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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 1393

Aruna Tiwari · Kapil Ahuja ·

Anupam Yadav ·
Jagdish Chand Bansal · Kusum Deep ·
Atulya K. Nagar Editors

Soft Computing
for Problem
Solving
Proceedings of SocProS 2020,
Volume 2
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 1393

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing,
Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering,
University of Essex, Colchester, UK
László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University,
Gyor, Hungary
Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas
at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao
Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute
of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen , Faculty of Computer Science and Management,
Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications
on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent
Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer
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Aruna Tiwari · Kapil Ahuja · Anupam Yadav ·
Jagdish Chand Bansal · Kusum Deep ·
Atulya K. Nagar
Editors

Soft Computing for Problem

Solving
Proceedings of SocProS 2020, Volume 2
Editors
Aruna Tiwari Kapil Ahuja
Computer Science and Engineering Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Indore Indian Institute of Technology Indore
Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India

Anupam Yadav Jagdish Chand Bansal

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute Department of Mathematics
of Technology South Asian University
Jalandhar, India New Delhi, India

Kusum Deep Atulya K. Nagar

Department of Mathematics School of Mathematics, Computer Science
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee and Engineering
Roorkee, India Liverpool Hope University
Liverpool, UK

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-981-16-2711-8 ISBN 978-981-16-2712-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2712-5

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Preface

IIT Indore and the Soft Computing Research Society (SCRS), New Delhi, co-hosted
the “10th International Conference on Soft Computing for Problem Solving (SocPros
2020)” from 18 December to 20 December 2020 in a Virtual Mode. The seeds for
this conference were laid more than a year ago at the 9th conference in this series at
the Liverpool Hope University, UK (in September 2019).
The conference opening was done by Prof. Deepak B. Phatak (BoG Chairman,
IIT Indore), Prof. Neelesh K. Jain (Director, IIT Indore), and Prof. Ajit K. Chaturvedi
(Director, IIT Roorkee and IIT Mandi). These esteemed guests appreciated the efforts
and highlighted the need of taking the technology to the common people.
This mega event, which happens to be the first international conference of
Computer Science and Engineering at IIT Indore, covered recent developments in
the interdisciplinary areas of Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Optimiza-
tion, and Soft Computing. The conference received 334 papers from participants
belonging to 13 different countries, which went through a very stringent blind review
process. This was done by the international expert committee and had a very good
acceptance rate of 37%. These papers would be published as two books by Springer.
This year the conference had many innovative features. Prof. Chandra Mohan
Gold Medal for excellence in Soft Computing was instituted, which was given to
Prof. Sankar Pal of ISI Kolkatta. Twelve eminent academicians gave keynote talks.
There was a big industry participation with four keynote talks by distinguished indus-
trialists. Fourteen outstanding paper awards and 5 best paper awards (sponsored
by Springer) were given. The conference had two special sessions on “Cognitive
Science” and “Remote Sensing” as well as a panel discussion on the future of soft
computing with ten renowned panelists from academia and industry.

Indore, India Aruna Tiwari

Indore, India Kapil Ahuja
Jalandhar, India Anupam Yadav
New Delhi, India Jagdish Chand Bansal
Roorkee, India Kusum Deep
Liverpool, UK Atulya K. Nagar

v
Contents

A Deep Semi-supervised Approach for Multi-label Land-Cover

Classification Under Scarcity of Labelled Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Shounak Chakraborty, Nilesh Agarwal, and Moumita Roy
Role of Individual Samples in Modified Possibilistic c-Means
Classifier for Handling Heterogeneity Within Mustard Crop . . . . . . . . . . 13
Mragank Singhal, Ashish Payal, and Anil Kumar
Specially Structured Flow Shop Scheduling Models with Processing
Times as Trapezoidal Fuzzy Numbers to Optimize Waiting Time
of Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Bharat Goyal and Sandeep Kaur
Potential Fishing Zone Characterization in the Indian Ocean
by Machine Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Swarnali Majumder, Sourav Maity, T. M. Balakrishnan Nair,
Rose P. Bright, M. Nagaraja Kumar, Naga Shwetha, and Nimit Kumar
A Novel Method to Optimize Interval Length for Intuitionistic
Fuzzy Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Manish Pant, A. K. Shukla, and Sanjay Kumar
Low-Altitude Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for Real-Time Greenhouse
Plant Disease Monitoring Using Convolutional Neural Network . . . . . . . . 63
C. S. Arvind, K. Prajwal, Amrut C. Patil, A. Ashwin Kumar,
A. Sreedevi, and R. Jyothi
Design and Development of an IoT-Based Smart Medication Device . . . . 77
D. Ramesh Reddy, K. Bikash, K. P. Vivek, U. Z. Sadek, and P. Kodali
Effects of SARS-COV-2 on Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Indu Malik, Nipun R. Navadia, Aatif Jamshed, Lalita Verma,
Taranjeet Singh, and Harshit Bhardwaj

vii
viii Contents

Covid-19: Machine Learning Algorithms to Predict Mortality

Rate for Advance Testing and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Nipun R. Navadia, Gurleen Kaur, Indu Malik, Lalita Verma,
Taranjeet Singh, and Harshit Bhardwaj
Personality Prediction Using EEG Signals and Machine Learning
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Harshit Bhardwaj, Pradeep Tomar, Aditi Sakalle, Divya Acharya,
and Arpit Bhardwaj
A Comparative Study of Various Apriori and FP-Growth
Tree-Based Incremental Mining Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Shelly Gupta and Lopamudra Mohanty
Emotion Analysis on Hindi Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Aniket Anand, Harsh Choudhary, and R. Jayashree
Temporal Analysis of Human Serum Albumin with Recurrent
Neural Networks for Changepoint Detection and Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . 141
R. D. Harshitha, Jayanth Jeevanandam, Natarajan Sudha,
and N. T. Saraswathi
Modeling of Discrete Jaya Optimized Frequency Controller
for Renewable-Based Interconnected Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Subhranshu Sekhar Pati and Saroj Kumar Mishra
Grey Wolf Optimizer for Data Envelopment Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Awadh Pratap Singh and Ashish Kumar Dixit
A Model Based on Fuzzy C-Means with Density Peak Clustering
for Seismicity Analysis of Earthquake Prone Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Ashish Sharma, Satyasai Jagannath Nanda, and Rahul Kumar Vijay
Memetic Flower Pollination Algorithm-Based Radiation Pattern
in Time-Modulated Linear Antenna Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Gopi Ram, D. Suneel Varma, and G. Arun Kumar
Multi-objective Adaptive Antenna Synthesis Using Teaching
Learning Based Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
D. Suneel Varma, Gopi Ram, G. Arun Kumar, and Pranthik Dutta
A Secure Data Transfer in Cloud Environment Using Double-Layer
Security for Internet of Medical Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
C. Vanmathi, R. Mangayarkarasi, V. Hari Haran, and S. Karthikeyan
Reversible Data Hiding Technique Using Multi-layer Perceptron
Based Prediction and Adaptive Histogram Bin Shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Sabhapathy Myakal, Rajarshi Pal, and Nekuri Naveen
Contents ix

