1.

The Geography of Ancient

Mesopotamia

Long after Çatalhöyük was settled, Southwest Asia

was home to another group of people. They lived between two

flowing rivers in a fertile land. Because of the advances in government, culture,

and technology that took place there, the region is often called a "cradle of
civilization."

MAIN IDEA

The geography of Mesopotamia helped create the conditions for civilization.

settlements without water. Both rivers flooded unpredictably. Mesopotamians

never knew when or how much water would come. Too much, too little, or too
late spelled disaster for crops.

On the plus side, the often-destructive floodwaters deposited silt, an especially

fine and fertile soil, that was excellent for agriculture. In this way, the rivers
brought life to the otherwise dry land of Mesopotamia and supported the early
civilization that was developing there. As farming thrived in this river valley,
populations grew and cities developed. FARMING IN THE FERTILE CRESCENT
Farming began as early as 9800 B.C. in the Fertile Crescent. It eventually spread
throughout Mesopotamia. However, Mesopotamia was far from perfect for
agriculture. In addition to flooding, farmers had to deal with hot summers and
unreliable rainfall. However, the region's fertile soils promised plentiful crops,
such as wheat, barley, and figs-if the people could come up with a way to
control the water supply.

Irrigation, or watering fields using human- made systems, was the answer.
Farmers in Mesopotamian villages cooperated to dig and maintain irrigation
canals that carried water from the rivers to the fields. Farmers also stored
rainwater for later use and built walls from mounds of earth to hold back
floodwaters. The people developed important new technology, such as the ox-
driven plow, a tool that broke up the hard-baked summer soil and prepared
large areas for planting. These creative methods enabled farmers to use the rich
soil to their advantage.
THE LAND BETWEEN THE RIVERS As you have learned, the Fertile Crescent
sweeps its way across Southwest Asia. In the west it bends down the coast of the
Mediterranean. In the east it follows the course of the Tigris (TY-gruhs) River and
the Euphrates (yu-FRAY-teez) River until they merge and empty into the warm
waters of the Persian Gulf. Today this river valley lies mostly in the country of
Iraq. Historians call this flat, fertile area Mesopotamia (meh- suh-puh-TAY-
mee-uh), which means "land between the rivers." The people who once lived
there are known as Mesopotamians. The people of Mesopotamia called the
Tigris "swift river" because it flowed fast. The Euphrates flowed more slowly. It
frequently changed course, leaving riverside

The result was a reliable and abundant agricultural surplus. The ample food fed
the area's growing population. Because food was plentiful, the people of
Mesopotamia could afford to develop art, architecture, and technology. The
agricultural surpluses allowed a great civilization to develop.

Rivers' Source

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers have their source in

the mountains of Asia Minor (present-day Turkey).

ever

Mountain Snow and Rain Melting snow (from the mountains north of the Fertile
Crescent) and rain flooded the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This flooding
deposited rich soil on riverbanks.

Deserts

The Syrian and Arabian deserts created an open area, which made it easy for
enemies to attack cities in the Fertile Crescent. As a result, people built walls
around their cities for protection.

1.2

City-States Develop

The present-day location

that was once Mesopotamia

is made up of windswept
deserts. It's hard to imagine that 5,500 years ago this dusty land was filled with
people living their busy city lives. The city streets were not just filled with
people-there were also buildings and temples so tall they seemed to rise up to
the heavens.

MAIN IDEA

The city-states of Sumer formed Southwest Asia's first civilization.

Most residents lived in one- story mud houses that were crowded close
together along the streets.

SUMER

Around 3500 B.C., Mesopotamia's first civilization arose in Sumer (SOO-mur), an

area in the southern part of the region. (See the map in Lesson 1.1.) Sumer was
not controlled by a single, unified government. Instead, the area was made up of
a dozen advanced, self-governing city-states. A city-state included the city and
its surrounding lands and settlements. These units developed when villages
united to build major irrigation projects. Most of Sumer's 12 city-states,
including Ur, were built on the Tigris or Euphrates rivers. City-states also
clustered close to the coast of the Persian Gulf, where

the people developed fishing and trade. Frequent wars were fought between
city- states to protect fertile land, limited natural resources, and profitable trade
routes.

CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION

Surplus food gave Sumerians time to learn new skills and encouraged trade.
Though Sumer had productive farmland, the area lacked important natural
resources, such as tin and copper. These resources had to be acquired through
trade. When combined, tin and copper produce bronze, a strong metal used by
Sumerians to create tools and weapons. Because of the importance of bronze,
the period around 3000 B.C. is called the Bronze Age.

Giant surrounding walls protected Ur from attack by other city-states and

invaders from outside Mesopotamia.

H
THE CITY-STATE OF UR, c. 2000 B.C.

This large temple was built to honor Ur's moon god, Nanna. It was the highest

point in Ur and could be seen for miles from outside the city.

Ur's residents accessed

water from the nearby Euphrates River through a system of canals.

Surplus food also led to a growth in population. New government systems had
to be established to meet the challenge of managing so many people. Kings
arose to provide strong leadership, and administrators supervised taxes and
kept order. Because of the wealth created by agricultural surpluses, Sumerians
could afford to support these government administrators.

Sumerian society was organized by social class, an order based on power and
wealth. Kings ruled at the top, with priests just beneath them. Next came
administrators, scribes, merchants, and artisans, or people who are skilled at
making things by hand. These groups in turn looked down on farmers and less-
skilled workers. However, even people at the bottom of this system ranked
higher than Sumerian slaves.

1.3

Religion

in Sumer

In the blazing sun, Sumerian priests carry food offerings.

step by step to the top of the

great temple. The purpose of this feast is to secure the gods' favor for another
day. In the dangerous and unpredictable world of Sumer, it's important to keep
the gods on your side.

MAIN IDEA

Sumerians took religion seriously and built monumental structures to please

their gods.

VOTIVE STATUES
To demonstrate their devotion to the gods, Sumerians placed small statues
called votives in temples.

Sumerians believed that while they worked on

earthly activities like farming or fishing, the statues would pray on their behalf.

70 CHAPTER 3

LAND OF MANY GODS Sumerian lives depended on natural forces they could
not control, including rivers that flooded and changed course. The people
worshipped hundreds of gods, who they believed could control these forces. A
belief in many gods is called polytheism.

Sumerians believed that their gods ruled the earth and had created humans to
serve them. They also believed that the gods possessed superhuman powers.
Unfortunately, the gods could use these powers to cause droughts, floods, and
disease. For example, Ishkur was a storm god who was believed to have

the power to cause destructive rains and floods whenever he liked.

To keep the gods happy, Sumerian priests tried to please them. Everyone paid a
temple tax, which was offered to the gods in elaborate public rituals, or formal
series of acts always performed in the same way. By observing natural events,
including the movement of the sun, moon, and stars, priests tried to predict
what the gods were planning. These observations helped the Sumerians develop
a calendar, astronomy, and mathematics. OFFERINGS AT THE TEMPLES

City-states were important religious centers. The most important building within
a city-state was a huge pyramid-shaped temple called a ziggurat (ZIH-guh-rat).
Ziggurat means "mountaintop." Every city was dedicated to a major deity, a god
or goddess, who was its guardian. Sumerians believed that the deity lived in a
shrine, or sacred place, on top of the ziggurat. People reached the shrine by
climbing long, external flights of stairs. Priests were responsible for conducting
religious practices at the ziggurat. These practices included various rituals, such
as offering food to the city god or goddess. A statue representing the deity was
placed in a space called the adytum (A-duh-tuhm), or holy place. A meal was
set on a table before the statue. Sumerians believed that the god or goddess
would eat the meal. Priests also performed purification, or cleansing, rituals
using holy water. This purification process was often used on kings before they
entered shrines where the deities were believed to dwell.
1.4

DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTION

Sumerian Writing

Sumerians invented the earliest form of writing, known as pictographs, or

images of objects. Detailed pictographs evolved into symbols called cuneiform
(kyoo-NEE-uh- fawrm), which, over time, represented sounds rather than
objects. Scribes began forming words and combining them into sentences in
religious and scientific works and in stories. This change marked the beginning
of written history and a major step forward in the development of civilization.
DOCUMENT ONE

Cuneiform Tablet, Northern Iraq,

c. 600s B.C.

