trimingham, J.S (1975) A History of Islam in West Africa, London, Oxford University Press.

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