Microelectronics Failure Analysis Desk Reference

6th edition Edition Edfas Desk Reference

Committee pdf download

https://ebookname.com/product/microelectronics-failure-analysis-
desk-reference-6th-edition-edition-edfas-desk-reference-
committee/

Get Instant Ebook Downloads – Browse at https://ebookname.com

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Oxford Desk Reference Nephrology 1st Edition Jonathan

Barratt

https://ebookname.com/product/oxford-desk-reference-
nephrology-1st-edition-jonathan-barratt/

Groundwater Chemicals Desk Reference 3rd Edition J.H.

Montgomery

https://ebookname.com/product/groundwater-chemicals-desk-
reference-3rd-edition-j-h-montgomery/

Psychologists desk reference 2nd Edition Gerald P.

Koocher

https://ebookname.com/product/psychologists-desk-reference-2nd-
edition-gerald-p-koocher/

ABC of Psychological Medicine 1st Edition Richard Mayou

https://ebookname.com/product/abc-of-psychological-medicine-1st-
edition-richard-mayou/
The Forge and the Funeral The Smith in Kapsiki Higi
Culture 1st Edition Walter E. A. Van Beek

https://ebookname.com/product/the-forge-and-the-funeral-the-
smith-in-kapsiki-higi-culture-1st-edition-walter-e-a-van-beek/

Index of Leading Environmental Indicators 2006 11th

Edition Steven F. Hayward

https://ebookname.com/product/index-of-leading-environmental-
indicators-2006-11th-edition-steven-f-hayward/

Handbook of Multisensor Data Fusion Theory and Practice

Second Edition Electrical Engineering Applied Signal
Processing Series Martin E. Liggins

https://ebookname.com/product/handbook-of-multisensor-data-
fusion-theory-and-practice-second-edition-electrical-engineering-
applied-signal-processing-series-martin-e-liggins/

Essential SourceSafe Ted Roche

https://ebookname.com/product/essential-sourcesafe-ted-roche/

Bullish on Uncertainty How Organizational Cultures

Transform Participants 1st Edition Alexandra Michel

https://ebookname.com/product/bullish-on-uncertainty-how-
organizational-cultures-transform-participants-1st-edition-
alexandra-michel/
Adventures of Tom Sawyer Webster s German Thesaurus
Edition Mark Twain

https://ebookname.com/product/adventures-of-tom-sawyer-webster-s-
german-thesaurus-edition-mark-twain/
Microelectronics
Failure Analysis
_____________________________

Desk Reference
Sixth Edition
_____________________________

Edited by
Richard J. Ross

Published by
ASM International®
Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org
 Copyright  2011
by
ASM International®
All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of
the copyright owner.

First printing, October 2011

Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this book, but it should be made clear that NO
WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES
OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN
CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by
ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone.
This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since
the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM's control, ASM assumes no liability or
obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or
information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the
purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY
HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO
EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL
DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF
SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to
specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended.

Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or
reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether
or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be
construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a
defense against liability for such infringement.

Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.

ISBN-13: 978-1-61503-725-4
ISBN-10: 1-61503-725-X
SAN: 204-7586

ASM International®
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org

Printed in the United States of America

 Editorial Board

Editor-In-Chief

Richard J. Ross, Consultant

Editors/Section Champions

Vijay Chowdhury, Evans Analytical Group

Dermot Daly, Xilinx
Dave Dozor, IR Labs
George Gaut, Qualcomm
Cheryl Hartfield, Omniprobe
Leo G. Henry, ESD/TLP Consulting
Becky Holdford, Texas Instruments
Kultaransingh (Bobby) Hooghan, FEI Corp
Martin Keim, Mentor Graphics
Larry Kessler, Sonoscan
Steven Maher, Oklahoma Christian University
Richard J. Young, FEI Corp.
Thomas Zanon, PDF Solutions

iii
“This page left intentionally blank.”
 Contents

Preface to the Sixth Edition ....................................................................................................xi

Section 1: Introduction

The Failure Analysis Process..................................................................................................1

M. Steven Ferrier

Section 2: Failure Analysis Process Overviews

System Level Failure Analysis Process: Making Failure Analysis a Value Add
Proposition in Today’s High Speed Low Cost PC Environment .......................................16
Michael Lane, Roger Bjork, Jeff Birdsley

Board Level Failure Mechanisms and Analysis in

Hand-Held Electronic Products.............................................................................................23
Sridhar Canumalla, Puligandla Viswanadham

Failure Analysis Flow for Package Failures .........................................................................34

Rajen Dias

Chip-Scale Packages and Their Failure Analysis Challenges .........................................40

Susan Xia Li

Wafer Level Failure Analysis Process Flow .........................................................................49

J.H. Lee, Y.S. Huang, D.H. Su

Failure Analysis of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) ..........................................52

Jeremy A. Walraven, Bradley A. Waterson, Ingrid De Wolf

Failure Analysis and Reliability of Optoelectronic Devices ...............................................78

Robert W. Herrick

Solar Photovoltaic Module Failure Analysis ........................................................................99

G.B. Alers

DRAM Failure Analysis and Defect Localization Techniques ..........................................104

Martin Versen

Failure Analysis of Passive Components ..........................................................................111

Stan Silvus

v
Section 3: Failure Analysis Topics
Reliability and Quality Basics for Failure Analysts ..........................................................121
Steven Hoffman, Chris Henderson

Electronics and Failure Analysis .......................................................................................128

Jerry Soden, Jaume Segura, Charles F. Hawkins

Submicron CMOS Devices ..................................................................................................149

Theodore A. Dellin

Analog Device and Circuit Characterization .....................................................................159

Steve Frank

Screening for Counterfeit Electronic Parts .......................................................................171

Bhanu Sood, Diganta Das

Section 4: Fault Verification and Classification

An Overview of Analog Design for Test and Diagnosis ....................................................181
Stephen Sunter

An Overview of Integrated Circuit Testing Methods .........................................................190

Anne Gattiker, Phil Nigh, Rob Aitken

Diagnosis of Scan Logic and Diagnosis Driven Failure Analysis ....................................199

Srikanth Venkataraman, Martin Keim, Geir Eide

Interpretation of Power DMOS Transistor Characteristics

Measured with Curve Tracer ...............................................................................................209
Hubert Beermann

High-Volume Scan Analysis: Methods to Avoid Failure Analysis ...................................218

Darrell Carder, Steve Palosh, Rajesh Raina

Differentiating between EOS and ESD Failures for ICs ....................................................225

Leo G. Henry

The Power of Semiconductor Memory Failure Signature Analysis .................................239

Cary A. Gloor

Section 5: Localization Techniques

Beam-Based Defect Localization Techniques ..................................................................246

Edward I. Cole, Jr.

Electron Beam Probing .......................................................................................................263

John T.L. Thong
vi
Failure Localization with Active and
Passive Voltage Contrast in FIB and SEM .......................................................................269
Ruediger Rosenkranz

Fundamentals of Photon Emission (PEM) in Silicon –

Electroluminescence for Analysis of Electronic Circuit and
Device Functionality ............................................................................................................279
Christian Boit

Picosecond Imaging Circuit Analysis – PICA ...................................................................292

D. Vallett

Current Imaging Using Magnetic Field Sensors ...............................................................301

L.A. Knauss, S.I. Woods, A. Orozco

Thermal Defect Detection Techniques ...............................................................................310

Daniel L. Barton, Paiboon Tangyunyong

Thermal Failure Analysis by IR Lock-In Thermography ...................................................330

O. Breitenstein, C. Schmidt, F. Altmann, D. Karg

Principles of Thermal Laser Stimulation Techniques ......................................................340

F. Beaudoin, R. Desplats, P. Perdu, C. Boit

Introduction to Laser Voltage Probing (LVP) of Integrated Circuits ...............................349

Siva Kolachina

CAD Navigation in FA and Design/Test Data for Fast Fault Isolation .............................354
William Ng

Acoustic Microscopy of Semiconductor Packages ..........................................................362

Cheryl D. Hartfield, Thomas M. Moore

Electronic Package Fault Isolation Using TDR .................................................................383

D. Smolyansky

Section 6: Deprocessing and Sample Preparation

Delayering Techniques: Dry Processes Wet Chemical Processing and

Parallel Lapping....................................................................................................................397
Kendall Scott Wills, Srikanth Perungulam

The Art of Cross Sectioning ...............................................................................................417

B. Engel, E. Levine, J. Petrus, A. Shore

Delineation Etching of Semiconductor Cross Sections ...................................................437

S. Roberts, D. Flatoff

vii
Special Techniques for Backside Deprocessing ..............................................................440
Seth Prejean, Brennan Davis, Lowell Herlinger, Richard Johnson,
Renee Parente, Mike Santana

Deprocessing Techniques for Copper, Low K, and SOI Devices ....................................445

Huixian Wu, James Cargo

Section 7: Inspection

Optical Microscopy .............................................................................................................457

John McDonald

Scanning Electron Microscopy ..........................................................................................477

W. Vanderlinde

Ultra-High Resolution in the Scanning Electron Microscope ..........................................497

W. Vanderlinde

Transmission Electron Microscopy for

Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices ......................................................................506
Swaminathan Subramanian, Raghaw S. Rai

X-ray Imaging Tools for Electronic Device Failure Analysis ...........................................529

Steve Wang

Atomic Force Microscopy: Modes and Analytical Techniques with

Scanning Probe Microscopy ..............................................................................................536
J. Colvin, K. Jarausch

Section 8: Materials Analysis

Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis ......................................................................................549
W. Vanderlinde

Analysis of Submicron Defects by Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)........................561

Juergen Scherer, Patrick Schnabel, Kenton Childs

SIMS Solutions for Next Generation IC Processes and Devices......................................573

Gary Mount, Yung Liou, Han-Chung Chien

Section 9: Focused Ion Beam Applications

Focused Ion Beam (FIB) Systems: A Brief Overview ........................................................583

Kultaransingh (Bobby) Hooghan, Richard J. Young

Circuit Edit at First Silicon ..................................................................................................594