Scribes used reeds, or sharpened blades of grass, to carve the wedge-shaped

cuneiform symbols-600 in all-into wet clay tablets that were then dried. This
tablet describes a flood scene from The Epic of Gilgamesh, explained in more
detail below.

CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE Why did the Sumerians dry the clay cuneiform
tablets?

Primary Source: Artifact

DOCUMENT TWO

from Gilgamesh, translated by Stephen Mitchell The Epic of Gilgamesh is the

world's oldest recorded story. The author is unknown. Gilgamesh was probably a
real king of Uruk. In the story, he sets off on a fantastic adventure with his loyal
friend Enkidu. This passage describes their encounter with a monster.

CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE Why would the Sumerians record a story about their
king encountering a monster?

Primary Source: Epic

They came within sight of the monster's den. He was waiting inside it. Their
blood ran cold. He saw the two friends, he grimaced, he bared his teeth, he let
out a deafening roar.
He glared at Gilgamesh. "Young man," he said, "you will never go home. Prepare
to die."

DOCUMENT THREE

gnigens nem te ballisz

adt ni

from The Epic of Creation, translated by Stephanie Dalley of aloeg er This

Babylonian creation story by an unknown author explains how the world was
formed. In this passage, the chief god, Marduk, creates the stars and a 12-
month calendar.

CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE Why might Babylonians want to tell and record their
story of the creation of the world?

Primary Source: Creation Story

He [Marduk] fashioned stands for the great gods.

As for the stars, he set up constellations corresponding to them.

He designated the year and marked out its divisions,

Apportioned three stars each to the twelve

months.

1.5

Sargon Conquers Mesopotamia

Have you heard the

expression, "Uneasy lies

the head that wears a

crown"? It applied well to Sargon the Great. He conquered many peoples, lands
and cities, including Sumer. As ruler, Sargon was expected to keep his people
safe, peaceful, happy, and fed. His role involved much responsibility. It was not
easy being in charge of what was, at that time, the world's largest civilization.

MAIN IDEA

Sargon conquered Sumer and other lands in Mesopotamia to create the world's
first empire.
AN OUTSIDER TAKES OVER

Sargon the Great was an ancient Mesopotamian ruler who has inspired stories
for nearly 4,500 years. It is difficult to separate fact from fiction about his life.
According to one story about his childhood, Sargon's mother was a royal
priestess who abandoned him as a baby. A humble gardener from Kish raised
him after finding him in a basket floating in a river.

Kish was a city-state in Akkad (AH-kahd), an area in central Mesopotamia.

Akkadians

and Sumerians shared a similar culture but had different ethnic origins and
spoke different languages. Before becoming a ruler, Sargon was a servant to the
king of Kish. After serving in the royal court, Sargon became a powerful official
in Kish and eventually overthrew the king.

While Sargon gained power, Sumer was weakened by internal wars and
invasions. In 2334 B.C., Sargon's armies swept through Sumer, conquering it
completely. They also took control of northern Mesopotamia. These conquests
created the world's first empire, a group of different lands and people governed
by one ruler. Sargon's empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the
Persian Gulf. He ruled the Akkadian Empire from Akkad, his now long-lost
capital city. EMPIRE AND EXPANSION The Akkadian Empire lasted 150 years,
and Sargon ruled for 56 of them. He personally led the fight to expand the
empire and claimed to have won 34 battles and taken 50 rulers prisoner. Sargon
was an effective warrior and skilled at managing people and projects.