Epileptic Seizure Detection Using LSTM: A Deep Learning

Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Divya Acharya, Richa Bhatia, Anushna Gowreddygari, Varsha Shaju,
S. Aparna, and Arpit Bhardwaj
A Manta Ray Foraging Algorithm Solution for Practical Reactive
Power Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Hong-Jiang Wang, Thi-Kien Dao, Van-Dinh Vu, Truong-Giang Ngo,
Thi-Xuan-Huong Nguyen, and Trong The Nguyen
Indexing on Healthcare Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Aneri Mehta, Vahishta Vandriwala, Jigna Patel, and Jitali Patel
A Stochastic Approach for Automatic Collection of Precise
Training Data for a Soft Machine Learning Algorithm Using
Remote Sensing Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Parth Naik and Anil Kumar
Optimized Convolutional Neural Network-Based Classification
of Arrhythmia Disease Using ECG Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Pooja Sharma, Shail Kumar Dinkar, and Kusum Deep
β-Hill Climbing Grey Wolf Optimizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Saniya Bahuguna and Ashok Pal
A Power System Economic Load Dispatch Using Jellyfish Search
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Shi-Jie Jiang, Trong-The Nguyen, Thi-Kien Dao, Van-Dinh Vu,
and Truong-Giang Ngo
ANN Based Security Analysis of Block Ciphers with Focus
on Non-linear Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Nehal Varshney, Geetansh Saxena, and Girish Mishra
Employing LRCN Model for Application Classification in SDN . . . . . . . . 347
Adarsh Rai, Abdul Aleem, and Manoj Madhava Gore
Advanced Rainfall Prediction Model for India Using Various
Regression Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Parin Jigishu Shah, Devansh Hiren Timbadia, Sughosh Sudhanvan,
and Supriya Agrawal
An Optimal Dispatch of Microgrid Based on Improved Particle
Swarm Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Chun-Yuan Ning, Jun-Jie Shang, Duc-Tinh Pham, Trong-The Nguyen,
and Thi-Xuan-Huong Nguyen
ACO-Based Optimal Route Scheduling for EV Fleet Operation . . . . . . . . 387
Polly Thomas and Prabhakar Karthikeyan Shanmugam
x Contents

An Analysis of Machine Learning Algorithm for the Classification

of Emotion Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Aditi Sakalle, Pradeep Tomar, Harshit Bhardwaj, Divya Acharya,
and Arpit Bhardwaj
Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System-Based Information
Fusion Model for Smart Monitoring of Public Amenities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Rajasi Gore, Shashwati Banerjea, and Neeraj Tyagi
Deep Neural Networks to Predict Sub-surface Ocean Temperatures
from Satellite-Derived Surface Ocean Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Kalpesh R. Patil and Masaaki Iiyama
Density Estimation of Heterogeneous Crowd in Mass Religious
Gatherings Using Image Processing and Denoising Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Nipun Choubey, Abhishek Kumar Prajapati, Ashish Verma,
and Anirban Chakraborty
Workload Prediction for Cloud Resource Provisioning using Time
Series Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Mahendra Pratap Yadav and Dharmendra Kumar Yadav
A Trust-Based Framework to Reduce Message Dissemination
Latency Using CFC Model for Internet of Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Deepak Kumar Mishra and Kapil Sharma
Generative Adversarial Network for Cloud Removal from Optical
Temporal Satellite Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Chintan Maniyar and Anil Kumar
Streamed Covid-19 Data Analysis Using LSTM—A Deep Learning
Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Sanjay Patidar, Rajni Jindal, and Neetesh Kumar
Canonical Correlation Analysis with Bhattacharya Similarity
Distance for Multiview Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Surendra Gupta, Urjita Thakar, and Sanjiv Tokekar
An Optimization Nodes Layout in Deployment WSN Based
on Improved Artificial Bee Colony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Trong-The Nguyen, Thi-Kien Dao, Thi-Thanh-Tan Nguyen,
Truong-Giang Ngo, and Duc-Tinh Pham
A Home Energy Management System with Peak Demand
Reduction Using Ant Colony Optimization and Time of Use
Pricing Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Senthil Prabu Ramalingam and Prabhakar Karthikeyan Shanmugam
Contents xi

An Apache Giraph Implementation of Distributed ADMM

for Solving LASSO Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Rohit Agrawal, Aditya A. Shastri, Kapil Ahuja, Antoine Perreard,
and Juniper Gujral
Integrated Optimization Model for Sustainable Supplier Selection
and Order Allocation in Food Supply Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Rashi Sharma and Jyoti Dhingra Darbari
Performance-Based Supplier Selection and Order Allocation
Model Incorporating Sustainable Development Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Aditi and Sugandha Aggarwal
A Multi Objective Reverse Logistics Network Design Model Under
Carbon Pricing: An Emerging Economy Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Rahul Solanki and Jyoti Dhingra Darbari
Centralised Resource Allocation Model for Improving
the Environmental Sustainability of Retailers with Imprecise Data
Envelopment Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Nomita Pachar and Anshu Gupta
Evaluation of Adoption of Blockchain Technology for Supply
Chain Management: A Case of Indian MSME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Rubina Mittal, Pankaj Pankaj, Sugandha Aggarwal, and Arshia Kaul
Analysis of Critical Success Factors for Adopting Omni-Channel
Retailing in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Akansha Jain and Arshia Kaul
Fuzzy MCDM Model for Analysis of Critical Success Factors
for Sustainable Collaboration with Third Party Reverse Logistics
Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Shiwani Sharma and Jyoti Dhingra Darbari
An integrated Fuzzy MCDM Approach for Evaluation of Barriers
in Implementing LARS Paradigms in Supply Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Dixita Barua, Akansha Jain, and Veena Jain
Quality Improvement Using Fuzzy MCDM for Flexographic
Printing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
Rubina Mittal, Huda Shameem, and Pallavi Sharma
Using Attractive–Repulsive Binary Local Gradient Contours
for Sample-Consensus Background Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Rimjhim Padam Singh and Poonam Sharma
Lexical, Pragmatic and Linguistic Feature Based Two-Level
Sarcasm Detection Using Machine Learning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Paluck Deep, Archita Mittal, Easha Pandey, and Sakshi Agarwal
xii Contents

Real-Time Statistics and Visualization of the Impact of COVID-19

in India with Future Prediction Using Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
S. Raj Kiran and Priyanka Kumar
A Brief Survey on Concept Drifted Data Stream Regression . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Ajay Choudhary, Preeti Jha, Aruna Tiwari, and Neha Bharill
Differential Evolution Algorithm for Multimodal Optimization:
A Short Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Shatendra Singh, Aruna Tiwari, and Suchitra Agrawal
Implementation of Brain Tumor Segmentation Using CNN Deep
Learning Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
Tarang Kumar Barsiya, Lakshita Bhargava, Suchitra Agrawal,
Aruna Tiwari, and Amit Saxena
Improved Self-adaptive Differential Evolution Based Throughput
Maximization of Energy Harvesting Cognitive Radio Network . . . . . . . . . 767
Sanjoy Debnath, Wasim Arif, Srimanta Baishya, and Debarati Sen

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779

About the Editors

Dr. Aruna Tiwari is Associate Professor in Computer Science & Engineering at

IIT Indore, India. Her all degrees B.Tech., M.Tech., Ph.D. are in Computer Science
& Engineering from SGSITS Indore. She has more than 20 years of research experi-
ence in the areas such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and soft-computing.
Her work is around artificial neural networks, fuzzy clustering, evolutionary compu-
tation and their applications to bioinformatics, and medical diagnosis. Her research
directions are toward the design of intelligent computing algorithms for classifica-
tion, clustering, and feature selection which can handle big data. She has more than
30 journal publications of international repute including more than 5 IEEE transac-
tions and Elsevier journals of high impact factor and has published more than fifty
research articles in the ranked conferences. She has established a big data handling
lab in IIT Indore which is funded by Council of Science & Industrial Research (CSIR)
Government of India in 2017. She has enabled two MOUs, collaborating with Indian
Institute of Soybean Research, Indore, and CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering
Research Institute, Pilani. She has recently initiated a consortium project on Arti-
ficial Intelligence which is approved from Ministry of Electronics & Information
Technology (MeitY) Government of India. There are seven PhDs and more than 25
masters awarded under her guidance.