Ted Lundquist, Mark Thompson

viii
The Process of Editing Circuits through the Bulk Silicon ...............................................607
Nicholas Antoniou

Section 10: Management and Reference Information

Education and Training for the Analyst .............................................................................612

Christopher L. Henderson

Management Principles and Practices for the Failure Analysis Laboratory ..................617
Richard J. Ross

Managing the Unpredictable – A Business Model for Failure Analysis Service ............627
C. Boit, K. Scholtens, R. Weiland, S. Görlich, D. Schlenker

Failure Analysis Terms and Definitions .............................................................................635

Ryan Ong

Author Index ........................................................................................................................651

Subject Index .......................................................................................................................653

ix
“This page left intentionally blank.”
 Preface to the Sixth Edition

Richard J. Ross, Editor-in-Chief

As the semiconductor industry moves from the No undertaking of this magnitude is

“micro” to the “nano” realm, the Failure accomplished without the efforts of many. The
Analysis community needs to be pro-active in Editorial Board and Section Champions
maintaining its ability to verify, isolate, recruited experts in the various specialized
uncover, and identify the root-cause of fields, nurtured and encouraged them, and drove
problems. These problems may be discovered to a schedule which, in the economic climate of
in design debug, product or technology the past few years, required understanding and
development and qualification, fabrication, revision. The staff at ASM International,
packaging, reliability stress, or, most particularly Kate Russell and Scott Henry were
unfortunately, in the field. New materials and of immeasurable help and support. Thomas
ever-shrinking technology dimensions make it Zanon, EDFAS Education Chair, was tolerant,
increasingly more challenging for the failure understanding, and supportive when the
analyst and make it increasingly important to inevitable frustrations of time and effort
provide analysis with information, training, appeared. Without the various authors, of
equipment, and materials to enable them to cope course, this work does not exist and I am
with these challenges and opportunities. eternally grateful to each of them. Finally, I
want to thank my family for their support for the
For over three decades, this work, time spent on the computer and the phone.
“Microelectronics Failure Analysis Desk
Reference” has been a key aide to analysts. It
has been used as a textbook, a workbook, and a
laboratory manual over that time and has
undergone, now, six iterations of content
selection and revision. The printed version has
gone from 275 pages to over 600. Some of the
methods and techniques which are included in
this edition did not even exist when the first
edition was published in the 1970s.

The work itself must change as well to reflect

the challenges and opportunities of the times.
This edition will exist in web-based online,
DVD, and printed form to meet the diverse
needs of the community. Some “old favorites”
remain as their base technology and practice are
still relevant and useful; others have become
superseded by the technology. The use of color
throughout the work is also introduced in this
edition.

xi
“This page left intentionally blank.”
Microelectronics Failure Analysis Copyright © 2011 ASM International®.
Desk Reference, Sixth Edition All rights reserved.
R.J. Ross, editor Product code: 09110Z
The Failure Analysis Process
M. Steven Ferrier
Metatech Corporation  1190 SW Sunset Drive  Corvallis, OR 97333
Telephone 541-752-2713  Email [email protected]

Introduction. How does an experienced Failure eral analysis formalization intended to make the fail-
Analysis engineer crack a tough analysis? What ure analysis design efficient, rigorous and consistent
makes the difference between a new engineer's Fail- from analysis to analysis and from failure to failure.
ure Analysis approach and the seasoned, effective The formalization amounts to a practical form of sci-
analysis method of a veteran? Can our industry cap- entific method4,5, customized for the failure analysis
ture a formulation of correct Failure Analysis meth- discipline, and enabling faster analysis to satisfy
odology to accelerate the development of new engi- business constraints.
neers and aid the strong skills of experienced ana- The analysis design methodology, or decision en-
lysts? gine, can be formulated as six steps arranged in a cy-
More crucial, perhaps, is the underlying question, cle or loop, shown in Fig. 1. This may not look like a
Are we able as analysts to think abstractly about the Failure Analysis process flow, which is appropriate,
nature of our work? Or are we instead bound to a since it is not, strictly speaking, such a flow. Instead,
tool-focused, concrete way of thinking that has all the these steps in this order form a metaprocess, that is, a
adaptability of the construction material of the same process whose function is to create another process.
name? While our historical inability in the FA indus- Applied to semiconductor failure analysis, this gen-
try to abstract a general process from our daily work eral decision engine metaprocess creates a specific
will probably not doom our discipline, this shortcom- analysis flow for a specific failure based on the facts
ing will certainly rob us of a great deal of efficiency, about the failure, the results of analysis operations,
flexibility and basic understanding of what we do in the body of knowledge about physical causes and
electronic device Failure Analysis. This author has their effects and, finally, inferential logic. This
the conviction that we are a better group of people metaprocess is intended to work properly—that is,
than to allow this shortcoming to continue undetected generate a correct unique failure analysis flow—for
and uncorrected for much longer. any failure analysis of a manufactured product com-
While many or most Failure Analysis departments ing from any of the semiconductor wafer and pack-
make the definition and application of specific analy- aging processes predominant today. Using the ap-
sis process flows a significant priority, the subject of proach described in this tutorial, the analyst of any
general FA methodology remains a minor one in the experience level should become able to make analy-
literature as of this writing.1-3 By way of a summary sis choices in ways that reflect mature failure analysis
remediation, this tutorial paper presents a fully-gen- skills. This approach can thus accelerate the maturity
(end of prior
loop)
Construct an existence-correlation-causation ques-
tion (E/C/C Question) E/C/C Question

Make a measurement to address that question

(Measurement) Measurement
Interpret the results of the measurement to answer
the E/C/C Question (Interpretation) Interpretation
Cast the answer in an existence-correlation-
causation form (E/C/C Answer)
E/C/C Answer
Build a correlation list of possible prior causes and
their effects (Correlation List)
Correlation List
Select one or more items from the List about which
to construct a new E/C/C Question (Selection)
Selection
(start of next
loop)
Figure 1 Scientific Method Metaprocess Loop for Failure Analysis (unfolded version)

1
of beginning analysts once they have the small also provided the formal structure that, at the conclu-
amount of experience needed to use the metaprocess sion of the analysis, permitted a one-sheet summary
effectively. Some benefits of this methodology will of the failure's cause-effect relationships and the
be described in detail a little later in the tutorial. All analysis flow leading to discovery of the anomaly.
examples of any kind in this tutorial, with one major As with every application of this metaprocess, the
exception described shortly, are hypothetical but pos- resulting analysis flow simply represented an effec-
sible. tive version of good failure analysis. The formal and
The Metaprocess in a Nutshell. Very briefly, flexible codification of the analysis decision-making
here is how this metaprocess produces a correct de- process, however, provided several specific benefits,
vice analysis flow. All analysis starts with under- not least of which was the ability to proceed with
standing the failure mode. We have a part and a high confidence that the problem could and would be
complaint; does the failure mode exist on this part solved. This tutorial describes the application of the
and match the complaint? We make a measurement metaprocess, and also the key measurements and
to confirm the failure mode. If we do confirm the cause-effect relationships in the analysis.
mode, it makes sense, rather than just jumping into a Manufacturing and Failure Mode. The yield
measurement, to ask ourselves what could cause the failure mode, labeled VDD Leakage, occurred in a
mode. Even if we have no data yet, we can still come specific printhead IC manufactured in a 1.0 um sin-
up with a list of possible causes that may be substan- gle-poly three-metal CMOS process. Although this is
tial. The next step is to write down on our list other a relatively simple wafer process, the mode's charac-
effects of the causes we just wrote down on our list. teristics conspired to counteract any real benefit from
We then select one effect on our list and ask whether the process simplicity. Up to 80% of the IC's manu-
it exists. factured exhibited a slightly elevated (but definitely
The reader will notice that at this point we are anomalous) supply leakage current in a standby con-
back where we started: asking whether an effect ex-
ists. We began by asking whether the effect called
the failure mode exists, and ended by asking whether
an effect on our list existed. This makes it clear that
the pro??cess we are using represents a loop. If we
follow this loop, it will lead us from the failure mode
to the root anomaly. Pursuing a rigorous version of
this approach provides the correct analysis flow.
The Metaprocess in Real Life. To show this,
we start with a real-life example of the use of this ap-
proach, drawn verbatim (excepting a few editorial
excisions) from a published ISTFA paper6. After this
practical example, we will provide some clear defini-
tions of basic terms and then proceed to explain the
six steps on their own merits.
Application of a formal Failure Analysis meta- Figure 2 Cumulative distribution of failing design
process to a stubborn yield loss problem provided a leakage behavior of wafer lots with only 20% of IDD
currents falling below 200nA.
framework that ultimately facilitated a solution. Ab-
sence of results from conventional failure analysis
techniques such as PEM (Photon Emission Mi-
croscopy) and liquid crystal microthermography frus-
trated early attempts to analyze this low-level supply
leakage failure mode. Subsequently, a reorganized
analysis team attacked the problem using a specific
top-level metaprocessa,4.
Using the metaprocess, analysts generated a spe-
cific unique step-by-step analysis process in real
time. Along the way, this approach encouraged the
creative identification of secondary failure effects
that provided repeated breakthroughs in the analysis
flow. Analysis proceeded steadily toward the failure
cause in spite of its character as a three-way interac-
tion among factors in the IC design, mask generation,
and wafer manufacturing processes. The metaprocess

a A metaprocess is a general process whose pur- Figure 3 Cumulative distribution of leakage behavior
pose and function is to create a specific process to of related but non-failing design with IDD of over 90%
suit specific conditions and requirements. of devices falling below 200nA.

