RATE OF THE HEAT FLOW

The heat is transfer from the one system to

another or from the one part of system to
another, arising due to temperature
difference. What is the different way by
which energy transfer takes place? There are
three distinct mode of heat transfer. They
are:
• Conduction
• Convections
• Radiation
 CONDUCTION

The process of heat transfer without

movement of molecule or atom form
one part of system to another is known
as Conduction. In conduction, the heat
is transfer from one point to another
point due to the collision of the atom.it
is more effective in solid.
 Temperature gradient ( 𝐝𝜽
𝐝𝐱
)
Heat transfer generally deals with temperature and transfer of heat due to temperature
difference. Temperature gradient is defined as the change in the temperature with position or
dθ
distance in the direction of heat flow. It is expressed as ()and
its SI unit is kelvin per meter
dx
(K/m). Here dθ the small change in temperature over a small distance dx.
Thermal conductivity(heat transfer through conductor due to conduction)
Consider the metallic conducting slab having, each side of length 𝑥 and of uniform cross-section area A as shown in
figure.Let first face is at higher temperature θ1 and next face is at lower temperature θ2 so that heat flows from hot
face to cold face.

Experimentally, it is shows that at equilibrium, amount of heat Q which flows across

the opposite faces is,
i. directly proportional to the temperature difference between the opposite faces,
i.e., Q α (θ1 – θ2) . . …….. (1)
ii. directly proportional to area of cross-section of each face,
i.e., Q αA . . ..……(2)
iii. directly proportional to time t for which heat flows,
i.e., Q α t.. …. (3)
iv. inversely proportional to the distance x between two faces,
1
i.e., Q α …….... . (4)
𝑥
Combining equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) we get,
(𝜃1 −𝜃2 ) t
or, Q αA
𝑥
(𝜃1 −𝜃2 ) t
or, Q=K A …………. (5)
𝑥
Where K is proportionality constant and it is called coefficient of thermal conductivity of the material of the slab.
The value of K depends on nature of material of the slab.
Coefficient of thermal conductivity(K):
From equation (5),
(𝜃1 −𝜃2 ) t
Or Q=K A
𝑥
Q𝑥
Or K=
A(𝜃1 −𝜃2 ) t