In the lands he conquered, Sargon allowed the people to keep their local rulers
and customs. However, they had to obey him and pay a protection tax called a
tribute. Sargon's policy helped keep peace and win the loyalty of people
throughout his empire. He also introduced standard weights and measures and
made Akkadian the official language of the government. Sargon's powerful
empire brought prosperity to his people and encouraged trade. Akkad's farmers
managed agriculture so well that 100 years went by without famine, or
widespread hunger. Sargon's wars were spread over large areas. As a result,
Akkad traded with distant suppliers for timber, metal, and other raw materials
Mesopotamia lacked. His wars concentrated

40

on controlling
centers and protecting natural resour, such as cedar forests.

Despite Sargon's abilities, the empire became too big to control. After he died,
his sons took over but were unable to maintain order. City-states rebelled, and a
great deal of time and effort went into trying to keep the peace. Enemies from
the northeast raided the empire's unprotected borders. Famine returned,
spreading suffering and unrest among the people. By 2200 B.C., the Akkadian
Empire had come to an end.

SARGON THE GREAT To guarantee loyalty from the governors who ruled parts
of his empire, Sargon gave trusted relatives powerful positions. To keep control
of his army, he created a group of professional soldiers whose sole purpose was
to fight for him.

< This sculptured head is believed to depict Sargon with his crown and long
beard.

2.1

Hammurabi's Code of Laws

Would you know how to play a game if you didn't know its rules? Probably

not. This is how people from

Mesopotamia must have felt when it came to following laws enforced by rulers.
Though they did exist, laws were not laid out in a clear fashion. This changed
when a king decided it was time to literally spell out the laws for his people.

MAIN IDEA

Hammurabi changed civilization by organizing laws and displaying them.

NEW EMPIRE IN MESOPOTAMIA

After the fall of Sargon's Akkadian Empire, a tribe called the Amorites invaded
western Mesopotamia around 2000 B.C. They established their capital at
Babylon (BA-buh-lahn), a city-state overshadowed by powerful neighbors. (See
the map in Lesson 1.5.) Then in 1792 B.C., Hammurabi (ha-muh-RAH-bee)
became the sixth king of Babylon, Hammurabi was Babylon's most influential
and powerful ruler. He expanded the kingdom and established his Babylonian
Empire across Mesopotamia and other parts of the Fertile Crescent. Hammurabi
spent the first 29 years of his rule working on domestic improvements. 76
CHAPTER 3
These included directing large projects, such as creating straight streets, strong
city walls, magnificent temples, and efficient irrigation canals. Hammurabi also
skillfully built up a network of alliances, or partnerships. This helped him conquer
all of Mesopotamia in just eight years and claim the title "King of Sumer and
Akkad."

HAMMURABI'S CODE

Hammurabi was a skillful ruler, but he is best remembered for his Code of Laws.
His vast empire contained many different peoples who all followed different
laws. To help unite his empire, Hammurabi took the best existing laws, added
new rules, and then organized them into a clear, written system. The Code of
Laws marked a major step forward for civilization. The code helped bring justice
to everyday life. It also serves as an important primary source for historians
because it offers insight into Babylonian society, including its structures,
priorities, problems, and attitudes.

The Code of Laws was often applied based on a person's social class. For
example, landowners could be fined more heavily than slaves. Hammurabi also
laid down detailed laws about agriculture and the buying and selling of goods,
highlighting the importance of these activities.

Three experienced judges heard cases. They listened to statements, examined

evidence, and heard from witnesses. The judges even assumed the defendant's
innocence. Guilt had to be proven. (Courts in the United States today also
assume that people are innocent until proven guilty.) Hammurabi's Code of
Laws influenced later legal systems, including those of ancient Greece and
Rome. After Hammurabi's death in 1750 B.C., the first Babylonian Empire
declined rapidly and disappeared about 150 years later. However, Hammurabi's
achievements ensured that Babylon remained a center of political, cultural, and
religious importance for centuries to come.

CODE OF HAMMURABI

Hammurabi's Code of Laws was carved into an eight-foot-high stone slab,

called a stela (STEE-luh), for everyone to see and read. An introduction
announced its purpose: "To prevent the strong from oppressing the weak and to
see that justice is done to widows and orphans."