2
figuration compared to comparable IC designs. The (middle top) disciplined the construction of the Cor-
anomalous leakage current revealed itself as a sloppy relation List to treat possible prior causes arising
cumulative current distribution curve (Fig. 2) com- from the failure's anomalous behavior rather than
pared to the clean curves of non-failing designs (Fig. from speculation.
3). Function 3. The metaprocess provided applica-
Another fact stood out at the outset as a clear clue. tion points for methodical analysis logic. At some
The leakage did not occur on the susceptible design points during analysis, behavior that correlated with
when it was manufactured in an older wafer process failure differed very little from behavior that did not.
with significantly heavier n-well doping. Early fail- The metaprocess facilitated the use of logical princi-
ure analysis indicated no correlating liquid-crystal ples able to accurately distinguish fine differences,
b c
transitions, a result consistent with the leakage levels such as the Contrapositive Test and Inductive Proof .
of approximately 1-5uA. Other traditional analysis Analysis Flow. The following section describes
measurements (including a search for correlating the overall analysis flow arising from the metapro-
photon emission) also proved unsuccessful. In spite cess, including some details of its application.
of months of yield loss without a resolution, the team A. Failure Mode Verification and Characteriza-
responsible for yield refused on principle to simply tion. In verifying failure mode, analysis began with a
raise the test limit and redefine this product as 'good'. focus on the causes and effects operating in the fail-
Application of the Metaprocess. The problem ing IC, incorporating the first function informed by
was eventually returned to the IC's designers, and a the metaprocess described earlier (providing a con-
task force assembled across design and manufactur- stant focus on the nature and details of the cause-ef-
ing organizations to solve the problem. The ensuing fect failure-created network, the analysis path, and
analysis was guided chiefly by a cyclic metaprocess, the location of current analysis activity on that path).
diagrammed in Fig. 1 above. This metaprocess per- The metaprocess loop was initiated, as Fig. 1 indi-
formed a critical three functions for the analysis ef- cates, at the E/C/C Question step.
fort. E/C/C Question: Does the reported VDD leakage
Function 1. The metaprocess provided a constant exist, correlate with the complaint, and cause this IC
focus on (a) the nature and details of the cause-effect to be categorized as a failure?
network that the failure had created, (b) the analysis Measurement: Under conditions matching the
path, and (c) the location (status) of current analysis failed test, the die under analysis exhibited anoma-
activity on that path. The metaprocess provided this
function through the canonical form of the E/C/C
Question, "Does <the selected specific possible prior
cause> Exist, Correlate with <the known, observed
failing behavior>, and Cause that behavior? For ex-
ample, at one point the question became: "Does the
possible gate oxide short exist, correlate with the
known quadratic IDD leakage, and cause that leak-
age?" Depending upon the answer to this question,
one of the following three cases applied:
I. The analysis path is false (in this example, the
possible cause, a gate short, did not exist);
II. The analysis path is near the main cause-effect
relationship (the possible cause, a gate short, existed Figure 4 IDD(VDD,T) for a failing IC, with a superim-
posed flat 1.0uA test limit surface.
and correlated with the observed quadratic IDD be-
havior); lous IDD(VDD,T) current (Fig. 4).
III. The analysis path is at the main cause-effect Interpretation: Voltage and temperature behavior
relationship (the possible cause, a gate short, existed, of the anomalous current matched the complaint be-
correlated with the known IDD behavior, and was re- havior.
lated to the behavior as cause and effect by a specific
physical law of transistor operation). b Contrapositive Test: The test of a statement P
Function 2. The metaprocess directed focus by seeking a valid consequent Q that is false. P=>Q
evenly on both halves of any good analysis: meas- means that any ~Q=>~P. In FA terms, if a sure effect
urement and prior cause postulation. The former is truly absent, its cause is absent.
tempts many analysts to neglect to focus on possible c Inductive Proof: The proof of a statement P by
prior causes. The Correlation List step (middle bot- sufficient demonstration of valid and true conse-
tom) forced consideration of possible causes for the quents Qn without exception: for n>sufficient limit,
observed behavior, and then focused analysis meas-
P=>Qn and all Qn are found true. In FA terms, if the
urement design to the goal of detecting secondary or
side effects of those possible causes5. This repeat- first predicted side effect is present, test for the next.
edly drove innovation and inspired creative analysis If sufficient side effects are present without excep-
approaches. Conversely, the Measurement step tion, declare the common cause of all side effects
proved and therefore present.

3
 E/C/C Question step and subsequently through the
next section of the metaprocess. Early IDD(VDD) re-
sults (as described) immediately ruled out several of
the items on the Correlation List (such as resistive
anomalies) using the logical principle of the Contra-
positive Test. Since these were disproved, they were
not pursued. The transistor on-state selection present-
ed the most promise; therefore the analysis pursued
that path.
E/C/C Question: Does an anomalous transistor
on-state exist, correlate with the known VDD leakage
and its characteristics, and cause the VDD leakage?
Measurement: Anomalous IDD(VDD,T) exhibited
Figure 5 Plot of the square root of IDD(VDD,T) ex- quadratic voltage dependence (Figs. 5 and 6).
hibiting a linear relationship to VDD axis (note straight Interpretation: Quadratic voltage dependence was
surface grid lines in lighter area). observed to be consistent with the behavior of an
MOS transistor which is turned on, and corresponded
E/C/C Answer: VDD leakage existed, correlated to the well-known dependence of the source-drain
with the complaint, and caused the IC to be catego- current IDS on the gate voltage VGS in saturation7:
rized as a failure.

IDS = oxW/2Ltox (VGS-Vt)2 (1)

This correspondence supported the possibility that

the VDD leakage was caused by an anomalous tran-
sistor on-state. In fact, (1) describes a physical law
that would permit the declaration of such an MOS
structure (once found) to be a cause for the leakage.
Measurement: In answering the E/C/C Question,
the measurement and interpretation steps may be re-
peated as many times as necessary. This next meas-

Table 1 First Cycle Correlation List

B. Analysis Flow Generated by the Metaprocess.

The main part of the analysis follows. After the
E/C/C Answer that validated the failure mode, a Cor-
relation List was next constructed. This step ad-
dressed two (non-E/C/C) questions:
1. What possible prior causes may create the con- Figure 6 2-D plot of the data in Fig. 5, indicating the
quality of linear fit to Sqrt(IDD) in higher-VDD regimes.
firmed VDD leakage?
2. What other effects do each of these possible
prior causes imply?
This step began by implementing the second func-
tion described earlier (directing focus evenly on both
measurement and prior cause postulation). This was
approached through brainstorming, through research
into failure cause-effect relationships, and through
developing a thorough understanding of the inten-
tional, designed cause-effect relationships applied by
the technology. The Correlation List for this analysis
consisted (in part) of the items in Table 1. Note that
the side effects represent the behaviors available for Figure 7 2-D plot of the data in Fig. 4, exhibiting posi-
the next measurement(s), and yield actual prior caus- tive leakage temperature dependence.
es. urement (Fig. 7) indicated that the anomalous
Selection: Items from the Correlation List were IDD(VDD,T) possessed positive temperature depend-
selected for further analysis based upon a set of pri- ence. Reasons for this characteristic were not fully
oritization principles. Analysis then proceeded to the

4
apparent during this phase of the analysis, but possi- metaprocess steps, an E/C/C Question was framed
ble explanations arose near the end of the analysis concerning the selected PPC (Possible Prior Cause);
from the observed root anomaly. Even more impor- that is, the reset pin state's correlation to the leakage:
tantly in the short term, this characteristic helped lo- does an incorrect reset condition exist, correlate with
calize the failure site (described shortly). the leakage, and cause it? Following this, a meas-
Interpretation: This observed temperature behav- urement determined that the normal reset state (rather
ior was the opposite of that expected from a transis- than the incorrect state) correlated with leakage. This
tor. Normally, channel mobility , which dominates8 ruled out incorrect reset pin setup during testing and,
the temperature dependence of the saturated MOS in terms of the E/C/C Answer, that this possible prior
drain current ID, decreases with increasing tempera- cause did not exist. (Note that this did not mean that
ture9. Therefore, the structure that was causing the the correlation of the reset pin state to the failure was
anomalous current to flow should not be solely an ignored, but rather that a test error creating the leak-
MOS transistor. Nonetheless, the quadratic I(V) be- age by an incorrect reset pin state was ruled out.)
havior represented an indicator of MOS transistor in- From the metaprocess flow, the next step would
volvement that could not be dismissed. This conflict be to make a new selection from the same Correlation
was resolved by postulating a structure that included List since the prior cause of the same known effect
an MOS transistor, but also incorporated other com- was still under examination. In order to pursue the
ponents whose temperature dependence dominated remaining Correlation List items (as described), how-
that of the transistor. Such a structure could be pos- ever, it was necessary to resolve the question of ex-
tulated while leaving its particular components un- actly which structure was causing the leakage.
specified for the moment. The most important methodology question at this
Measurement: Next, a new photon emission mea- stage in any analysis is: how can more information
surement was performed, which again exhibited no about the cause-effect relationships involved in the
emission signal, even at higher voltages and tempera- failure be obtained? This question drives the most
tures that significantly increased the failing VDD leak- challenging and significant operation within typical
age. analysis flows: localization. Localization is valued as
Interpretation: System tests verified that the PEM the only effective way to gather extensive informa-
systems used in these measurements were capable of tion about the effects created by a defect. The ulti-
detecting emission from forward-biased diode struc- mate purpose of localization is to provide greater ac-
tures passing currents in the single-digit microampere cess to the cause-effect network immediately sur-
range. rounding the defect.
Recombination rates of MOS transistors were ex- During a localization operation, the analysis
pected to fall below this range, and therefore any makes no progress down the cause-effect chain. In-
such emission would remain undetected. This nega- stead, the analyst spends time and effort working to
tive result did, however, definitively rule out a gate place the known failure behavior characteristics at
oxide short (whose stronger emission should have some location in the IC's physical structure. This
been detected). The logical principle of the Contra- means that the analysis remains at the same point in
positive Test immediately demanded this conclusion. the cause-effect chain while the spatial correlation of
E/C/C Answer: A circuit anomaly that includes a the failure's known behavior is identified.
transistor on-state exists, correlates with the con- In this case, PEM and Liquid Crystal provided no
firmed VDD leakage, and causes it. signals for localization. The IC was too complex to
Correlation List: The Correlation List (Table 2) perform electrical localization in the design's own
was next constructed. This list contains possible pri- cause-effect domains (blocks' effects on other
or causes for the just-confirmed behavior (the anoma- blocks), and the network of metallization was too
lous transistor on-state), and also includes other side dense to easily permit Focused Ion Beam (FIB) cut
effects (effects other than observed VDD leakage) of localization of the leakage path (from the topmost die
those possible prior causes. In clarification of the re- level).
set signal entry noted in Table 2, it was known from The discipline imposed by the Correlation List
earlier work that the external reset pin could turn off step (demanding enumeration of all possible secon-
the leakage on failing dice, which led to the reset dary effects of the possible prior causes) yielded a re-
state as a possible prior cause in the electrical do- turn at this point. The leakage's positive temperature
main. The Table also includes normal transistors in coefficient (Figs. 5-7) should be local to the anomaly
an abnormal on state due to abnormal electrical con- site. The analysts therefore sought to locate this
ditions, as well as abnormal (unintended) transistors. characteristic in the die interior.
Selection: The correlation of the reset pin state E/C/C Question: Does a local thermal effect ex-
with the observed VDD leakage was selected. This ist, correlate with the observed global IDD tempera-
prior cause postulated that the test, which was expect- ture characteristics, and cause them? With this ques-
ed to set the reset pin to an active state, actually set it tion in mind, a local heater was built. Its tip diameter
to an inactive state thereby allowing the leakage to (defining its spatial resolution) was large at 1000 um,
occur. but this still represented a relatively small region of
In order to summarize the next several the IC.