But if 𝑥=1m, unit A= 1m2, t= 1 sec and (θ1 – θ2) =1K

Then K=Q Thus, the coefficient of thermal conductivity K of a body is defined as amount of heat flowing
per second at steady state across the opposite faces of a unit cube maintained at unit temperature difference.
Unit of thermal conductivity(K):
From equation (5),
(𝜃1 −𝜃2 ) t
Or Q=K A 𝑥
Q𝑥
Or K= A(𝜃1 −𝜃2 ) t
𝐽×𝑚 -1K-1Sec-1
In SI system, K= m×m×K× sec
=Jm or watt m-1K-1
Thus, the SI unit of the coefficient of thermal conductivity is watt m-1K-1 and
dimension formula is [MLT-3K-1].
Determination of the coefficient of the thermal conductivity of the conductor by Searle’s
method:
Searle’s method is the experimental method to determine the coefficient of the thermal
conductivity. The experimental setup is shown in figure .
The apparatus consists of a metal rod
AB of uniform cross-section area A
whose thermal conductivity is to be
determined. The rod has two cavities
C1 and C2at a distance 𝑥 apart near to
the hot reservoir. Thermometers T1
and T2 are inserted in cavities C1 and A B
C2 respectively. Mercury are filled to
those cavities to ensure perfect
thermal contact between bulb of
thermometer and metal bar.
The end A of the rod is surrounded by steam chamber and steam is passed continuously to heat the
rod. A cooling pipe of copper is wound near to end B of rod AB and cold water is circulated
continuously through it. The outgoing warm water is collected to a vessel. T4 and T3 are the
thermometers kept to measure the temperature of cold water at entry point and warm water
collected in vessel respectively. The whole rod is kept inside an insulated box to prevent any loss
of heat from sides. Now mass of water collected is measured. When steam is passed through the
steam chamber, temperature readings on thermometer T1, T2 and T3 go on increasing. As the
process continues, the rod achieves the steady condition at which all the thermometers show
constant temperature readings. Let θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 are temperature readings given by
thermometers T1, T2, T3 and T4 respectively in steady state and t be time for which heat flows
from point C1to C2 then,
Rate of flow of heat from C1to C2 is given by,
Q1 (𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
=K A ………………(1)
𝑡 𝑥
Where, K is thermal conductivity of material of rod AB which is to be determined. If m and S be the
mass and specific heat capacity of water respectively then, Rate of heat absorbed by water is given by,
Q2
= mS (θ3 – θ4)/t . . . (2)
𝑡
Working principle; At steady state, rate of flow of heat from point C1to C2 must be equal to rate of
absorption of heat by collected water.
𝑄 𝑄2
i.e., 𝑡1= 𝑡
((𝜃 −𝜃 )
or K A 1 2 = mS (θ3 – θ4) t
𝑥
𝐦𝐒 (𝜽𝟑 −𝜽𝟒 )𝒙
or K= ……...(3)
𝐀(𝜽𝟏 −𝜽𝟐 )𝒕
All the parameters on RHS are measured. Hence thermal conductivity K of the rod can be determined
by Searle's method.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1.Calculate the quantity of heat conducted through 12m2 of a brick wall 20cm
thick in 1 hour if the temperature on one side is 5°C and the other side is 25°C.
[Thermal conductivity of brick =0.2 Wm-1K-1 ]
2.A metal rod of the length 20cm and cross-section area 3.14cm2 is covered with non-
conductingsubstance.one end of it is maintained at 100°C while other end is put in ice at 0°C.it is
found that 25gram of the ice melt at 5 min. calculate the thermal conductivity of rod. .[latent heat
of ice Lf=80cal/gm]
3.A pot with steel bottom 8.5 mm thick rest on a hot stove. The area of the
bottom of the pot is 0.15m2. the water inside the pot is at 100°C and 390gm of
water evaporated every 3 minutes. Find the temperature of lower surface of the
pot which is in contact with the stove. (k=50.2W/mK, Lv=2256×103 J/kg).
4. A rod 1.3 m long consists of a 0.8 m length of Aluminum joined end-to-end to a 0.5 m length of
brass. The free end of the aluminum section is maintained at 150 degree Celsius and the free end of
the brass piece is maintained at 20 degree Celsius. No heat is lost through the sides of the rod. In the
steady state, what is the temperature of the point where the two metals are joined? (Thermal
conductivity of brass = 110 W/mK, Thermal conductivity of aluminum= 205 W/mK)
Application of conduction in daily life:
1. In winter ,iron chair appear to be colder than the wooden chair.
2. Woolen clothes are warm because they have fine pores filled with air.
3. Cooking utensils are provided with wooden handles.
4. After a car is turned on, the engine becomes hot. The hood will become warm as heat
is conducted from the engine to the hood.
5. Ice is packed in gunny bag
Convection
The process of transfer of heat in fluids by means of actual motion of heated particles from high temperature
region to low temperature region is called Convection. Heat is transmitted through the liquid and gases by this
𝑄
process. Experimentally it is found that the rate of transfer of heat( )is
𝑡
𝑄
a .Directly proportional to the surface area of the fluid exposed to surrounding (A ) i.e.  A …………(i)
𝑡

𝑄
b. directly proportional to the temperature difference between two parts of the fluid ()i.e.   … (ii)
𝑡
From equation (i) and (ii)
𝑄
 A
𝑡
𝑄
or = β A …………………….. (iii)
𝑡
Where  is known as convective coefficient then From equation (iii)
𝑄
β= 𝑡
A
𝑄
If A = 1m2  = 1 K, then β =
𝑡
So, convective coefficient is defined as the rate of flow of heat through the fluid having unit exposed surface area
and the unit difference in temperature in between two parts of the fluid in which heat is flowing.
Applications of the convection :
 Convection comes into play while boiling water.
 Convection plays an important role in ventilation and heating and cooling
systems in house.
 The human heart is a pump and blood circulation in the human body is an
example of convection. The heat which is generated by the cells in the body
is transferred to air or water which is flowing over the skin.
 Huge energy transfers take place within the oceans by the same process.
Radiation
The process in which heat is transmitted from the one place to another directly without heating
medium is called Radiation. The heat radiation from the sun to earth comes through this process.
The radiation produced by the heat is known as thermal radiation. The investigations show that
thermal radiation has following some properties.
a. It travels through empty space in straight with time velocity of light.
b. It obeys law of inverse square.
c. It can be reflected and refracted like light.
Intensity of the heat
Intensity is defined as heat energy radiated per unit cross sectional area per second at any point.
Mathematically,
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐸)
Intensity (I) =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝐴)×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)
𝐸
Or, I=
𝐴×𝑡
The SI unit of intensity is Wm–2
Let 'S' be any source of heat. P and Q are two points of concentric spheres at distances r1 and r2 respectively
from the source S. If I1 and I2 be the intensities at points P and Q and A1 and A2 are the area of the spheres of
radius r1 and r2 respectively.
Then Intensity at point P
𝐸
I1 = Q
𝐴×𝑡 r2
𝐸
Or,( )P = I1 ×A1 ………………….. (i)
𝑡 S r1
𝐸 P
Where ( )P is energy radiated per second at point P .
𝑡
Fig. Inverse square law for heat radiation.
Also , Intensity at point Q r2
Q