Dr. Kapil Ahuja holds master’s and Ph.D. degrees in Mathematics and Computer
Science (from Virginia Tech, USA) and has a strong interdisciplinary focus. After
graduating earlier this decade from VT, he received his postdoctoral training from
the Max Planck Institute in Magdeburg (Germany). Since then, he has established his
independent research program in Mathematics of Data Science and Computational
Science at IIT Indore, where he is currently working as Associate Professor. Dr. Ahuja
is solving challenging problems that are at both the ends of the research spectrum,
i.e., theoretical as well as applicable. His core research interests are in artificial
intelligence, machine learning, numerical methods, and optimization. He believes
that it is necessary to collaborate globally to solve challenging research problems.
Hence, he has multiple active international research collaborations (USA, Germany,
India, France, and UK). In the recent past, he has also held visiting professor positions
at TU Braunschweig (Germany), TU Dresden (Germany), and Sandia National Labs
xiii
xiv About the Editors

(USA). Dr. Ahuja’s overall research output includes thirty publications (including
eighteen in reputed journals) as well as external funding worth more than half-a-
million USD from twelve projects. While achieving this, he has graduated two Ph.D.
students with three more to graduate soon. Since teaching and service are essential
for a fruitful and satisfying research career, he is very committed to these aspects
as well. Dr. Ahuja has received the Best Teacher Award four times at IIT Indore. In
the past, he has held many administrative positions. Since the past three years, he is
heading International Affairs at IIT Indore as Founding Dean for the same.

Dr. Anupam Yadav is Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics at

Dr. BR Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, India. His research
area includes numerical optimization, soft computing, and artificial intelligence, he
has more than ten years of research experience in the areas of soft computing and
optimization. Dr. Yadav has done Ph.D. in soft computing from Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, and he worked as Research Professor at Korea University. He
has published more than twenty-five research articles in journals of international
repute and has published more than fifteen research articles in conference proceed-
ings. Dr. Yadav has authored a text book entitled “An introduction to neural network
methods for differential equations”. He has edited three books which are published
by AISC, Springer Series. Dr. Yadav was General Chair, Convener, and Member of
steering committee of several international conferences. He is Associate Editor in
the journal of the experimental and theoretical artificial intelligence. Dr. Yadav is
Member of various research societies.

Dr. Jagdish Chand Bansal is Associate Professor at South Asian University, New
Delhi, and Visiting Faculty at Maths and Computer Science, Liverpool Hope Univer-
sity, UK. Dr. Bansal has obtained his Ph.D. in Mathematics from IIT Roorkee. Before
joining SAU, New Delhi, he has worked as Assistant Professor at ABV Indian Insti-
tute of Information Technology and Management Gwalior and BITS Pilani. His
primary area of interest is swarm intelligence and nature-inspired optimization tech-
niques. Recently, he proposed a fission–fusion social structure-based optimization
algorithm, spider monkey optimization (SMO), which is being applied to various
problems from engineering domain. He has published more than 60 research papers in
various international journals/conferences. He is Series Editor of the book series such
as Algorithms for Intelligent Systems (AIS) and Studies in Autonomic, Data-driven
and Industrial Computing (SADIC) published by Springer. He is Editor-in-Chief of
International Journal of Swarm Intelligence (IJSI) published by Inderscience. He is
also Associate Editor of IEEE ACESSS published by IEEE and ARRAY published
by Elsevier. He is Steering Committee Member and General Chair of the annual
conference series SocProS. He is General Secretary of Soft Computing Research
Society (SCRS). He has also received Gold Medal at UG and PG level.

Prof. Kusum Deep is Full Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Indian

Institute of Technology Roorkee, India, and Visiting Professor, Liverpool Hope
University, UK, and University of Technology Sydney, Australia. She has completed
About the Editors xv

her B.Sc. (Hons) and M.Sc. (Hons) from Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab Univer-
sity, Chandigarh. She is an M.Phil. Gold Medalist. She earned her Ph.D. from UoR
(now IIT Roorkee) in 1988. She has been a national scholarship holder and a postdoc-
toral from Loughborough University, UK assisted by International Bursary funded
by Commission of European Communities, Brussels. She has won numerous awards
like Khosla Research Award, UGC Career Award Starred Performer of IITR Faculty,
many best paper awards by Railway Bulletin of Indian Railways, special facilita-
tion in memory of late Professor M. C. Puri, and AIAP Excellence Award. She has
authored two books, supervised 20 Ph.Ds, and published 125 research papers. She
is Senior Member of IEEE, ORSI, CSI, IMS, and ISIM. She is Executive Editor of
International Journal of Swarm Intelligence, Inderscience. She is Associate Editor of
Swarm and Evolutionary Algorithms, Elsevier. She is on the editorial board of many
journals. She is Founder President of Soft Computing Research Society, India. She
is General Chair of series of International Conference on Soft Computing for Prob-
lems Solving (SocProS). Her research interests are evolutionary algorithms, swarm
Iitelligence, and nature-inspired optimization techniques and their applications.

Prof. Atulya K. Nagar holds Foundation Chair as Professor of Mathematical

Sciences and is Pro-Vice-Chancellor for Research at Liverpool Hope University,
United Kingdom. He has been Dean of the Faculty of Science and Head of the
School of Mathematics, Computer Science and Engineering which he established at
the University. He received a prestigious Commonwealth Fellowship for pursuing
his doctorate (D.Phil.) in Applied Nonlinear Mathematics, which he earned from
the University of York (UK) in 1996. He holds B.Sc. (Hons), M.Sc. (Mathematics),
and M.Phil. (with distinction) in Mathematical Physics from the MDS University of
Ajmer, India. Prior to joining Liverpool Hope, he was at the Department of Mathemat-
ical Sciences and later at the Department of Systems Engineering, at Brunel Univer-
sity, London. He is internationally respected Scholar working at the cutting edge
of theoretical computer science, applied mathematical analysis, and systems engi-
neering with his research expertise spanning both applied mathematics and compu-
tational methods for nonlinear, complex, and intractable problems arising in science,
engineering, and industry. He has edited volumes on Intelligent System, and Applied
Mathematics. He is Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Artificial Intelli-
gence and Soft Computing (IJAISC) and serves on editorial boards for a number of
prestigious journals. He is well published with over 450 publications in prestigious
publishing outlets. Professor Nagar sits on a number of strategic UK wide research
bodies including the JISC Research Strategy group, and he is Fellow of the Institute
of Mathematics and its Applications (FIMA) and Fellow of the Higher Education
Academy (FHEA).
Other documents randomly have
different content
situation of the Monacans and Mannahoacks among the hills of the back
country protected them in some measure, yet nothing but a union of these two
nations could assure them of security against their more powerful neighbors on
the coast.