5
 Measurement: Using the topside airflow heater, a relates with the failure behavior, but does not cause
topside temperature rise was impressed at various it.
points across the IC, and a very slight rise in IDD Since an effect (but not the prior cause itself) had
leakage as a function of the heater position was ob- been localized, the next step was to revisit or recon-
served. Considerable effort was required to separate struct the Correlation List. To proceed effectively at
the signal from the noise, and only a few data points this point, however, improved access to the cause-ef-
per day resulted. fect network around the specific defect or anomaly
was needed. To gain this access, material was built
using a custom metal mask. Failing wafers built with
this mask routed their (anomalous) supply current
through a middle metallization sandwich layer. A
FIB cut then confirmed the thermal map's results. A
typical cycle through the metaprocess took shape as

Table 2 Second Cycle Correlation List

Interpretation: Although not all regions were ex-
amined due to the laborious process involved, results
obtained suggested that approximately 90% of the IC
area could be ignored, and that the analysis could fo-
cus on a relatively small region at the top of the die.
A plot of the signal as a function of die location ap-
pears in Fig. 8. The region at the left of the figure is
at the top of the die. This interpretation confirmed

Table 3 Final correlation list related to observed

anomaly

described next.
Correlation List: Localization can be executed
without much elaboration. It should be understood
and developed, however, as a series of loops through
the Fig. 1 metaprocess. To enable this, the Correla-
tion List indicated in Table 3 was constructed. Lo-
calization then continued based upon the Correlation
List items identified.
Selection: IDD current path in analog circuitry
section.
E/C/C Question: Does a current path in the ana-
log circuitry section exist, correlate with global fail-
Figure 8 IDD(x,y) generated by topside heating ure characteristics, and cause them?
Measurement: All but the bottom (more resistive)
that the effect named in the Correlation List (Table
refractory metal layer was removed mechanically (by
2), a localized IDD(T,x,y), did exist and correlated
probe scrub) and measurements made for possible re-
with the global failure behavior. Since no physical
sulting voltage drops.
law demanded that this thermal characteristic caused
Interpretation: Results exhibited no voltage drops
the observed leakage, only the first two sub-questions
along any VDD metallization path to the analog cir-
could be answered positively for this possible prior
cuitry.
cause.
Measurement: Focused Ion Beam (FIB) cuts iso-
E/C/C Answer: A local thermal effect exists, cor-

6
lated current paths between the external VDD pin and 1. A mask generation algorithm created a very
analog circuitry. Global IDD was then re-measured. small extension of the p+ regions to the vertical poly-
Interpretation: External current exhibited original silicon crossing the guardring (two instances, left and
characteristics as a function of voltage (anomalous right);
current was not eliminated by the FIB cut). 2. An n+ guardring removed field oxide and cre-
E/C/C Answer: A current path in the analog cir- ated conditions for channel formation;
cuitry does not exist. 3. An apparent reduction in well doping ex-
At this point, current localization was pursued on panded the depletion region to contact the channel
multiple devices by FIB and other means until it was area.
traced, first to a region of standard cells, then to a
half-row within the region, and finally to two similar
standard cells in the row (Fig. 9). This region was
broadly consistent with the thermal map in Fig. 8.
Correlation of the two cells to the leakage was dem-
onstrated by tying the local implementation of the re-
set line of each cell to the low-current state. These

Figure 11 Components of anomalous leakage current

path
At this point the failure was, to a large degree,
considered localized. Since localization held the
analysis substantially in place on the cause-effect
network, however, it was appropriate to recall the
analysis status in terms of the metaprocess loop. This
Figure 9 Standard cell region, half-row, and two cells review made it clear that some evidence now existed
containing leakage to address the E/C/C Question: "Does an abnormal
FIB modifications produced approximately a 50% re- transistor exist, correlate with the known VDD leak-
duction of the anomalous IDD leakage for each cell. age, and cause it?" That evidence suggested that such
To further localize the current path, the local reset a transistor did exist, did correlate with the known
within the cell was isolated before and after an in- VDD leakage, and did cause it.
verter, and the post-inverter signal was found to cor- Here another opportunity to apply methodical
relate while the pre-inverter signal did not. logic arose, representing the third function of the
At this point the root anomaly was seen for the metaprocess described earlier (providing application
first time. The mask-generated layout in the area re- points for methodical analysis logic). Inductive
lated to the post-inverter signal was inspected, and Proof must be invoked to prove that a possible prior
the structure depicted in Fig. 10 was observed. This cause is an actual cause. When predicted side effects
figure has key structures annotated with three vertical are always found, the decision to declare the PPC
polysilicon paths traversing an n+ guardring. These proved by induction rests entirely with the analyst.
structures are not intentional (designed) transistors. There is no objective criterion for the number of vali-
dated side-effect predictions. For some on the team,
the number of validated predictions was simply not
yet sufficient, and so additional side effects were
sought that would remove any doubts about the
anomaly's role.
Unfortunately, FIB access to further localize or
exercise the local circuitry was not possible. The
analysis therefore again turned to the Correlation List

Figure 10 Key transistor-like structures common to

both leaky standard cells
This structure stood out because it appeared to
provide an unintended biased and transisting path
from the p+ regions through a channel across the n+
guardring, and across the depletion region at the p-
well boundary to the p-well region. Three anomalous
factors (Fig. 11) interacted to create this path: Table 4 Second Cycle Correlation List, 1st Mod

7
(Table 4) to predict, select, and measure other secon- This analysis successfully identified the anomaly
dary effects of the observed set of adjacent anoma- causing the VDD leakage. It remained to determine
lies. The List made it clear that if a transistor source, whether this anomaly also explained other initial fail-
channel, and drain existed in the region of the appar- ure characteristics. The low local power dissipation
ent anomalies, definite changes in the surface doping explained why no Liquid Crystal signal was seen.
at regions 1 and 3 should exist. Photon emission was probably not observed due to
The construction of this region virtually guaran- equipment sensitivity to the mechanism. The high
teed that region 2 would exhibit characteristics of a doping level of the old process explained why the
doped channel, but it was apparent that much could same design fabricated in that earlier process exhib-
be learned from comparing the first and third regions ited no leakage. This probably occurred because the
with the channel. (These statements all represent im- higher doping reduced the depletion region width
plications in support of inductive proof.) The Corre- (Fig. 12, Region 3) sufficiently to prevent contact be-
lation List again led immediately to the E/C/C Ques- tween the depletion region and the channel. Finally,
tion, "Do the transistor source, channel, and drain ex- from Fig. 12 and the dependence on well doping, it is
ist in the fabricated IC at the region of the anomaly, clear that the anomalous positive leakage temperature
do they correlate with the observed failing behavior, dependence is caused not through channel resistivity,
and do they cause it?" A measurement was required but rather through characteristics of the depletion re-
to make these possible side effects visible. gions adjacent to the channel. During leakage, the
Local high-resolution surface doping measure- greatest influence on current levels probably occurs
ments of the region with Scanning Capacitance Mi- in Region 1 of Fig. 12, where doping concentrations
10,11
croscopy (SCM) on an Atomic Force Microscope evidenced by SCM appear to be near intrinsic levels.
(AFM) would serve the purpose. The SCM technique Thermally generated carriers there will increase the
can provide very high spatial resolution mapping of carrier density in this region, lowering its resistivity
semiconductor surface doping. This information, and passing more current into the channel. Circuits
combined with precise AFM topographic measure- modified to remove this structure exhibited no
ments revealing field oxide extents, identified the anomalous VDD leakage, demonstrating that this
ends of the parasitic channel, other local doping analysis (summarized in Fig. 13) had identified the
variations, and also depletion region widths. root anomaly.
These results (Measurement) are illustrated in Six Metaprocess Steps. Having completed the
Fig. 12, and confirmed the availability of a current example of their application and use, let’s look at the
path through the anomalies capable of producing the metaprocess from a more general, even an abstract,
observed leakage current (Interpretation). The results point of view. We must begin with a short descrip-
satisfactorily demonstrated the "abnormal transistor tion of the nature of cause and effect. Each phe-
wrongly activated" in the modified Correlation List. nomenon we observe is an effect of some cause—that
That is, they provided the last positive indicators de- is, it does not create itself. When we directly meas-
manded by the analysts' application of inductive ure or observe an effect, we can call it a known effect.
Any candidate for a cause of our known effect is a
possible prior cause, or PPC. Other (initially unveri-
fied) effects of our PPC will be secondary effects in
relation to the (primary) known effect. So in the
above example, a possible prior cause of the known
effect of VDD leakage was an anomalous transistor in
an on state. A secondary effect of that anomalous
transistor was a quadratic I-V characteristic. The first
known effect we encounter in any failure analysis is
the failure's verified failure mode, our VDD leakage in
the example. We will term the first cause of failure
in an electronic device the root anomaly. In our ex-
Figure 12 AFM surface (topographic) and SCM dop- ample, the root anomaly was the set of three regions
ing results (flat, doping shown through contrast) from created by the polysilicon routing. The cause of the
suspicious region. Region 1: P+ region connects to root anomaly within the manufacturing process we
channel through region that is at least depleted, and will call the process cause. In our case above, the
possibly inverted. Region 2: Channel region clearly process cause was whatever permitted the anomalous
reaches from the p-well at far right, extending leftward transistor to be created. We don't use the term 'root
past the edge of field oxide (top topography surface cause', since it does not adequately distinguish be-
edge delineated by vertical line extending to SCM tween the first cause within the semiconductor device
data surface) to connect to the Region 3 channel and the first cause within the manufacturing process.
(double-headed arrow at right).
This approach and these concepts brought success in
proof to show that "an abnormal transistor structure at the above analysis example, but let us delve deeper
coordinates (x,y) exists, correlates with the original into the specific application of these concepts to indi-
VDD leakage, and causes it." (Final E/C/C Answer) vidual analysis decisions. To do this, we will start by
C. Corrective Action and Graphical Summary

8
Figure 13 One-sheet full-analysis summary showing cause-effect relationships from root anomaly to failure mode, in-
cluding intermediate cause-effect relationships and the analysis path that evaluated them.