The code's 282 laws covered all aspects of life and dictated specific penalties for
specific crimes. Punishments were often as brutal as the crime. For example, a
son's hand would be cut off for striking his father, and those who robbed
burning houses were burned alive. Additional examples of the numbered laws
include the following:

196

If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.

197

If he [a man] break another man's bone, his bone shall be broken.

✓ This top portion of the stela shows King Hammurabi receiving the Babylonian
laws from Shamash, the god of justice.

2.2

The

Assyrians

and the

Chaldeans

For 1,000 years

after Hammurabi,

Mesopotamia came

under the rule of empire after empire. Then around 1000 B.C., the region shook
with the sounds of an approaching army: marching feet, pounding hooves,
frightening war cries. The Assyrian army had arrived.

MAIN IDEA

The Assyrians and then the Chaldeans conquered Mesopotamia.

THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

The Assyrians (uh-SIHR-ee-uhnz) were a people of northern Mesopotamia who

developed a different culture. They were united by their worship of the god
Ashur, for whom the Assyrian capital was named. (See the map in Lesson 1.5.) A
strong agricultural economy and a large professional army helped the Assyrians
conquer all of Mesopotamia, parts of Asia Minor, and even the rich state of
Egypt by 650 B.C.
Destructive iron weapons gave Assyrian armies an advantage over their
enemies, whose weapons were made of a weaker bronze. The armies also had
horse-drawn chariots and soldiers who used bows and arrows while riding
horses. Assyrian soldiers were experts at capturing cities. 78 CHAPTER 3

It was not uncommon for soldiers to kill or enslave captured people and then
burn their cities to the ground.

Villages, towns, and cities answered to the unforgiving Assyrian king, who held
absolute power. Even the highest officials were closely watched. The
government sometimes forced rebellious people to move to faraway lands. In
time, however, the Assyrian Empire grew too big, and its subjects became tired
of being treated so unfairly and violently. By about 626 B.C., the Assyrians were
weakened by internal power struggles. This made it possible for a people known
as the Chaldeans (kal- DEE-unz) to eventually defeat them. CHALDEANS
OVERTAKE THE ASSYRIANS The Chaldeans were a seminomadic people who
originally came from southern Babylonia. After overthrowing the Assyrians in
612 B.C., the Chaldeans became the ruling power of Babylon and extended their
rule over all of Mesopotamia. Nebuchadnezzar II (ne-byuh-kuhd-NE- zuhr) was
the most famous Chaldean king. Under his rule, which lasted for 43 years, the
New Babylonian Empire included Mesopotamia and all of the Fertile Crescent.
Though he was often cruel, Nebuchadnezzar also made improvements to
Babylon by rebuilding the city and adding incredible beauty to it. From miles
away, the Tower of Babel, a soaring seven-story multicolored ziggurat, inspired
awe. Visitors entered the inner city through the colorful Ishtar Gate with its
gleaming blue-glazed bricks and images of dragons and bulls.

The king's most famous accomplishment was the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
Pumps operated by slaves irrigated a large, leveled terrace of trees and plants.
The terrace formed a green mountain that seemed to float in the city. Although
his empire outlasted him by fewer than 25 years, Nebuchadnezzar had built a
monumental city fitting its name: Babylon, Gate of God.

PHOENICIAN SHIP

The Phoenicians sailed their ships in the Mediterranean and beyond. Through
trade, the Phoenicians also had contact with Mesopotamia. They established
colonies, or outposts of people from one land who live in another land, in places
as far away as Spain. Phoenicia's most famous colony was Carthage in North
Africa.
settlements

es

Byblos

Tigrin

Sidon Jerusalem

Large Sail

The use of sail power and wind made it possible for ships to carry large cargoes
without needing a lot of rowers.

Goods

Slaves loaded such goods as wood, wine, and papyrus onto the ship.

Red Sea

Deck

The Phoenicians constructed space beneath the deck, where they could store
cargo and

supplies for the crew.

Figurehead: The ship's wooden figurehead was often carved into the shape

of a horse's head. The eyes were meant to help the ship "see" where it was
heading.

