Applied Welding

Metallurgy:
A Primer
A review of the basic concepts and howBY BEN PLETCHER
they affect material properties, from time of
manufacturing through fabrication

etallurgy may be a word somewhere in the process of improves our material selection,
that strikes fear for some readers. making and creating usable metal optimizes our construction methods,
and provides the best product for the
But fear not, no matter what your items for society. metal's service environment.
role or title, simply by being a Metallurgy is a fascinating topic Codes and standards provide the
reader of the Welding Journal industry with guidelines to assist with
proves you are interested in be32 WELDING JOURNAL/ OCTOBER the engineering, procurement, and
metallurgy. The Encyclopedia construction process. For example,
Britannica defines metallurgy as the American Welding Society (AWS)
2021 A5 Committee focuses on filler
the "art and science of extracting metals and allied materials; the AWS
metals from their ores and DI Com-
modifying the metals for use . . . cause it begins with the mittee on Structural Welding
It also concerns the chemical, exploration of minerals and gives design and fabrication
physical, and atomic properties mining and continues through guidelines; the American Society
and structures of metals and the refining wrought material for Testing and Materials
principles whereby metals are manufacturing, construction, and, (ASTM) also publishes more than
combined to form alloys." As you ultimately, final operation. 12,500 global standards for
can see, we are all metallurgists at Understanding the nature of materials and testing methods;
heart because we are involved metals and how they react during
fabrication and welding operations and many more associations are
involved in standardization to standards that often include strengthening mechanisms to
guide industry in ensuring chemical requirements as well as enhance and improve their
consistent, repeatable products. strength requirements and may properties. The heat of welding
include manufacturing or heat can change these mechanisms and
treatment methods such as as- forms the study of welding
Technical Foundations rolled, normalized, quenched and metallurgy. Here are three basic
and Applications tempered, solution annealed, etc. strengthening mechanisms as an
These requirements give introduction to applied
Metallurgical scientists begin guidelines for how these metals metallurgy.
metal alloy development and were produced and allows
characterization in the laboratory fabricators consistency in the
by examining changes to the products they procure and
Chemistry — Crystal
atomic structure. With modern ultimately produce. Structure
analytical technology, scien- Welding procedure qualification
tists conduct studies that observe and Alloying, a metal combined with
testing requires a welded test coupon
test metals beginning at the atomic one or more elements, is the most
joining the base metals using the
level. One such analytical method is common method to improve metals
specific welding process and the
Transmission Electron Microscopy performance. All practical metals are
selected welding electrode. The
(TEM), which allows inspection at alloys. Low-carbon steel is iron
completed weldment — consisting of
such high magnification that mixed with carbon and manganese at
the base metal, heat-affected zone,
individual atoms can be examined. a minimum. Manganese provides
and weld — undergoes the code-
Figure 1 shows the atomic lattice of a substitutional strengthening, which
required mechanical testing.
nickelaluminum-boron alloy oriented means that a manganese atom
Common mechanical tests include
in the < 100> crystal direction, which bend tests to measure ductility, replaced an iron atom; because of the
allows scientists to study changes in tension testing to measure tensile atomic size difference, there is a
atom spacing with varying alloy strength, and Charpy impact testing stiffening or strengthening. Carbon
content. provides interstitial strengthening,
for resistance to crack which means that carbon is a very
New alloys are developed by propagation. small atom relative to iron, and
controlling the different elements Other evaluation methods may instead of replacing an iron atom, it
being added and monitoring their fits in the middle of the iron atoms.
include hardness testing,
optimum ranges for different Hume Rothery rules provide the
corrosion testing, and
physical properties. The finalized guidelines for how one element can
microstructural evaluation, dissolve in a metal either
commercial metals are fully among others. These mechanical substitutionally or interstitially. The
characterized for their test methods serve to evidence Welding Handbook (aws.org/
mechanical properties with that, during the welding publications/weldinghandbook) is a
published results and ultimately great place to begin learning more
processes, the metallurgy of the
standardized within industry about alloy development and
overall weldment has not been
standards. differences.
significantly changed.
The metallurgical interest now
shifts toward how to design and Mechanical properties are
construct in such a manner that physical attributes that correlate
the metals maintain their with the metallurgy of the given