9
jumping right into the middle of a new, completely other possible prior causes which could explain both
imaginary analysis. our observed contrast and also ohmic I(V) simultane-
E/C/C Question. Suppose we have found, through ously. At this point, then, we loop back to the meas-
earlier analysis, a voltage contrast anomaly (that is, urement step (see Fig. 1) and look for yet another
our failure differs from a good part in this way.) The secondary effect of the PPC. We may look for other
VC anomaly! VC anomaly!
anomalous contrast--our known effect--could be a re-
sult of any of a number of possible prior causes, but IM conduction!
let's select one: a conductive path between the metal effects such as Liquid Crystal phase changes, current
trace showing the contrast and some other nearby local to the output block or to the phase change, and
metal trace. (The resulting short would change the so on, as we continue to loop. When we actually find
trace's voltage, and therefore its contrast.) Our possi- enough of our predicted effects, we can conclude that
ble prior cause, then, is an intermetal conductive
path, and the E/C/C Question step would lead us to VC anomaly!
construct this question: "Does an intermetal con- Ohmic I(V)?
ductive path exist, correlate with our observed volt- IM conduction?
age contrast anomaly, and cause it?" Multiple ex-
VC anomaly! their common cause, intermetal conduction, exists.
If on the other hand the ohmic I(V) trace is absent,
then we immediately rule out an intermetal short, in
IM conduction? accordance with a logic guideline called the Contra-
positive Test, also discussed below.
amples of the use of the E/C/C Question appear in the
E/C/C Answer. After interpreting our measure-
first part of this tutorial. It will serve the reader well
ment results and finding enough evidence for our
to review the above case study as this general de-
prior cause, we formulate an answer that corresponds
scription of the metaprocess describes each of the
exactly in form to the question we posed.
metaprocess’s six steps.
If and when results support it, we a) conclude that
Measurement. This second step uses analysis
the linear I(V) exists, b) demonstrate that the I(V)
tools, observation, and logical reasoning to look for
trace correlates with the node’s leakage anomaly, and
an effect of the possible prior cause--the intermetal
c) show by appropriate physical laws that any ob-
conductive path--other than our known effect. In
served I(V) causes the leakage. We may find that our
other words, what else would an intermetal conduc-
possible prior cause doesn’t exist, or we may find that
tive path do besides create our observed contrast
it exists but that it doesn't correlate with our known
anomaly? When we come up with such secondary
anomaly, or we may find existence and correlation
effects, we measure them at this second step. We
but not find that our PPC causes the known anomaly.
VC anomaly! Or we may find all three, existence, correlation and
Ohmic I(V)? causation. In this case, for our example we would an-
swer, "An intermetal conductive path exists, corre-
IM conduction? lates with our observed voltage contrast behavior,
and causes it." This IM conduction now becomes
might, for example, measure I(V) current to adjacent
lines and look for a linear relationship as an effect of our new known effect, since we have proved its exis-
tence and shown where it lies in the failure's cause-
an intermetal path. Such an ohmic I(V) characteristic
between adjacent lines is a second, different effect of effect chain.
IM conduction!
VC anomaly
Ohmic I(V)!
Dielectric crack? Particle? Metal extrusion?
IM conduction? Correlation List. Now that we have a new known
our possible prior cause. effect, we next create a brainstorm list of PPC's of the
Interpretation. We next interpret our measure- intermetal short. We might include lateral or vertical
ment results and determine what answer they give to dielectric cracking, intermetal particles, oxide pin-
our E/C/C Question. If we find the ohmic I(V) trace holes, electromigration-induced metal extrusions,
we just mentioned, we can keep our possible prior metal overheating, and so forth. We also--and this is
cause--intermetal conduction--as a candidate for the IM conduction! LC phase chg?
actual cause. We cannot yet conclude, however, that
we have found the actual cause, since there are still V near T?
Particle? Metal extrusion?
VC anomaly
Ohmic I(V)! Visible metal?

IM conduction? LC phase chg? T-, I-fragility?

10
 VC anomaly! Design failure!

IM conduction! VC anomaly!

LC phase chg? IM conduction!

very important--generate an exhaustive list of other
secondary effects of each of these possible prior Intertrace Cu!
causes. For example, along with our metal extrusion
item we add to the Correlation List expected secon- Incomplete CMP!
dary effects including local liquid crystal phase
change, further local voltage changes, visible metal the complaint") and its verification (answer, "the
anomaly, fragility with temperature, fragility with mode exists and correlates with the complaint")
high current, along with any other such effects we through intermediate questions (for example., "do
can think of. One thing to note is that visual evidence hillocks exist, correlate with the observed intermetal
of an anomaly has no special place in this methodol- conduction, and cause the conduction?") and their an-
ogy: it falls equal in importance to any other equally- swers, to the root anomaly ("does incomplete CMP
attested effect. A well-built correlation list will in- exist in the region of the conduction, correlate with
clude at least ten secondary effects of each PPC. If it the observed conduction, and cause it?"), this
proves difficult to come up with many secondary ef- metaprocess creates the analysis flow which leads the
fects, this indicates, among other things, the need for analyst from the mode, or the first detected effect of
analysts to strengthen their understanding of the the failure cause, back through intermediate cause-ef-
physics of device failure. Our measurement step fect relationships to the root anomaly. In this way the
above, however, shows how important these secon- metaprocess reveals the entire cause-effect chain
dary effects are to a successful analysis. from root anomaly to failure mode.
Selection. In the final step of our loop we select Analysis Flow Characteristics. Rather than de-
one of the Correlation List items and use it to begin a livering a prepackaged analysis flow which may or
new Decision Engine cycle. We make the selection may not apply well to the failure at hand, this
based in part on factors such as whether our choice metaprocess produces the analysis flow one step at a
must be investigated destructively, whether investi- time based on actual failure characteristics. This
gation of the PPC or effect is easy or difficult, and makes the unfolding analysis flow very responsive to
how likely the item is. In our example, we might se- the most current information about the failure. The
lect local liquid crystal phase change as our effect, metaprocess also directs the analyst to explore appli-
since it is likely, relatively easy to measure, and non- cable cause-effect relationships at each point, and
destructive. We are free to choose more than one list points to needed measurement equipment and tech-
item, each starting its own new Decision Engine cy- niques, whether available to the analyst or not.
cle. This methodology enables us to increase our These characteristics provide two benefits. First,
productivity in this way while giving us a tool to keep they prioritize the analyst's focus correctly, placing
track of where we are in each analysis direction. greater importance on an understanding of good and
E/C/C Question (next loop iteration). At this failing device behavior than on technique or tool op-
point we prepare our next E/C/C Question about this eration expertise. Second, they encourage the devel-
selection: "Does local liquid crystal phase change opment of an analytical lab infrastructure which
exist, correlate with the observed intermetal conduc- serves the objective of finding causes of failure,
tion, and cause it?" The Engine cycle begins again rather than the other way around. Many labs unwit-
with this step. But what has happened during these tingly make the toolset primary. The analysis process
six steps plus one? We have moved from one known then becomes in large part a way of "grading" failures
anomaly, a difference in voltage contrast between a to determine whether or not they will reveal their se-
good part and our failure, to the actual prior cause for crets to a lab's existing analysis tool and technique
that anomaly, an instance of anomalous intermetal set. Failures which do not yield to existing analysis
conduction. Our single loop has taken us down one capability often merely land in the "Cause unknown"
link in the unique chain of cause-and-effect that the bin rather than driving the lab's capability forward
failure contains. until their causes are found. The metaprocess de-
Moving from Mode to Root Anomaly. This pat- scribed here makes the need for missing techniques
tern of steps, then, demonstrably creates an analysis both evident and quantifiable, enabling labs to im-
flow which proceeds efficiently back down the cause- prove their equipment set with confidence in the
effect chain by which the root anomaly creates the value of the techniques developed or purchased.
failure mode. If we simply apply the Decision En- (The metaprocess benefited the VDD leakage analysis
gine loop, our analysis flow unfolds, and the failure's by prompting the development of the topside airflow
cause-effect chain relationships are revealed link by heater whose results provided the first localization of
link. From the initial failure mode (question, "Does a the leakage.)
failure mode exist on this design and correlate with Second, the flow's characteristics make the formal

11
use of inferential logic easier, so as to help avoid register, or poor transmission-gate design electrically
analysis pitfalls and improve success. The flow does close to the VDD node--we wish to demonstrate.) In-
so by breaking the analysis process down into seg- ductive proof--enough successful tests with no fail-
ments small enough that their relationship to formal ures--represents a powerful tool for the analyst, in
logic principles becomes clear. The following sec- spite of its subjectivity.
tion explains this for three of the most important Should we find on the other hand that a predicted
logic concepts, namely logical inference, proof by in- effect of our possible prior cause is clearly and de-
duction and disproof by contrapositive testing. finitively absent, we conclude that the cause is ab-
sent. This needs to happen in principle only once, not
repeatedly as with inductive proof. The logical prin-
Measurement ciple by which we disprove such a prior cause is the
contrapositive test. This test's principle states that if
any cause positively implies a given effect, the real
Interpretation absence of that effect immediately disproves the ex-
istence of the cause.