The Powhatans proper, who gave their own appellation to the confederacy
of which they were leading members, were located in what is now Henrico
county, on the banks of the James river, and at the distance of about two days'
journey from the English settlement at its mouth. The principal chief—or
emperor, as the old historians style him—of the thirty tribes of the nation, was
found by the first colonists residing with these Indians, and is believed to have
been one of their number by birth. His proper name was Wahunsonacook. He
had that of Powhatan, by which he has been generally designated, from the
town so called, which was the chief seat and metropolis of his hereditary
dominions. This town is described as pleasantly situated on a hill. It consisted of
twelve houses; in front of which were three islets in the river, not far from what
in modern times has been called Mayo's plantation, and a little below the spot
where Richmond now stands. It was considered by the English both the
strongest and pleasantest place in the whole country; [FN] and was
consequently named Nonsuch, it seems, about two years after the settlement at
Jamestown, when it was purchased of the emperor by Smith. "The place is very
pleasant," says the captain in his history, "and strong by nature, and about it are
many corn fields."

[FN] Stith's History, p. 105.

The occasion of the first acquaintance which the colonists had with
Powhatan was as follows. The adventurous and ambitious spirit of Smith had
prompted him to make several journeys and voyages along the Virginia coast,
and into the interior of the country. Within a few months after the settlement of
Jamestown, among other tribes he discovered the Chickahominies, and procured
a large quantity of provision from them at a time when the colonists were in
great need of it.

But with the idle and unruly in the colony, this good fortune served only to
produce murmuring. They complained of his having done so little instead of
applauding him for having done so much; and some even of the council
undertook to say, that he ought to have followed up the Chickahominy river to
its source.
 Smith was not a man to submit tamely to reproach. He set off again,
therefore, in the winter of 1607-8, taking with him a crew sufficient to manage a
barge and a smaller boat proper for the navigation of the upper streams. He
ascended the Chickahominy with the barge, as far as it could be forced up, by
dint of great labor in cutting away trees and clearing a passage. Then leaving it
in a broad bay or cove, out of reach of the savages on the banks, the captain,
with two other whites, and two friendly Indians, proceeded higher up in the
smaller boat. Those who were left meanwhile in possession of the barge, were
ordered on no account to go on shore until his return. The order was disobeyed;
for he was scarcely out of sight and hearing, when the whole of the crew went
ashore. They were very near forfeiting their lives for their rashness. The Indians,
to the number of two or three hundred, lay wait for them among the woods on
the bank of the river, under the direction of Opechancanough, Sachem of the
Pamunkies and reputed brother of Powhatan. One George Cassen was taken
prisoner; and the savages soon compelled him to tell them which way Smith had
gone. They then put him to death in a cruel manner, and continued the pursuit.

The captain, meanwhile, little dreaming of any accident, had gone twenty
miles up the river, and was now among the marshes at its source. Here his
pursuers came suddenly upon the two English-men, who had hauled up their
boat, and lain down to sleep by a fire on the dry land, (while Smith himself went
out some distance to kill game with his musket for a supper.) The unfortunate
wretches were shot full of arrows and despatched. The savages then pressed on
after Smith, and at last overtook him. Finding himself beset by the multitude, he
coolly bound to his arm, with his garters, the young Indian who had attended
him as guide, for a buckler—(what had become of the other, does not appear)—
and received the enemy's onset so briskly with his fire-arms, that he soon laid
three of them dead on the spot, and wounded and galled many others so
effectually that none appeared anxious to approach him. He was himself
wounded slightly in the thigh, and had many arrows sticking in his clothes; but
he still kept the enemy at bay. His next movement was to endeavor to sheer off
to his boat; but taking more notice of his foe than his path, as he went, he
suddenly slipped up to his middle in an oozy creek. Hampered as he was in this
awkward position, not an Indian dared venture near him, until, finding himself
almost dead with cold, he threw away his arms and surrendered. Then drawing
him out, they carried him to the fire where his men had been slain, carefully
chafed his benumbed limbs, and finally restored him to the use of them.
 The incidents of the ensuing scene are a striking illustration both of the
sagacity of the prisoner and the simplicity of his captors. He called for their
chief—through the intervention of his Indian guide, we suppose—and
Opechancanough came forward. Smith presented him with a round ivory double
compass-dial, which he had carried at his side. The savages were confounded by
the playing of the fly and needle, especially as the glass prevented them from
touching what they could see so plainly. He then gave them a sort of
astronomical lecture, demonstrating "by that Globe-like Iewell," as he calls it,
the roundness of the earth, the skies, the sphere of the sun, moon and stars; "and
how the sunne did chase the night round about the world continually; the
greatnesse of the land and sea, the diversitie of nations, varietie of complexions,
and how we were to them antipodes, and many other such like matters," his
tawny auditors standing all the while motionless and dumb with amazement.

But within about an hour they returned to their original purpose of killing
him, as they had killed three of his comrades. He was tied to a tree, and the
savages drew up in a circle to shoot him. The arrow was already laid upon a
hundred bows. But at this moment Opechancanough held up the compass. This
was a signal of delay, if not of mercy, and they threw by their arms at once.
With great exultation and parade they then conducted the captive to Orapakes, a
hunting-residence of Powhatan, lying on the north side of Chickahominy
swamp, and much frequented by that Sachem and his family, on account of the
abundance of game it afforded. The order of procession was a proper Indian file.
Opechancanough, marching in the centre, had the English swords and muskets
carried before him as a trophy. Next followed Smith, led by three stout savages
who held him fast by the arm; while on either side six more marched in file,
with their arrows notched, as flank-guards.

On arriving at Orapakes, a village consisting of some thirty to forty mat-

houses, the women and children flocked out to gaze at a being so different from
any they had ever before seen. The warriors, on the other hand, immediately
began a grand war-dance, the best description of which is in Smith's own
language. "A good time they continued this exercise, and then cast themselues
in a ring dauncing in such severall postures, and singing and yelling out such
hellish notes and screeches; being strangely paynted, every one his quiver of
arrowes, and at his backe a club; on his arme a fox or an otter's skinne, or some
such matter for a vambrace; their heads and shoulders paynted red, with oyle
and pocones [FN] mingled together, which scarlet-like color made an exceeding
handsome shew; his bow in his hand, and the skinne of a bird with her wings
abroad dryed, tyed on his head; a peece of copper, a white shell, a long feather,
with a small rattle growing at the tayls of their snaks tyed, or some such like
toy." Thrice the performers stopped to take breath, and thrice they renewed the
dance—Smith and the Sachem meanwhile standing in the centre. The company
then broke up; and the prisoner was conducted to a long matted wigwam, where
thirty or forty tall stout savages remained about him as a guard. Ere long, more
bread and venison was brought him than would have served twenty men. "I
thinke," says the captain himself "his stomacke at that time was not very good."
He ate something, however, and the remainder was put into baskets, and swung
from the roof of the Wigwam over his head.

[FN] A small root which turned red by being dried and beat into powder. It was used also
for swellings, aches, anointing the joints after fatigue and exposure, and painting garments.
Beverly calls it puccoon.