performance throughout the alloy. Procedure testing is part of
fabrication process and will the scientific method and
operate in their expected lifespan. provides a circular feedback loop
Material selection is critical for to continually improve our
any project application and metals, welding practice, and
metallurgy forms the basis of how applications. By better
and why specific grades are understanding how the metal we
selected. Design engineers are are working with obtains its
responsible for understanding the strength, we can better
lifelong needs and service hypothesize welding parameters
conditions of their product, and fabrication techniques.
Fig. I — High-angle annular dark-
thereby invoking the proper field scanning transmission
codes, standards, and additional electron micrograph of a nickel-
requirements needed. As a result, Strengthening aluminum-boron alloy, orientation
fabrication personnel plan, Mechanisms (Courtesy of Professor James
LeBeau, Massachusetts Institute of
prepare, and perform the
construction activities to meet the Metallurgy provides us the Technology)
mechanical and material foundation for understanding the
requirements. building blocks of our materials.
We order materials The metals we use rely on
manufactured to specific individual or combined
 tureandmechanical deformationdur-
ing fabrication.Time is an important
factor, whereas the heatingandcool-
ing ratesalongwith the durationat
elevated temperaturewill greatlyim-
Mechanical — Grain Size pactthemetallurgy
Thermal Treatment and,ultimately,
—
themechanical properties.Welding
Grain boundary or grain-size Multiphase Alloys
metallurgy requires balancing the
strengthening provides a oy=oo+ welding heatinput,for
Heat treatment welding electrode
multiphase
mechanical type of strengthening chemistry, and heat-affected zone of
alloys, commonly the carbon
by impeding movement of that where o is the yield stress, 00 is thebase
steels, metaltostrengthening
provides maintainthe origi-
due
the materials constant or original nally designed mechanical properties.
atomic structure. We order to allotropic phase
materials with certain heat starting stress for the alloy, k is a
treatment and rolling conditions, strengthening coefficient unique Conclusionwhich is a
transformations,
change of the atomic crystal
which often affect many aspects to each alloy, and d is the Metallurgy
structure in thecan belearned
solid andbet-
state. The
of the overall metallurgy, but one average grain diameter.
Therefore, reduction of the ter
studyunderstood
of at many
thermodynamics different lev-
key factor is grain size. The Hall- els from aus
provides mechanical
with performance
equilibOCTOBER
average grain size provides a perspective, therules and
of codes33
Petch equation provides the basis correlating increase in yield 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL
of understanding how with standards,and even from atomicprin-
stress. ciples in the science laboratory. All of
smaller diameter grains, the yield
strength increases as given by: thesediverse aspectsof themetallur-
gical field provide us in thewelding in-
Fig. 2 — The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-F%C) Phase diagram is commonly dustry with the tools and equipment
studied and shows the temperatures when phase changes occur. (Welding needed to improve ourfinal fabricated
Handbook, Ninth edition, Volume 4, Chapter I, Fig. 13.) products.It is easy tobegin your met-
allurgical journey throughyour own
rium phase diagrams to correlate alloy cooling rates during welding can work environment.This may include
content and the respective phase com-
detailedreviewing of materialspecifi-
change the microstructural cations,analyzing incoming material
properties. test reports,noting the differences in
position at each temperature. The welding procedures, and reviewing the
Iron-Iron Carbide Phase diagram, Metallurgical Application materialmanufacturer'sliteratureon
which encompasses steels and cast basemetalsand welding products.
AWS provides a structuredapproach
irons, is very commonly studied — Materials utilize different strength-
throughits codes andstandards,Weld-
Fig. 2. This phase diagram allows us to ening mechanisms, which ing Handbook,and technical live and
experience onlinetraining.Whatevermethodof
understand how heat treatments and changes by exposure to high tempera- learningmoreaboutmetallurgyand
welding, recognize that your local AWS Section meetings will connect you BEN PLETCHER, PhD,
with a like-minded welding community more than willing to help guide ([email protected]), is chief
welding technologistfor Bechtel
you along your metallurgical journey. Global Corp., Welding and Applied
Technology Center; Houston, Tex.
This article is based on a presentation at
the AWS Education 2020 Virtual Summit.
Learn more about AWS Committees (aws.org/standards/committeesandstandardsprogram), where
to get the AWS Standards and Welding Handbook (pubs.aws.org), and the latest AWS Education
and Training offerings (awo.aws.org). We encourage you to join an AWS Committee because you
will be contributing to the industry while learning and making lifelong relationships that will benefit
you both professionally and personally. Visit aws.org/standards/committees to learn more.

34 WELDING JOURNAL/ OCTOBER 2021