Figure 14 Metaprocess steps

related to proving or disprov- Correlation List
ing possible prior causes
Applying Formal Logic. Fig. 14 shows a seg- Selection
ment of the full six-step loop. This segment relates to
how we prove and disprove possible correlations in
the course of a failure analysis. For example, if we Figure 15 Metaprocess steps
have a functional failure mode which only occurs at related to identification of
positive supply voltages above 2.5V, we must look PPCs
for possible prior causes which imply that specific To reiterate, while it typically takes multiple it-
voltage dependence. These may not be easy to iden- erations of measurement and interpretation to prove a
tify. The apparent nonlinear relationship with supply correlation and its prior cause, in principle it takes the
voltage may suggest, however, that our failure absence of only one predicted and sure effect to dis-
mechanism involves active devices, and therefore prove a correlation or possible prior cause.
may correlate with photon emission. But our use of logic tools runs throughout the en-
To investigate this possible correlation we identify gine. On the other side of the decision engine loop
implied characteristics of a common cause for the are the Correlation List and Selection steps (Fig. 15.)
failure and the photon emission, then look for those Where the Measurement and Interpretation steps
characteristics. Simple but important logical impli- prove or disprove whether our possible prior cause is
cations--if-then statements--used here begin with the real, the Correlation List and Selection steps identify
clause: those PPCs in order to prove or disprove them. Logi-
"If a common cause creates the functional failure cal principles applied at this step include, among oth-
mode and photon emission, then..." ers, logical implication, axioms of independent and
and end with clauses such as, dependent causes, and causation checking (identify-
"any observed photon emission will show an intensity
ing possible prior causes).
change at 2.5V"; "temperature-dependent shifts in the
failure onset will correlate with observed photon intensity Avoiding False Paths. Logical implication, logi-
change"; "emission pattern will correlate with the failing cal correlation or equivalence, inductive proof, and
vector(s)"; "good devices will not show the observed cor- contrapositive testing represent four of at least twelve
relations" logical principles applicable at one or more steps in
and so on. Each of these implications describes a the decision engine loop. Space limitations prevent a
cause-effect relationship; each possible effect pro- full description in this tutorial, but others govern the
vides something to measure. logic of interactions, identifying failure characteris-
After each measurement, an interpretation of the tics by looking for patterns, handling multiple possi-
results indicates whether the predicted effect exists. ble causes of a given effect, and justifying destructive
As the list of observed effects grows, with no unsuc- steps. Each of these logical principles helps to iden-
cessful tests, the strength of the correlation grows tify false analysis paths and avoid all but brief trips
with it, until the analyst can conclude that the com- down these paths. In the process, analyses succeed
mon cause exists. After a sufficient number of meas- more often.
urements, each verifying a predicted effect, we con- For example, inductive proof directs the analyst to
sider the cause proved. This process is called proof test repeatedly, not just once, for a possible prior
by induction. (In actual analyses, we would be very cause. Many effects such as photon emission and lo-
specific about exactly what common cause--gate ox- cal temperature excursions have multiple possible
ide leakage on the input of an and-or-invert block, prior causes, of course. These must be distinguished
threshhold voltage shifts in the region of a failing from one another during analysis by looking for their

12
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
coagulation. Clotting; in the blood, the result of fibrinogen
changing to fibrin.
coalesce. To merge in growth.
coaptation. The fitting together of two opposing surfaces.
cocaine. An alkaloid derived from coca. Useful to produce local
anesthesia.
cocci. Round, spheroidal or oval shaped bacteria.
cocoon. Shaped like the protection of the silk-worm larva.
colostomy. Opening into the colon to establish an artificial anus.
collodion. A solution of pyroxylin in ether and alcohol.
compression. Decreasing volume and increasing density by
pressure.
concomitant. Accompanying. Accessory.
condyle. A rounded articular surface at the extremity of a long
bone.
congenital. Existing at birth.
congestion. Hyperemia of a part.
conjunctiva. The mucous membrane covering the anterior surface
of the eyeball.
connective tissue. The uniting tissue of the body.
constitutional. Relating to the system as a whole.
constriction. The act of drawing together, a narrowing or binding.
continuity. Connected; the quality or state of being continuous.
contra. A prefix meaning against.
contused. Bruised.
corium. The deep or connective tissue layer of the skin; the true
skin.
cornea. A transparent membrane forming the outer coat of the
eyeball.
cornification. Conversion into a hard or horny substance or tissue.
corpuscles. Minute bodies. Primary atoms of the blood.
corrosive. A substance that eats or destroys.
cortex. The external gray layer of the brain; the outer covering in
plant life.
cortical. External, in contradistinction to other parts, in tissue or
plant.
cosmetic. An agent or a means for beautifying the body.
counterirritant. Means or medications to produce irritation to
relieve deeper congestion.
crepitus. The grating of fractured bones.
crisis. A sudden favorable change in the course of an acute disease.
cryptogam. A group of plants without flowers and without embryo
—containing seeds.
cuneiform. A wedge-shaped bone found in the carpus (one) and in
the tarsus (three).
cupping. Blood-abstraction by means of cupping-glasses.
curette (curet). Spoon-shaped instrument for scraping.
cutis. The skin.
cyanosis. Blue discoloration of the skin from non-oxidation of blood.
cyte. Cell or corpuscle, as in leucocyte, white blood cell.

D
dactyl. Finger, as in dactylitis, inflammation of one or more fingers.
debris. Scattered fragments.
decomposition. Decay. Breaking up into its original elements.
deformity. A deviation from normal in shape or in size.
deleterious. Injurious, noxious, harmful.
demarcation. A tissue boundary mark.
dentine. The bony structure of the teeth.
derma. The skin.
dermatitis. Inflammation of the skin.
devitalize. To destroy vitality.
diabetes (mellitus). A disease of metabolism characterized by the
presence of sugar in the voided urine.
diagnosis. Determination of the nature of a disease.
diapedesis. The passage of the blood-corpuscles through the
vessel-walls without rupture of the latter.
diaphoresis. Excessive perspirattion.
diaphragm. The muscular wall between the thorax and the
abdomen.
diaphysis. Relating to the shaft of the bone.
diffusion. A scattering about.
digit. A finger or toe.
dilatation. An expansion of a vessel or an organ.
discutient. An agent which causes the dispersal of a tumor or of a
pathologic neoplasm of any kind.
disease. A pathologic condition of any part or organ of the body.
disinfection. Freeing from infection.
disintegration. Separation of component parts.
dislocation. Displacement of an organ or of a part.
dissection. A separation by cutting of the parts of the body.
distortion. Mechanical derangement of a part interfering with its
function.
dorsal. Pertaining to the back.
dorsum. The back, the posterior part of an organ.
drainage. (Surgically) The gradual removal of the contents of a
suppurating cavity.
d.s. or s. Used in prescription writing, meaning to give directions.
dynia. Pain, as in pleurodynia, pain in the pleura.

E
ecchymosis. An extravasation of blood or slight hemorrhage under
the skin resulting in a purplish patch.
echinococcus. The larval stage of the dog tapeworm, occurring also
in human organs or tissues.
ectomy. To cut out, as in prostatectomy, removal of a part or all of
the prostate.
eczema. Inflammation of the skin (acute or chronic, moist or dry),
accompanied by itching and burning.
edema. Accumulation of serum in the cellular tissue.
edematous. Relating to edema.
effusion. Escape of fluid from within, out.
embolism. The obstruction of a blood vessel by an embolus
cleavage.
embolus. A plug composed of detached clot in the circulation.
embryonic. Rudimentary.
emigration. The outward passage of a wandering cell through the
walls of a blood-vessel.
empyema. Pus in a cavity.
en or endo. Within, as in endocardium, inner lining of the heart.
encapsule. To inclose in a sheath.
endermatically. Within or through the skin.
endoneural. Within the nerve.
endosteum. Membrane covering bone surface in the medullary
cavity.
endothelial. Pertaining to or consisting of endothelium. A lining
cavity not communicating with the outer air.
enteroclysis. A high enema.
enterostomy. Establishing an artificial anus through the abdominal
wall.
epidermis. The outer layer of the skin constituting the outer
investment of the body.
epiphyseal. Pertaining to the epiphysis.
epiphysis. A piece of bone that in early life is separated from a long
bone by cartilage, but later becomes part of the bone.
epithelial. Pertaining to epithelium.
epithelioma. A cancerous growth originating from squamous
epithelium.
epithelium. The cells covering all cutaneous and mucous surfaces,
together with the secreting cells of glands developed from the
ectoderm.
erysipelas. An acute specific inflammation of the skin and
subcutaneous tissues, accompanied by fever and constitutional
disturbances. Caused by the streptococcus erysipelatos.
erythema. Redness of the skin.
eschar. A scar.
escharotic. A substance producing an eschar.
esia. Sensation, as in anesthesia, loss of sensation.
ethyl bromide. A colorless liquid, used for both general and local
anesthesia.
ethyl chloride. A colorless liquid, whose spray produces local
anesthesia.
etiology. Cause as related to disease.
eucaine. A synthetic compound capable of producing local
anesthesia.
evacuated. Removal of waste material from the body.
evaporation. Turning into vapor.
eversion. Turning outward. Turning back an eyelid so as to expose
the conjunctiva. Turning the inner border of the foot outward.
ex. Out of or from, as in exostosis, a bony outgrowth.
exacerbation. Increased severity of a disease or of its symptoms.
excretion. The product of a gland or of cells not useful to the
economy, in contradistinction to secretion.
excoriation. Removal of the superficial protective layer of the skin
or mucous membrane.
exfoliate. To strip off in layers. To desquamate.
exostosis. A bony tumor springing from bone.
extravasation. Effusion of fluid into the tissues.