About midnight these liberal provisioners set their fare before him again,
never tasting a morsel themselves all the while. But, in the morning, when they
brought in a fresh reinforcement, they ate the fragments of former meals, and
swung up the residue of the last one as before. So little reason had the captain to
complain of famine, that he began seriously to believe they were fatting him for
the slaughter. He suffered occasionally from the cold, and would have suffered
more but for an unexpected relief. An Indian, named Mocasseter, brought him
his goune, as Smith calls it—perhaps a fur mantle, or a blanket—and gave it to
him, professedly in requital of certain beads and toys which Smith had given
him at Jamestown, immediately after his arrival in Virginia. [FN]

[FN] A fine illustration of that principle of gratitude which is proverbially characteristic of

the Indians as their revenge, for similar reasons. No favor is wasted upon them, and no
injury or insult is forgiven. The anecdote following this in the text is an instance in point.

Two days afterwards, he was violently assaulted, and but for his guard
would have been killed, by an old Indian whose son had been wounded in the
skirmish which took place at his capture. They conducted him to the death-bed
of the poor wretch, where he was found breathing his last. Smith told them he
had a kind of water at Jamestown which might effect a cure, but they would not
permit him to go for it, and the subject was soon forgotten. Within a few days,
they began to make great preparations for assaulting the English Colony by
surprise. They craved Smith's advice and assistance in that proceeding, offering
him not only life and liberty for his services, but as much land or a settlement
and as many women for wives as he wanted—such an opinion had they formed
of his knowledge and prowess. He did every thing in his power to discourage
their design, by telling them of the mines, the cannon, and various other
stratagems and engines of war, used by the English. He could only succeed in
prevailing upon several of them to carry a note for him to Jamestown, (under
pretence of getting some toys,) in which he informed his countrymen of his own
situation and the intention of the savages, and requested them to send him
without fail by the bearers certain articles which he named. These were to be
deposited at a particular spot in the woods near Jamestown. The messengers
started off, we are told, in as severe weather as could be of frost and snow, and
arrived at Jamestown. There, seeing men sally out from the town to meet them,
as Smith had told them would be the case, they were frightened and ran off. But
the note was left behind; and so coming again in the evening, they found the
articles at the appointed place, and then returned homeward in such haste as to
reach Orapakes in three days after they had left it.

All thoughts of an attack upon the colony being now extinguished in the
astonishment and terror excited by the feats of Smith, they proceeded to lead
him about the country in show and triumph. First they carried him to the tribe
living on the Youghtanund, since called the Pamunkey river; then to the
Mattaponies, the Piankatunks, the Nantaughtacunds on the Rappahannoc, and
the Nominies on Potomac river. Having completed this route, they conducted
him, through several other nations, to Opechancanough's own habitation at
Pamunkey; where, with frightful howlings and many strange ceremonies, they
"conjured" him three days in order to ascertain, as they told him, whether he
intended them well or ill. [FN] An idea may be formed of these proceedings,
which took place under Opechancanough's inspection, from the exercises for
one day as described the captive himself.

[FN] Stith, p. 53.

Early in the morning, a great fire was made in a long house, and mats
spread upon each side of it, on one of which the prisoner was seated. His
bodyguard then left the house, "and presently came skipping in a great grim
fellow, paynted over with coale, mingled with oyle; and many snakes and
wesels skinnes stuffed with mosse, and all their tayles tyed together, so as they
met on the croune of his head in a tassell; and round about the tassell was a
coronet of feathers, the skinnes hanging round about his head, backe and
shoulders, and in a manner covered his face; with a hellish voyce and a rattle in
his hand." This personage commenced his invocation with a great variety of
gestures, postures, grimaces and exclamations; and concluded with drawing a
circle of meal round the fire. Then rushed in three more performers of the same
description, their bodies painted half red and half black, their eyes white and
their faces streaked with red patches, apparently in imitation of English
whiskers. These three having danced about for a considerable time, made way
for three more, with red eyes, and white streaks upon black faces. At length all
seated themselves opposite to the prisoner, three on the right hand of the first
named functionary (who appeared to be the chief priest, and ringleader) and
three on the left. Then a song was commenced, accompanied with a violent use
of the rattles; upon which the chief priest laid down five wheat-corns, [FN] and
began an oration, straining his arms and hands so that he perspired freely, and
his veins swelled. At the conclusion, all gave a groan of assent, laid down three
grains more, and renewed the song. This went on until the fire was twice
encircled. Other ceremonies of the same character ensued, and last of all was
brought on, towards evening, a plentiful feast of the best provisions they could
furnish. The circle of meal was said to signify their country, the circles of corn
the bounds of the sea, and so on. The world, according to their theory, was
round and flat, like a trencher, and themselves located precisely in the midst.

[FN] An inadvertency, we presume; or the words may be used rather loosely to signify
what had as yet no distinctive name. Indian corn must be meant.

After this, they showed Smith a bag of gun-powder, which had probably
been taken from the boat, and which they were carefully preserving till the next
spring, to plant with their corn—"because they would be acquainted with the
nature of that seede." Opitchipan, another brother of Powhatan—of whom we
have here the first mention—invited him to his house, and treated him
sumptuously; but no Indian, on this or any other occasion, would eat with him.
The fragments were put up in baskets; and upon his return to Opechancanough's
wigwam, the Sachem's wives and their children flocked about him for their
portions, "as a due by custom, to be merry with such fragments."

At last they carried him to Werowocomoco, where was Powhatan himself.

This residence of his, lay on the north side of York river, in Gloster county,
nearly opposite the mouth of Green's creek and about twenty-five miles below
the mouth of the river. It was at this time his favorite village, though afterwards,
not coveting the near neighborhood of the English, he retired to Orapakes.
Powhatan, which gave him his name, was sold to the English in 1609.

On his arrival in the village, Smith was detained until the emperor (as we
shall call him, for convenience,) and his train could prepare themselves to
receive their illustrious captive in proper state; and meanwhile more than two
hundred of these grim courtiers gathered about him to satisfy their curiosity
with gazing. He was then introduced to the royal presence, the multitude hailing
him with a tremendous shout, as he walked in. Powhatan—a majestic and finely
formed savage, with a marked countenance, and an air of haughtiness sobered
down into gravity by a life of sixty years—was seated before a fire, upon a seat
something like a bedstead, and clothed in an ample robe of Rarowcun [FN]
skins, with all the tails hanging over him. On each side sat a young wench of
sixteen or eighteen years old; and along each wall of the house, two rows of
women in the rear and two rows of men in front. All had their heads and
shoulders painted red. Many had their hair decked with the white down of birds.
Some wore a great chain of white beads about their necks. But no one was
without ornament of some kind.

[FN] A variation of Raccoon, perhaps.

Soon after Smith's entrance, a female of rank, said to be the queen of

Appamattuck, was directed to bring him water to wash his hands; and another
brought a bunch of feathers, to answer the purpose of a towel. Having then
feasted him (as he acknowledges) in the best barbarous manner they could, a
long and solemn consultation was held to determine his fate. The decision was
against him. The conclave resumed their silent gravity; two great stones were
brought in before Powhatan; and Smith was dragged before them, and his head
laid upon them, as a preparation for beating out his brains with clubs. The fatal
weapons were already raised, and the savage multitude stood silently awaiting
the prisoner's last moment. But Smith was not destined thus to perish.
Pocahontas, the beloved daughter of Powhatan, rushed forward, and earnestly
entreated with tears that the victim might yet be spared. The royal savage
rejected her request, and the executioners stood ready for the signal of death.
She knelt down, put her arms about Smith, and laid her head over his, declaring
she would perish with him or save him. The heart of the stern Sachem was at
length melted. The decree was reversed; and the prisoner was spared for the
purpose—as the emperor explained it—of making hatchets for himself, and
bells and beads for his daughter. [FN]
 [FN] This celebrated scene is preserved in a beautiful piece of sculpture, over the western
door of the Rotunda of the Capitol at Washington. The group consists of five figures,
representing the precise moment when Pocahontas, by her interposition, saved Smith from
being executed. Smith is attired in the military dress, reclining on his elbow, his body
extended, ready to receive the death-blow from the war-mace of an Indian who stands near
his head. This is the work we believe, of Capellano, an Italian pupil of Canova.