𝐸
I2 = 𝐴×𝑡
S r1
𝐸 P

Or,( ) = I2 ×A2 ………………….. (2)

𝑡 Q
𝐸 Fig. Inverse square law for heat radiation.
Where ( )
is energy radiated per second at point Q
𝑡 Q
If the points P and Q are very close to each other then energy radiated per second at points P
and Q are equal.
𝐸 𝐸
,( 𝑡 )P=( 𝑡 )Q
Or I1 ×A1= I2 ×A2
I1 A2 4π𝑟22
Or I = A = 4π𝑟 2
2 1 1
I 𝑟 2
Or I1= 𝑟22
2
11
Or Iα𝑟2
This is called inverse square law. It explains why it is hotter when we are near to the source of
heat.
 Reflection, Absorption and Transmission of the Heat radiations
All bodies radiate heat in the form of energy. When radiated energy is reach another surface, they
may either be absorbed, reflected or transmitted. Suppose Q is the total amount of heat radiation
incident on the surface. Let R, A and T be the reflected, absorbed and transmitted part of Q
respectively.
From principle of conservation of energy, The behavior of a surface with energy incident
Q= R + A + T . . . (1) upon it can be described by the following
quantities as:
 Coefficient of the reflection(reflectance):
It is defined as the ratio of heat energy reflected
from the surface to the total heat energy incident
on the surface during same time. It is denoted by
‘r’and is given by,
R
r =Q ……………...(2)
 Coefficient of the absorption(absorptance):
It is defined as the ratio of heat energy absorbed by the surface to the total heat energy incident on the surface during
same time. It is denoted by ‘a’and is given by,
A
a = …………….(3)
Q
 Coefficient of the transmission (transmittance):
It is defined as the ratio of heat energy transmitted through the surface to the total heat energy incident on the surface
during same time. It is denoted by ‘t’ and is given by,
T
t = …………….(4)
Q
Now adding equations (2), (3) and (4), we get
R A T
or r + a + t= + +
Q Q Q
R+A+T
or r + a + t =
Q
from equation (1), R+A+T=Q then,
Q
or r + a + t =
Q
or r +a + t=1
Therefore, the sum of reflectance, absorptance and transmittance is always equal to 1. For the black body r=t=0 that
means all the radiations of heat is absorbed by body.
Black Body
• In physics, The body which can absorb most of the radiations fallen upon it is known as
black body.
• The body which can absorb all the radiations fallen upon it is known as perfectly black
body.
• When a black body is heated, at suitable temperature, it can emit the radiation captured by it.
That's why black body is said to be a good absorber as well as good emitter.
• In this world there is no existence of perfectly black body while the black hole is assumed to
be perfectly black body. Any object coated by lamp black is assumed to be 96% to 98% of
black body.
Ferry's black body
The simplest and most commonly used black body
was designed by Ferry. Fig. shows Ferry's black
body. It consists of a hollow double walled metallic
sphere having small opening O on one side and
conical projection P just opposite to it. The inner
walls of the sphere are coated with lamp black. Any
radiation entering the hole is reflected many times at
the inner walls of the sphere. After a few reflections,
almost entire radiation is absorbed. The conical
projection P does not permit any direct reflection.
EMISSIVE POWER AND EMISSIVITY
Emissive power of a body at a given temperature is the quantity of radiant energy
emitted by the body per unit time per unit surface area of the body at that
temperature.
If 'Q' is the amount of radiant energy emitted, 'A' is the surface area of the body
and 't ' is the time for which body radiates energy, then the emissive power is
𝐐
given by, ε =
𝐀𝐭
The Coefficient of emission of a body is the ratio of the emissive power of the
body(ε) at a given temperature to the emissive power of a perfectly black body
(E)at the same temperature.it also known as emissivity.
𝜀
Emissivity(e) =
𝐸
Emissivity of the perfectly black body is equal to 1.
Stefan’s law of black body radiation
Stefan's declared experimentally that energy radiated by a body depends only on its temperature and he
put forward a law known as Stefan's law.
Stefan's law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body in unit time is
directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body's absolute temperature.
Let E be the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body per sec at absolute temperature
T then according to Stefan’s law
E α T4
or, E =σ T4 . . ………….. (1)
Where, σ is proportionality constant known as Stefan's constant. The value of σ in SI system is 5.67 ×
10-8Wm–2K–4.
If the body is not perfectly black and has its emissivity e, then
E = σ eT4 ................(2)
Now, the rate of energy radiated(P) = A σ T4………………. (3)
If the body is not perfectly black and has its emissivity e, then
P = σAeT4 ................(4)
The relations given above are valid only if the temperature of the surrounding is zero Kelvin.
But if there is a surrounding at temperature T Solar constant
(more than zero Kelvin) then, surrounding also Solar constant is defined as amount of
emits heat radiation which is absorbed by black radiant energy received from the sun per
body. Hence relation is modified by Boltzmann unit area per second by a perfectly black
for the total energy radiated per unit surface area body placed on the surface of earth. It is
of a black body per sec is given by denoted by S. The value of solar constant
E =σ (T4 – T04) . . ………… (5) is 1.388×103 watt/m2 (1400watt/m2). The
This is Stefan - Boltzmann's law. concept of solar constant and Stefan's
If the body is not perfectly black, then net constant are used to estimate the surface
emissive power is, temperature of the sun.
E' = e σ (T4 – T04) …............... (6)
Also, the rate of energy radiated is given by
P’= eAσ (T4 – T04)
Apparent determination of temperature of the sun P
Consider the sun as a spherical perfectly black body of radius R
and temperature T. Let r be the mean distance between earth and r