Ballast Stones lining the bottom of the ship were used as ballast, or something
that provides stability, for sailing in rough waters.

2.3

The

Phoenicians

Do you have a well-traveled

friend who always has

interesting information
about places you've never been? You can think of the Phoenicians as this
worldly friend. While conducting trade throughout the Mediterranean and
Mesopotamia, the Phoenicians spread cultural practices from one stop on their
trade route to the next.

MAIN IDEA

Through their extensive trade network, the Phoenicians spread different cultures
throughout the Mediterranean and beyond.

A TRADING PEOPLE

The narrow strip of coast along the eastern Mediterranean (present-day

Lebanon) contained many natural resources and had good harbors. This
combination was perfect for the development of industry and trade. About 1000
B.C., independent city-states emerged in the area. They shared cultural
similarities, including language and a trading economy. The Greeks called the
people

REVIEW & ASSESS

1. READING CHECK What goods and ideas did the Phoenicians spread through
their sea trade

ork?

from these city-states Phoenicians (fih-NEE- shuhnz), which means "purple dye
people." The Phoenicians processed local shellfish into a purple dye used to
color fabric. This dye was their most famous trade good. They exported wood
from their highly desired cedar trees to Egypt and Mesopotamia. From other
lands, they imported raw materials, or substances from which other things are
made. Phoenician artisans crafted these materials into luxury goods for trade.

Phoenicia's most important export was its culture. To record trade transactions,
the Phoenicians used their own 22-letter alphabet, which was adapted from
Sumerian cuneiform. Each symbol from the Phoenician alphabet stood for a
sound. First the ancient Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, then the
ancient Romans modified it to form the basis of our modern Western alphabet.
SHIPBUILDERS AND SEAFARERS

The Phoenicians were also skilled shipbuilders and sailors. They built strong,
wide ships. Powered mainly by wind and a large, square sail, these ships carried
huge cargoes thousands of miles. The Phoenicians became one of the first
Mediterranean peoples to sail on the Atlantic Ocean. They sailed north to Britain,
west to the Azores (nine volcanic islands located in the mid- Atlantic), and
possibly even around Africa.

Despite their talents and enormous wealth, the Phoenicians were militarily weak
and were eventually absorbed into the New Babylonian Empire. However, they
performed a valuable service by spreading different cultures from one area to
another. Their accomplishments show the importance of trade in building
civilizations.

2.4

Persian Leaders

Palaces in the Persian

Empire were built with

diverse materials: bricks

from Mesopotamia, timber from Phoenicia, ebony and silver from Egypt. This
mix of materials was a deliberate celebration of the Persian Empire's rich ethnic
diversity-a diversity that was encouraged by the wise leadership of two men.

MAIN IDEA

Under the rule of Cyrus and Darius I, the Persian Empire united different peoples
and cultures.

CYRUS THE GREAT

The region of Persia was located in what is present-day southwestern Iran, just
east of Mesopotamia. Around 700 B.C., the Persians were ruled by a people
called the Medes (meedz). Then in 550 B.C., a Persian king known as Cyrus the
Great led a successful uprising against the Medes. In 539 B.C., he captured the
Babylonian Empire. Cyrus continued to add to his empire until it stretched from
Afghanistan to the Aegean Sea, including Mesopotamia. Under Persian rule,
these lands enjoyed 200 years of peace and economic well-being.

The secret of Cyrus's success was tolerance, or sympathy for the beliefs and
practices of others. After winning a war, he showed mercy to conquered kings
by allowing
82 CHAPTER 3

them to keep their thrones. Cyrus demanded only tribute that defeated people
could afford, sparing them great hardships. He also honored local customs,
religions, and institutions. His tolerance won him widespread respect and
acceptance from conquered subjects.

DARIUS EXPANDS THE EMPIRE

After Cyrus's death around 529 B.C., his son Cambyses (kam-BY-seez) became
king and added Egypt and Libya to the empire. The next king, Darius I (duh-RY-
uhs), ruled Persia at its height. Darius expanded the empire until it grew to about
2,800 miles, stretching from India in the east to southeastern Europe in the west,
with the Fertile Crescent in the middle.