F
facet. A small plane, articulating surface.
facient. To make, as in rubefacient, to make red.
facultative. Pertaining to functional or acquired power.
Faradic. Pertaining to induced electric currents.
fauces. The space between the cavity of the mouth and the
pharynx.
felon. Paronychia. Whitlow.
femur. The thigh bone.
ferment. An organic substance which in small quantities is capable
of setting up changes in another organic substance without itself
 undergoing much change.
fermentation. Such changes as are effected exclusively by the vital
action of ferments.
fibrin. Active agent in blood coagulation.
fibroma. A tumor of fibrous tissue.
fibrous. Composed of fibres.
fibula. External and smaller of the two bones of the leg.
fissure. A crack in the tissues.
fistula. A pathologic sinus leading from an abscess cavity to the
surface.
flagella. The whiplike processes with which certain cells, as the
ameba, are provided.
flexion. Bending.
fluorescence. Power of a body to change wave-rate (or color) of
light passing through it.
focus. Point at which light rays meet. The starting point of a disease
process.
follicle. A small secretory cavity or sac.
form. Shape, as in vermiform, resembling a worm in shape.
formaldehyde. A gas possessing powerful disinfectant properties.
fracture. A break, as of a bone.
fulcrum. The point against which lever is placed to get purchase.
fungating. Rapidly growing (path.).
fungus (plural fungi). A cellular vegetable organism which feeds
on organic matter. Example, bacteria.
furunculosis. The systemic condition marked by boil-formation.

G
gangrene. A necrosis with putrefaction.
gastrostomy. Making an artificial opening into the stomach.
gelatinous. Resembling gelatine, a semi-liquid substance.
genesis. Birth of, belonging to, as in genesial, relating to generation.
germicide. An agent destructive to germs.
globular. Shaped like a globe.
gonorrhoea. A specific inflammation of the mucous membrane of
the genital tract; germal cause, gonococcus.
gout. Podagra. A disease of metabolism characterized by paroxysmal
pains in the foot, particularly in the great toe.
gradus. Step by step, as in graduated, marked by lines or in other
ways to denote capacity.
granular. Composed of grains or granulations.
granuloma. A collection of epitheloid cells at an irritated point.
gumma. A gummy tumor resulting from a peculiar caseation of a
teritary syphilitic inflammatory deposit.

H
habitat. The natural locality of an animal or a plant; impregnated;
saturated with.
hallux rigidus. First phalanx of the great toe is flexed at an angle of
30° with extension of the second phalanx.
hallux valgus. Outward rotation of big toe beyond an angle of 15°.
hallux varus. Pigeon toe.
heloma. Same as corn or callus.
heloma durum. Hard or indurated corn.
heloma miliare. A millet-seed corn.
heloma molle. Soft corn.
heloma vasculare. A corn of the vascular variety.
hema. Blood, as in hemoglobin, an iron compound in the red blood.
hematoma. A tumor containing blood.
hemorhage. A flow of blood.
hemophelia. Abnormal tendency to hemorrhage.
hemostatic. Capable of arresting hemorrhage.
hereditary. Transmitted from parent to offspring.
hernia. Rupture; protusion of a structure thro the wall which
ordinarily contains it.
herniotomy. Operation for the relief of hernia.
hidros. Perspiration, hyperidrosis, excessive sweating.
histology. Microscopic anatomy.
hyascine. An alkaloid of hyoscyamus and stramonium.
hydro. Water, hydrotherapy, treatment of disease by means of
water.
hydrarthrosis. A serous effusion in a joint.
hyper. Above or over, hyperemia, the presence of an increased or
overamount of blood in a part.
hyperemia. Excessive amount of blood.
hyperidrosis. Excessive sweating.
hyperplasia. Overgrowth of a part due to a multiplication of its
elements.
hypertrophy. Abnormal, increased size of a part or of an organ.
hypnotic. Causing sleep.
hypo. Under, as in hypodermic, beneath the skin, or subcutaneous.
hypodermatic (hypodermic). Subcutaneous, applied to injections
underneath the skin.
hypodermoclysis. The hypodermic injection of fluids to supply a
lack of blood.
hysteria. A functional neurosis with abnormal sensations, emotions
or paroxysms.

I
ic. Relating to, as in caloric, relating to temperature.
ichthyol. A brownish oil; principally used in the form of ammonium
ichthyol as an antiseptic.
immersion. The plunging of a body into a liquid.
immobilization. The act of rendering a part immobile (immovable).
immunity. Freedom from risk of infection.
incubation. The development of an infectious disease from the
infection period to the appearance of the first symptoms.
indolent. Inactive, sluggish.
induration. Hardening as of tissues.
ine. (Phar.) Alkaloid, as in morphine, an alkaloid.
infection. Invasion by pathogenic microorganisms which act
injuriously upon the tissues, causing disease.
inflammation. A morbid condition characterized by hyperemia,
pain, heat, swelling and disordered function.
infra. (L. below). A prefix denoting below, as infracostal, below a rib.
innervation. Distribution of the nerves in a part.
inoculation. The introduction of a specific virus into the system.
inorganic. Devoid of organized structure.
in situ (Latin). In position.
integument. The enveloping membrane of the body.
intercellular. Between the cells.
intermittant. Occurring at intervals.
interosseous. Between bone tissue.
interstices. Spaces, intervals, pores.
interstitial. Lying or placed between.
intra. (L. within). A prefix denoting within or inside, as intraneural,
within a nerve.
intravenous. Within a vein.
inunction. Administering a drug in ointment form by rubbing into
the skin.
inversion. The reversion of the normal position of an organ, turning
inward, inside out, etc.
involucrum. An enveloping membrane.
iodide. A compound of iodin with another element, as iodide of
potassium.
iodin (iodine). A non-metallic chemical element.
iodoform. A lemon yellow crystalline powder; used as an antiseptic
to wounds and sores.
iritis. Inflammation of the iris, the anterior division of the vascular
tunic of the eye.
iron. A metallic element.
irrigation. The washing out of a cavity or wounded surface with a
stream of fluid.
itis. Inflammation, as in pericarditis, inflammation of the
pericardium.

J
jaundice. A yellow tissue-staining from bile.
jaw. One of the two bony structures of the mouth in which the teeth
are set.
jugular. Relating to the throat or neck.
juice. Tissue fluid of a plant or animal.
jute. Fiber used in surgical dressings.
juxta. Prefix; meaning close to or next.

K
kalium. Latin for potassium.
kaolin. Fuller’s earth; used as a poultice with glycerin.
karyokinesis. Indirect nuclear division, mitosis.
keratin. A scleroprotein present in skin appendages, hair, nails, etc.
keratitis. Inflammation of the cornea.
kerato. A prefix denoting horny tissue or cells.
keratodermia. Hypertrophy of horny layer of epidermis.
keratosis. Circumscribed over-growths of horny layer of skin.
kinetic. Relating to motion or to muscular movements.
kneading. To work and press into a mass.
knee. Articulation between femur and tibia covered in front by the
patella.
knee-jerk. Patellar reflex.

L
lacerated. Torn.
lacuna. A small gap or hollow space.
lacuna, osseous. A space in the Haversian system occupied by
bone-corpuscle.
lacunar resorption. Absorption of lacunae.
lamella. One of the plates forming the Haversian system of bone.
lancet. A surgical knife with a two-edged blade.
lancinating. A sharp, cutting pain.
Lassar’s paste. An ointment containing salicylic acid, talcum and
zinc oxide.
laughing gas. Nitrous oxide gas.
lead and opium wash. See Wash.
leucemia. A disease of the blood marked by persistent leucocytosis.
leucocyte. White blood corpuscle or a white cell.
leucocytosis. An increase in the number of white cells in the blood.
leukos. White, as in leucocyte, a white blood cell.
ligament. A band or sheet of fibrous tissue connecting two or more
bones, cartilages or other structures or serving as support for
fasciae or muscle.
ligature. A thread or the like tied about a blood vessel or other
structure to constrict it.
linimentum. Liniment. A medicament in alcohol, oil or water,
applied by friction to the skin.
l. aconiti et chloroformi. Anodyne application.
l. ammoniae. Counter irritant.
l. ammonii iodidi. Discutient.
l. calcis. To mollify burns and scalds.
l. camphorae. A mild counterirritant.
l. chloroformi. Anodyne and rubefacient.
 l. crotonis. Counterirritant.
l. hydrargyri. Anti-syphilitic.
l. iodi. Discutient.
l. opii. Anodyne.
l. saponis. A base for other liniments.
l. sinapis. Counterirritant.
l. terebinthinae. Soothing application.
lint. A soft absorbent material used in surgical dressings.
lipoma. A fatty tumor.
liquor. Solution of a nonvolatile substance.
l. acidi chromici. Used, well diluted, as a wash in bromidrosis.
l. alumini acetatis (Burows’ solution). For external use as an
astringent and antiseptic.
l. antisepticus. A mouthwash.
l. bromi. Antiseptic.
l. Burowii. Astringent and antiseptic (See l. alum. acet.)
l. caoutchouc. For rubber skin.
l. cresolis compositus. Antiseptic and disinfectant where
vesicles form.
l. ferri persulphatis. Styptic.
l. ferrisub sulphatis. Monsel’s solution. Styptic.
l. hydrargyri nitratis. Caustic application.
l. iodi carbolatus. Antiseptic counterirritant.
 l. plumbi subacetatis. For bruises and sprains.
l. sodii boratis compositus. Dobell’s solution. An alkaline antiseptic
preparation.
l. sodii ethylatis. Employed externally as a caustic.
l. sodii silicatis. Used in surgery for applying splints.
l. zinci chlorodi. Disinfectant and deodorant.

listerine. Trade name of a solution containing boric acid, benzoic

acid, thymol and other substances.
Lister’s method. Antiseptic surgery.
lith. Stone, as in lithology, the branch of medical science, relating to
calculi or concretions.
litter. A stretcher for carrying the sick or wounded.
locomotor ataxia (tabes dorsalis). Hardening of the posterior
columns, ganglia, roots and peripheral nerves of the spinal cord.
logos. Treatise, as in Pathology, a branch of medical science which
treats of disease in all its relations.
lotio. Latin for lotion or wash.
l. hydrargyri flava. Yellow mercurial wash.
l. hydrargyri nigra. Black mercurial wash. (Both of the above
are used as applications to venereal sores).
l. plumbi et opii. Lead and opium wash. Applied to sprains and
bruises.
luetic. Syphilitic.
luetin test. A skin test for the diagnosis of syphilis.
lumen. The space in the interior of a tubular structure, such as an
artery.
lunula. The opaque, whitish, semi-lunar area near the root of the
nail.
lymph. A clear yellow fluid found in the lymph spaces or lymphatic
vessels of the body.
lymphangioma. New formation of lymphatic vessels.
lymphangitis. Inflammation of lymphatic vessels.
lymphoma. A tumor of lymphoid tissue.
lysis. Solution, as in analysis, the breaking up of a chemical
compound into its simpler elements. Also the gradual subsidence
of symptoms in a disease as distinguished from crisis.
lysol. Trade name of a mixture of soaps and phenols; used as a
disinfectant.