This was apparently a mere pretext for concealing the emotions which he
thought unworthy of his name as a warrior, and for preventing any jealousy on
the part of his counselors. And subsequent events would lead to the same
conclusion. He detained his prisoner but two days. At the end of that time, he
caused him to be conducted to a large house in the woods, and there left alone
upon a mat by the fire. In a short time, a horrible noise was heard from behind a
wide mat which divided the house; and then Powhatan, dressed in the most
fantastic manner, with some two hundred followers as much begrimed and
disguised as himself; came in and told Smith that now they were friends; "and
presently he should go to Jamestown to send him two great guns and a
grindstone, for which he would give him the country of Capahowsick, and
forever esteem him as his own son." He was accordingly sent off with twelve
guides, to Jamestown. The party quartered in the woods one night, and reached
the fort the next morning betimes. The savages were handsomely entertained
while they staid. Two demi-culverins and mill-stone were shown them, with
other curiosities. They proposed to carry the former to Powhatan; but finding
them somewhat too heavy, contented themselves with a variety of lighter
presents. They were excessively frightened by a discharge of the culverins.—
Smith, who had political as well as personal motives in view, had loaded them
with stones, and these he fired among the boughs of a tree covered with huge
icicles. The effect may easily be imagined.

During the same winter, Smith visited Powhatan, in company with Captain
Newport, a gentleman newly arrived from England, who had already sent many
presents to the emperor. Attended by a guard of thirty or forty men, they sailed
as far as Werowocomoco the first day. Here Newport's courage failed him. He
was especially alarmed by the appearance of various bridges they were obliged
to pass over in crossing the streams; for these were so loosely made of poles and
bark, that he took them for traps set by the savages. But Smith, with twenty
men, leaving the boat, undertook to go forward and accomplish the journey. He
accordingly went on, and was soon met by two or three hundred Indians, who
conducted them into the town. There Powhatan exerted himself to the utmost to
give him a royal entertainment. The people shouted for joy to see Smith;
orations were addressed to him; and a plentiful feast provided to refresh him
after the weariness of his voyage. The emperor received him, reclining upon his
bed of mats, his pillow of dressed skin lying beside him with its brilliant
embroidery of shells and beads, and his dress consisting chiefly of a handsome
fur robe "as large as an Irish mantell." At his head and feet were two comely
young women as before; and along the sides of the house sat twenty other
females, each with her head and shoulders painted red and a great chain of
white beads about her neck. "Before these sat his chiefest men in like order in
his arbor-like house, and more than fortie platters of fine bread stood as a guard
in two pyles on each side the door. Foure or fiue hundred people made a guard
behinde them for our passage; and Proclamation was made, none vpon paine of
death to presume to doe vs any wrong or discourtesie. With many pretty
discourses to renew their old acquaintance, this great King and our captaine
spent the time, till the ebbe left our barge aground. Then renewing their feest
with feates, dauncing and singing, and such like mirth, we quartered that night
with Powhatan." [FN]

[FN] Smith's History, Richmond Edition, p. 167.

The next day, Newport, who had thought better of his fears, came ashore,
and was welcomed in the same hospitable style. An English boy, named Savage,
was given to Powhatan at his request; and he returned the favor by presenting
Newport with an Indian named Nomontack, a trusty and shrewd servant of his
own. One motive for this arrangement was probably the desire of gaining
information respecting the English colony. During the three or four days more
which were passed in feasting, dancing and trading, the old Sachem manifested
so much dignity and so much discretion, as to create a high admiration of his
talents in the minds of his guests. In one instance, he came near offending them
by the exercise of his shrewdness, although that may be fairly considered their
fault rather than his.

Newport, it seems, had brought with him a variety of articles for a barter
commerce—such as he supposed would command a high price in corn. And
accordingly the Powhatans, generally of the lower class, traded eagerly with
him and his men. These, however, were not profitable customers; they dealt
upon a small scale; they had not much corn to spare. It was an object therefore
to drive a trade, with the emperor himself. But this he affected to decline and
despise. "Captain Newport," said he, "it is not agreeable to my greatness to
truck in this peddling manner for trifles. I am a great Werowance, [FN] and I
esteem you the same. Therefore lay me down all your commodities together;
what I like I will take, and in return you shall have what I conceive to be a fair
value." This proposal was interpreted to Newport by Smith, who informed him
at the same time of the hazard he must incur in accepting it. But Newport was a
vain man, and confidently expected either to dazzle the emperor with his
ostentation, or overcome him with his bounty, so as to gain any request he might
make. The event unluckily proved otherwise. Powhatan, after coolly selecting
such of Newport's goods as he liked best, valued his own corn at such a rate,
that Smith says it might as well have been purchased in old Spain; they received
scarcely four bushels where they had counted upon twenty hogsheads.

[FN] A Powhatan term of general signification, answering to Northern Sachem, the

Basheba of Maine, and the English Chief.

It was now Smith's turn to try his skill; and he made his experiment, more
wisely than his comrade, not upon the sagacity of the emperor but upon his
simplicity. He took out various toys and gewgaws, as it were accidentally, and
contrived, by glancing them dexterously in the light, to show them to great
advantage. It was not long before Powhatan fixed his observing eye upon a
string of brilliant blue beads. Presently he became importunate to obtain them.
But Smith was very unwilling to part with these precious gems; they being, as
he observed, composed of a most rare substance, of the color of the skies, and
fit to be worn only by the greatest kings in the world. The savage grew more
and more eager to own such jewels, so that finally a bargain was struck, to the
perfect satisfaction of all parties, whereby Smith obtained between two and
three hundred bushels of corn for a pound or two of blue beads. A similar
negotiation was immediately after effected with Opechancanough at Pamunkey.
He was furnished with a quantity of this invaluable jewelry at very nearly the
same price; and thus the beads grew into such estimation among the Indians far
and near, that none but the great werowances, and their wives and children,
dared to be seen wearing them. They were imperial symbols of enormous value.

But it was not upon beads only that Powhatan set a high estimate. He
perceived the vast advantage which the English possessed over his own men in
their weapons; and he became exceedingly anxious to place himself upon equal
terms on one side with the colonists, while he should domineer over the less
fortunate foreign Indian tribes, as he liked, on the other. When Newport left the
country for England, he sent him twenty fine turkeys, and requested in return
the favor of as many swords, which that gentleman was inconsiderate enough to
furnish him. He subsequently passed the same compliment to Smith; and when
the latter gave him no swords in payment, he was highly offended, and is said to
have ordered his people to take them wherever they could get them, by
stratagem or by force. But Smith soon checked this project in his usual
summary manner; and Powhatan, finding that game a desperate one, sent in
Pocahontas with presents, to excuse himself for the injury done "by some of his
disorderly warriors," and to desire that those who were captive might be
liberated for this time on their good behavior. Smith punished them sufficiently,
and granted the request of the emperor "for the sake of Pocahontas." The
council were offended at what they considered his cruelty; but Powhatan
affected at least to be satisfied.