Like Cyrus, Darius was a wise ruler. He avoided problems that had weakened
other empires. For example, he divided his empire into 20 smaller provinces, or
administrative districts, that were ruled by governors called satraps (SAY-traps).
They helped him maintain control of his huge empire. Darius introduced regular
taxation and fixed each province's tribute at only half of what the people could
afford to pay. He also introduced a form of currency, which made it easier to pay
taxes and buy goods.

Understanding that communications were essential to good government, Darius

built the 1,500-mile-long Royal Road, running from Susa in Persia to Sardis in
Anatolia (present-day Turkey). Other roads connected all 20 provinces so that
messengers could carry his orders anywhere in under 15 days. The roads helped
unify the blend of people and cultures that made up the Persian Empire.

Darius also built a new capital, called Persepolis, for his empire. Decorated with
palaces and jeweled statues, Persepolis was meant to symbolize the
magnificence of the Persian Empire-the largest, most stable, and most powerful
empire of ancient Mesopotamia.

000000

In this relief from ancient Persepolis, representatives from different regions of

the Persian Empire carry gifts for the Persian king. The gifts are meant to
symbolize their loyalty.

CYRUS THE GREAT

THE

Job: Rebel and king of the Persian Empire

Education: Unknown; legend says a

herdsman or a wild dog raised him

Home: Pasargadae, a city in ancient Persia

FRIENDS

Cyrus's friends included almost everyone he ruled.

TRIVIA

Cyrus remains a highly respected figure for modern Iranians, and his simple
tomb is still visited by millions of people every year.

2.5

The Legacy of Mesopotamia

As you check your calendar,

text a friend, or ride your

bike, you probably aren't

thinking about the people who walked the earth more than 3,000 years ago. But
if it weren't for the people of ancient Mesopotamian civilizations, you might not
be able to do any of these things.

MAIN IDEA

Mesopotamian civilizations were responsible for major cultural and

technological developments.

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

The advances developed in ancient Mesopotamia form the region's legacy-or

the things, both cultural and technological, left to us from the past.
Mesopotamia's cultural legacy touches our lives every day. For example, the
written word took important leaps forward with Sumer's development of
pictograph and cuneiform writing and then with the spread of the Phoenician
alphabet. Mesopotamia also left us a legacy in forms of government. The city-
state unit that developed in Sumer, Babylon, and Phoenicia became an
important governmental form in the ancient world. Equally important were

the styles of government that emerged. Hammurabi highlighted the importance

of law. His Code of Laws influenced later legal systems. Cyrus the Great
demonstrated the power of tolerance to future leaders. Finally, the use of
provinces, governors, and good communications are still essential to modern
governments. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES

It is easy to take Mesopotamia's technological advances for granted because

they seem so commonplace to us today. Yet at the time, Mesopotamian
technology clearly furthered the development of human civilization. During the
Bronze Age, tools and weapons became more effective than ever before. Strong
axes, swords, and daggers were crafted from bronze.

Mesopotamian technology also had an impact on agriculture and on land and

sea travel. The ox-drawn plow made it easier to cultivate large areas of land.
Irrigation techniques pioneered by the Sumerians are still used around the
world. The wheel revolutionized transportation and trade on land. Phoenician
shipbuilding and navigation did the same at sea by spreading Phoenicia's
Mesopotamian-influenced culture.

With advances like the abacus, people from Mesopotamia laid the foundations
of mathematics and science. The abacus is a device that uses sliding beads for
counting. The Mesopotamians were also among the first to perform complex
calculations and develop a calendar. Additionally, they devised number systems
based on 60, which is what we use today to keep track of time. The application
of mathematics made it possible for Mesopotamians to build larger and more
complex buildings, including Mesopotamia's cultural and technological
masterpiece, the ziggurat. So the next time you ride in a car, use a tool, or see a
skyscraper, thank ancient Mesopotamia.