M
macrococcus. A large unicellular microorganism.
macros. Large, as in macroscopic, an object visible to the naked
eye.
macula. Spot, as in macular, relating to or marked by macules, or
spotted.
magnesium sulphate. Epsom salts; a purgative.
malignant. Resistant to treatment and tending to grow.
malleolus. A process of bone the shape of the head of a hammer.
mania. Frenzy, as in megalomania, a delusion of grandeur.
manifestation. Clear to the eye or to the mind.
manus. Hand, as in manual, relating to or performed with the
hands.
marrow. The soft substance filling the medullary cavities and
cancellous extremities of the long bones.
massage. A scientific method of manipulating the body by rubbing,
pinching, kneading, tapping, etc.
matrix. The formative portion of a nail or of a tooth.
measles. An acute exanthematous disease.
medullary. Relating to the medulla or marrow.
membrane. A layer of tissue covering a part or connecting two
structures.
mercury. Quicksilver.
metastasis. A change in the seat of disease.
metatarsalgia. Pain in the metatarsus.
metatarsophalangeal. Relating to the metatarsal bones and the
phalanges.
meter. Measure, as in meter, a measure of length, the equivalent of
39.3 inches.
microbe. A minute one-celled microorganism.
micrococcus. A genus of schizomycetes.
microorganism. A minute living body.
miliary. Like millet seeds, in size.
molecular. Pertaining to molecules.
molecule. The smallest possible unit of existence of any substance.
morphine. The chief narcotic principle of opium.
mortification. Death; gangrene.
mucous. Relating to mucous as in mucous membrane.
mucus. A clear viscid secretion of a mucous membrane,
mucilagenous in character.
mummification. Dry gangrene.
myeloma. A tumor due to hyperplasia of the bone marrow.
myoma. A muscular tumor.
myxoma. A tumor of stellate or polyhedral cells in a matrix of
mucin.

N
naevus (nevus). A congenital mark or discolored patch of the skin.
nail (unguis). The horny plate covering the distal end of the
terminal phalanx of each finger and toe.
naphthalan. A gelatinous mixture employed as a protective dressing
in burns and in skin diseases.
narcosis. Stupor or general anesthesia produced by some narcotic
drug.
nascent. Beginning; incipient.
necrosis. Death of a circumscribed portion of tissue.
neoplasm. A new growth; a tumor.
neosalvarsan. A modified salvarsan: No. 914.
nephritis. Inflammation of the kidney.
nerve. A whitish cord made up of nerve fibres.
neuralgia. Pain in a nerve.
neurasthenia. Nerve exhaustion.
neuritic. Relating to neuritis.
neuritis. Nerve inflammation.
neuroma. Nerve tumor.
neuron. Nerve cell, as in neuritis, inflammation of a nerve.
neutralize. To render ineffective.
node. A knob; a circumscribed swelling.
nostrum. A quack remedy.
novocaine. A synthetic local anesthetic.
noxious. Injurious; harmful.
nucleus. The essential part of a typical cell and the controlling
centre of its activity.

O
obliteration. Extinction.
official (in pharmacy). Authoritative; standard.
oid. Like, as in lymphoid, resembling or like lymph.
oil. A liquid of fatty consistency, insoluble in water and inflammable.
Examples: camphorated oil, carbolic oil, carron oil, linseed oil, oil
of turpentine, sweet oil, sesame oil, tar oil.
ointment. A soft, fatty, medicated mixture.
onychauxis. Enlargement of finger or of toe nails.
onychia. Inflammation of the matrix with suppuration and shedding
of the nail.
onychocryptosis. Ingrowing toe-nail.
onycholysis. Loosening or shedding of the nails.
onychomalacia. Loss or absence of nail rigidity.
onychomycosis. Any parasitic disease of the nails.
onychophag. One whose habit it is to bite his finger-nails.
onychophagy. Nail-biting.
onychoptosis. Falling off of the nails.
onychorrhexis. Abnormal brittleness of the nails.
onyx. A finger nail or a toe nail.
onyxis. Ingrowing toe-nail.
opisthotonos. Spasmodic rigidity of the body in which the trunk is
thrown backward and arched upward.
oral. Relating to the mouth.
organic. Pertaining to or having organs, exhibiting animal or
vegetable characteristics.
orthoform. A white, odorless, crystalline powder; employed as a
local anesthetic and antiseptic in burns, ulcers, etc.
orthopedics. That branch of surgery which treats of chronic
diseases of the joints and spine and the correction of
deformities. (See chiropodial orthopedics.)
os (plural ossa). Bone.
osis. Full of, as in tuberculosis, a specific disease caused by the
presence of the bacillus tuberculosis.
osseous. Bony.
osmidrosis. Bromidrosis; the excretion of perspiration of a strong
odor.
ossification. The formation of bone.
osteitis. Inflammation of bone.
osteoclast. A polynuclear cell concerned in the absorption of bone.
osteogenetic. The development and formation of bone.
osteoma. A bony tumor.
osteomalacia. Softening of the bone.
osteomyelitis. Inflammation of the bone marrow or of both marrow
and bone.
ous. Full of, as in fibrous, full of or composed of fibres.
oxygen. A gaseous element, the most widely distributed. Essential
to animal and plant life; symbol O.
ozone. A modified form of oxygen.

P
pachylosis. Thick, dry and abnormal quality of skin which cracks
into scales of irregular form.
pack. The process of enveloping a patient in a wet sheet or blanket.
Cold pack: in sheets wrung out of water; hot pack: in sheets
wrung out of hot water; dry pack: in dry warmed blankets, etc.
pachyacria. Bulbous thickening of the extremities of the fingers or
toes.
pachydermia. Thick skin; elephantiasis.
palliative. Mitigating; lessening the severity.
palm. The flat of the hand.
palpation. Exploration with the hand.
panidrosis. Sweating from all parts of the skin.
papilla. Any small nipple-like process.
papilloma. A growth of hypertrophied papillae of the skin.
papule. A small circumscribed elevation of the skin, containing no
fluid. A pimple.
paralysis. Loss of power of voluntary movement in a muscle
through injury or disease of nerve supply.
parasite. An organism that inhabits another organism and obtains
nourishment from it.
paresis. General paralysis of the insane or dementia paralytics. A
condition thought to be due to a chronic meningitis.
paresthesia. An abnormal spontaneous sensation such as of
numbness, burning, pricking, tingling, etc.
parenchyma. The specific tissues of a gland or organ.
paronychia. Felon, whitlow. Inflammation of the structures in the
distal phalanx of the finger.
patella. Kneecap.
pathogenic. Causing disease.
pathology. That branch of medicine which treats of disease and the
changes in the tissues of the body caused by disease.
pathy. Suffering, or disease as in Homeopathy—disease, the quality
of being treated by likes.
pedicure. One who attends the feet, cosmetically.
per. Through, as in peripheral, away from the centre; the outer part
of or surface.
peri. A Greek prefix meaning around or about.
peridental. Surrounding a tooth or part of a tooth.
periosteum. The fibrous membrane investing the surface of bones
except at the point of tendinous and ligimentous attachment,
and on the particular surfaces where cartilage is substituted.
periostitis. Inflammation of the periosteum.
periphery. The part of a body away from the centre; the outer part
or surface, as of a bone or of a nerve.
peritoneum. The sac lining the abdominal cavity and covering most
of the viscera therein contained.
perivascular. Surrounding a blood-vessel.
peroxid. An oxid with the highest amount of oxygen.
pes (pl. pedes). The foot.
phagocyte. A cell possessing the property of ingesting bacteria or
other foreign particles.
phagocytosis. The destruction of microbes by the action of
phagocytes.
phalanx. One of the long bones of the fingers or toes.
phenol. Carbolic acid.
phlebitis. Inflammation of a vein.
phlegmon. Acute suppurative inflammation of subcutaneous tissue.
physiology. The science which deals with the functions of living
things.
picric acid. A combination of carbolic and nitric acids.
pigment. An organic coloring matter.
plantalgia. Pain on the sole of the foot.
plantar. Relating to the sole of the foot.
plaque. A flat patch or area on the skin or mucous membrane.
plasia. Moulding, as in hypoplasia. defective development.
plaster-of-Paris. Calcium sulphate.
plastic. Capable of being moulded.
plegia. Stroke, as in hemiplegia, paralysis of one side of the body
and of the opposite side of the face.
plethoric. Relating to overfilled blood-vessels.
pleura. The serous membrane enveloping the lungs.
plexus. A new network of nerves or veins.
podagra. Gout, especially, typical gout in the great toe.
podagral. Gouty, relating to or suffering from gout.
podalic. Relating to the foot, as in podalgia, pain in the foot,
podarthritis, inflammation of any of the tarsal or metatarsal
joints.
podiatrist. One who treats diseases and disorders of the feet.
podobromidrosis. Fetid or foul smelling perspiration of the feet.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookname.com