We hear of the emperor again in September, (1608,) when Captain

Newport arrived with a second supply for the colony, and a new commission for
himself. By this he was authorized to make an exploring expedition, for gold,
among the Monacans of the mountain country; and a barge was brought out
from England in five pieces, to be carried over the hills, and thence convey the
company to the South Sea. Smith opposed this sage proposition on the ground
of the necessities of the colony; they were especially in want of provision to be
laid in for the coming winter. But a large majority were against him. He was
even accused of jealousy towards Newport; and the latter defeated all his
opposition, as he thought, by undertaking to procure a bark-load of corn from
Powhatan, on his proposed route to the South Sea, at Werowocomoco. He
required, however, that one hundred and twenty men should go with him; he put
no confidence in the friendship of the emperor or his subjects.

Smith now came forward, and volunteered to carry the necessary messages
to Powhatan himself, and to invite him to visit Jamestown, for the purpose of
receiving the presents brought over for him by Newport. Among these, it
appears, were a splendid basin and ewer, a bed, bedstead, clothes, and various
other costly novelties; the only effect of which would be, as Smith alleged, to
cause the emperor to overrate the importance of his own favor, and to sell for
gold and silver alone what he had heretofore sold readily for copper and blue
beads. Another of the presents was a royal crown, sent out by his Britannic
Majesty King James I. probably under the expectation of wheedling Powhatan
into submission to his own authority, and at all events with orders to consecrate
the "divine right" of his royal ally in Virginia by the ceremonies of a solemn
coronation.
 Smith took with him four companions only, and went across the woods, by
land, about twelve miles, to Werowocomoco. Powhatan was then absent, at the
distance of twenty or thirty miles. Pocahontas immediately sent for him, and
meanwhile she and her women entertained their visitor in a style too remarkable
to be passed by without notice. A fire was made in a plain open field, and Smith
was seated before it on a mat, with his men about him. Suddenly such a hideous
noise was heard in the woods near by, that the strangers betook themselves
hastily to their arms, and even seized upon two or three old Indians who were
standing near, under the apprehension that Powhatan with all his forces was
come upon them by surprise. But Pocahontas soon made her appearance; and a
little explanation convinced the captain that, however she might succeed or fail,
her only intention was to gratify and honor him. He mingled fearlessly therefore
with the Indian men, women and children, already assembled as spectators, and
the ceremonies went on.

"Then presently they were presented with this anticke. Thirtie young
women came naked out of the woods, only couered behind and before with a
few greene leaves; their bodies all paynted, some of one colour, and some of
another but all differing. Their leader had a fayre payre of Buck's hornes on her
head, and an Otter's skinne at her girdle, another at her arme, a quiuer of
arrowes at her backe, a bow and arrowes in her hand. The next had in her hand a
sword, another a club, another a pot-sticke, all horned alike; the rest euery one
with their severall devises. These fiends, with most hellish shouts and cryes,
rushing from among the trees, caste themselves in a ring about the fire, singing
and dauncing with the most excellent ill varietie, oft falling into their infernall
passions, and solemnly again to sing and daunce. Having spent neer an hour in
this mascarado, as they entred, in like manner they departed."

"Having reaccomodated themselves, they solemnly invited him to their

lodgings, where he was no sooner within the house but all these nymphs more
tormented him than euer, with crowding, pressing and hanging about him, most
tediously crying, Loue you not me? Loue you not me? This salutation ended, the
feast was set, consisting of all the salvage dainties they could deuise; some
attending, others singing and dauncing about them. This mirth being ended,
with fire-brands instead of torches they conducted him to his lodging.
"Thus did they show their feates of armes, and other art in dauncing;
Some others vs'd there oaten pipe, and others' voyces chaunting."
 Powhatan arrived on the following day, and Smith delivered his message,
desiring him to visit "his father," Newport, at Jamestown, for the purpose of
receiving the newly arrived presents, and also concerting a campaign in
common against the Monacans. The subtle savage replied to this artful proposal
with his accustomed intelligence and independence. "If your king has sent me
presents," said he with great composure, "I also am a king, and this is my land
—Here I will stay eight days to receive them. Your Father is to come to me, not
I to him, nor yet to your fort. I will not bite at such a bait. As for the Monacans,
I can avenge my own injuries. As for Atquanachuck, where you say your
brother was slain, it is a contrary way from those parts you suppose it. And as
for any salt water beyond the mountains, the relations you have had from my
people are false." Upon this he began to delineate the geography of these
various regions with a stick upon the ground. After some farther discourse upon
general and complimentary subjects, Smith returned with his answer. His
servant, Nomontack, who had been to England with Newport, was given back to
him upon this occasion.

The presents were sent round to Werowocomoco, by water; and the two
captains went by land, with a guard of fifty men. The parties here agreed upon
the next day for the coronation; and at that time the presents were brought in,
the bed and furniture set up, and the scarlet cloak and other apparel put on the
emperor, though with much ado, and only in consequence of Nomontack's
earnest assurance that they would not injure him. As for kneeling to receive the
crown, which was requested of him, he entirely exhausted the patience of his
visitors by his resistance. They gained their point in the end by stratagem. One
leaned hard upon his shoulders, so as to cause him to stoop a little, and three
more stood ready to fix the royal gewgaw on his head; whereupon, at the
discharge of a pistol, the guard were prepared with such a volley of musketry as
a salute, that the emperor (now a crowned-head at least) started up, as Smith
says, in a horrible fear till he saw all was well. Soon recovering his composure,
he generously gave his old shoes and mantle to Newport in acknowledgment of
his courtesy. But perceiving that the main object of that gentleman was to
discover the Monacans, he labored to divert his resolution, and absolutely
refused to lend any of his own men excepting Nomontack. Every thing was said
and done civilly, however; and, before leaving, Newport was presented with a
heap of corn-ears to the amount of seven or eight bushels, in farther return for
his politeness and his presents.
 For some time after this, little was heard of Powhatan except occasionally
through the medium of some of his tribes, who are said to have refused trading
with the English in consequence of his orders to that effect. He had become
jealous of them, it would seem; and Smith, on the other hand, reciprocated so
much of his ill humor, that he at one time thought of falling upon him by
surprise, and taking away all his stores. But appearances were still kept up on
both sides; and in December, (1608) the emperor invited the captain to visit him
—he wanted his assistance in building a house, and if he would bring with him
a grindstone, fifty swords, a few muskets, a cock and a hen, with a quantity of
beads and copper, he might depend upon getting a ship-load of corn. Smith,
always ready for an adventure, accepted the invitation, and set off with a
pinnace and two barges, manned by forty-six volunteers. The expedition was
considered so hazardous that many excused themselves from going, after having
engaged to do so; though all knew that if any thing was to be had, Smith was
not the man to return disappointed.