sun as in figure.
According to Stefan's law, the total energy radiated per unit o
R

surface area of a black body per sec at absolute temperature T of

sun is
E = σT4
Q
or, = σT4 Fig. Heat radiated by the sun
t×A
Q
or = AσT4= 4πR2 × σ × T4 Since, A=4πR2 If we assume there is no absorbing
t
P=4πR2 × σ × T4 . . . ……. (1) medium between the earth and the sun
The sun radiates energy in all direction around it and it is then,
received by a sphere of radius r. If S be the solar constant, the
4πR2 × σ × T4= S × 4πr2
total energy falling on the sphere of radius r per unit time is 𝒓𝟐 𝑺
Q
P= = S × 4πr2 . . . ……… (2) or T= [𝑹𝟐×𝝈]1/4
t
Using this relation, surface
temperature of sun can be estimated.
Here,
Solar constant (S) = 1400 W/m2
Radius of the sun (R) = 7 × 108 m
Distance of the sun from the earth (r) = 1.5 × 1011m
Stefan’s constant (σ) = 5.67 × 10-8Wm-2K-4
A spherical blackbody of radius 5cm has its temperature 127°C and its emissivity is 0.6.
Calculate its radiant power.
Solution:
Radius (R)= 5cm =5×10-2 m
Temperature (T)=127°C =273+127=400K
Emissivity(e)=0.6 , σ=5.7×10-8 Wm-2K-4
Radiant power(P)=?
We know that, P=eAσT4
Or P=0.6×4πR2×5.7×10-8×(400)4
22
Or P=0.6×4× 7 ×(5×10-2 )2×5.7×10-8×(400)4
Or P=27.36 W
1. A man, the surface area of whose skin is 2m2 is sitting in a room where the
air temperature is 20°C. If his skin temperature is 37°C, find the rate at which
his body loses heat. The emissivity of his skin is 0.97.
Soln: Surface area of man skin (A)= 2m2
Emissivity of skin (e)=0.97
Skin temperature (T) =37°C = 310K
Air temperature (To)=20°C = 293K
Rate of heat lost (P) = ?
Using the formula 𝑃 = 𝑒𝜎𝐴 𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑜4 =0.97 × 2.54 × 10−8 × 2 ×[3104-2934]
𝑃 = 92.2 𝑊
What is the ratio of the energy per second radiated by filament of a lamp at 2500K to that
radiated at 2000K, assuming the filament is black body radiator?
Solution:
T1=2500K , T2=2000K
The energy per second radiated by filament of a lamp at 2500K is given by, P1=eAσT14
The energy per second radiated by filament of a lamp at 2000K is given by, P2=eAσT24
𝑃1 eAσ𝑇14 25004
Now,𝑃 =eAσ𝑇 4 =20004 =2.44
2 2