Commencing his voyage on the 29th of the month, with victualling for
three or four days, he lodged the first night at Warrasqueake. The chief Sachem
at this place, being friendly, did all in his power to dissuade the captain from
pursuing his journey. "Powhatan will use you kindly," said he, "but he has sent
for you only to cut your throat. Trust him not, and give him no opportunity to
seize upon your arms." The next night and several more were passed at
Kekoughtan, where the English were detained by a severe storm, but found
merry cheer, and good fires. The colonists who were in the habit of traveling
with Smith had learned hardihood. "They were not curious in any weather, (he
informs us,) to lye three or foure nights together vnder the trees." They liked
hunting too as they marched, and here was a fine opportunity; "an hundred
fortie eight foules, the President, Anthony Bagnall, and Serieant Pising did kill
at three shoots." It was the 12th of January when they reached Werowocomoco.

They went ashore, quartered without much ceremony at the first house they
found, and sent to Powhatan for a supply of provisions. They were promptly
furnished with plenty of bread, venison and turkeys. Their liberal host feasted
them again the next day; but not without inquiring, at the close of the
entertainment, when they proposed to go home, insinuating that the pleasure of
their company was wholly unexpected, and that he and his people had very little
corn—though for forty swords he thought forty baskets might be collected. In
reply, Smith asked if he had forgotten his own invitation thus suddenly; and
then produced the messengers who had carried it, and who happened to be near
at hand. The emperor affected to regard the affair as a mere joke, and laughed
heartily. Smith then proposed trade; but Powhatan would take nothing but guns
and swords, and valued a basket of corn higher than a basket of copper. The
captain was nettled, and spoke his mind boldly and without reserve, giving the
emperor to understand withal, that necessity might force him to use disagreeable
expedients for relieving his own wants and the need of the colony.

Powhatan listened to this declaration with cool gravity, and replied with a
corresponding frankness "I will spare you what I can," said he, "and that within
two days. But, Captain Smith, I have some doubts as to your object in this visit.
I am informed that you wish to conquer more than to trade, and at all events you
know my people must be afraid to come near you with their corn, so long as you
go armed and with such a retinue. Lay aside your weapons then. Here they are
needless. We are all friends, all Powhatans." The information alluded to here
was probably gathered from two or three Germans, who had deserted the colony
and gone among the Indians.

A great contest of ingenuity now ensued between the Englishman and the
savage—the latter apparently endeavoring to temporise only for the purpose of
putting the former and his men on their guard. He especially insisted on the
propriety of laying aside their arms. "Captain Smith," he continued, "I am old,
and I know well the difference between peace and war. I wish to live quietly
with you, and wish the same for my successors. Now the rumors which reach
me on all hands make me uneasy. What do you expect to gain by destroying us
who provide you with food? And what can you get by war, if we escape you and
hide our provisions in the woods? We are unarmed too, you see. Do you believe
me such a fool as not to prefer eating good meat, sleeping quietly with my
wives and children, laughing and making merry with you, having copper and
hatchets and any thing else—as your friend—to flying from you as your enemy,
lying cold in the woods, eating acorns and roots, and being so hunted by you
meanwhile, that if but a twig break, my men will cry out there comes Captain
Smith. Let us be friends, then. Do not invade us thus with such an armed force.
Lay aside these arms."

The captain answered this speech, and several others to the same effect,
until, either seeing or supposing that the emperor's object was hostile, he gave
secret orders for hauling his boat ashore through the ice, and landing those of
his company who still remained aboard. He also attempted to detain Powhatan
with the delivery of divers rigmarole harangues; but the latter was not to be so
easily outwitted. He introduced two or three women to sustain a sharp
conversation with the enemy, and suddenly availed himself of that opportunity
to leave the house, with all his attendants and luggage. In a few minutes Smith
found himself surrounded with Indians; and thereupon, we are told, "with his
pistoll, sword and target, hee made such a passage among these naked Diuils,
that at his first shoot those next him tumbled one over another." The rest fled in
all directions.

Powhatan was not yet discouraged. His men again flocked about Smith
with civil explanations of every thing which had happened; and he himself sent
him a large and handsome bracelet by the hand of one of his chief orators, with
a speech full of compliments and excuses. Baskets were furnished for carrying
the corn which had been sold aboard the boat; and the Indians even offered their
services to guard the arms of the English, while they were taking care of the
provisions. This favor was declined; but as the English were still under the
necessity of waiting for the tide of the next morning, no pains were spared to
entertain them with feasts and sports meanwhile. Smith supposes that the
Sachem was all this time preparing his forces for surprising them at supper. He
probably conjectured right; and but for Pocahontas there is reason to believe
that this game would actually have succeeded. The kind-hearted princess came
to Smith's quarters in the woods, alone and in the evening, and earnestly advised
him by all means to leave her father's territories as soon as possible. The latter
was collecting all his power, she said, to make an assault upon him, unless those
who were sent with his supper should themselves succeed in despatching him.

In less than an hour afterwards came eight or ten lusty fellows, with great
platters of venison and other victuals, who were importunate that the English
should extinguish their matches, the smoke of which they affected to think very
disagreeable. The captain, without noticing this circumstance, made them taste
every dish, and then sent some of them back to tell Powhatan that the English
were ready to see him; as for themselves, he understood their villainy, but they
should go free. Other messengers came in soon after, at intervals, to learn how
matters went on. The night was spent without sleep on either side. Each party
watched the movements of the other with vigilant eyes, while both were subtle
and civil enough still to affect friendship. At high water, Smith went off with his
company, leaving with the emperor, at his own request, an Englishman to kill
game for him, and two or three of the Germans to assist him in building a house.

But the game was not yet over. He had no sooner set sail for Pamunkey,
than the emperor despatched a deputation across the woods to Jamestown, to
take advantage of his absence for buying up a quantity of ammunition and arms.
On arriving, these messengers told Captain Winne, the temporary commander of
the colony, "that their comming was for some extraordinary tooles and shift of
apparell; by which colourable excuse they obtained sixe or seuen more [of the
colonists] to their confederacie, such expert theeues, that presently furnished
them with a great many swords, pike-heads, peeces, shot, powder and such
like." [FN] Indians enough were at hand to carry away the articles as soon as
obtained; and the next day, the deputation returned home unsuspected, after
making an agreement for the services of such traitorous vagabonds as were
willing to desert from the colony. One or two of those who had deserted already,
had provided Powhatan with as many as three hundred hatchets, fifty swords,
eight "pieces" and eight pikes.

[FN] Smith's History, p. 213.

Meanwhile, Smith had arrived at Pamunkey, and here Opechancanough

was entertaining him with all manner of feasting and mirth. On the day agreed
upon between the parties for commencing trade, the captain, with fifteen of his
men, went up a quarter of a mile from the river to the Sachem's house, the
appointed rendezvous. He found no person there, excepting a lame man and a
boy. The other houses in the village were entirely abandoned. Presently,
however, came the Sachem, followed by many of his subjects, well armed with
bows and arrows. Attempts were made to buy corn, but so unsuccessfully that
Smith was provoked, and remonstrated as he had done with Powhatan. Upon
this, the Sachem sold what provision was at hand, and promised to give better
satisfaction the next day.

Then, accordingly, Smith made his appearance again. He found four or five
men at the house with great baskets, but whether with any thing in them does
not appear. Opechancanough himself came in soon after, and commenced a
cheerful conversation, enlarging particularly upon the pains he had taken to
keep his promise. Just at this moment one of Smith's company brought him
word that the house was beset. The woods and fields all around him were
thronged with more than seven hundred savages, armed and painted for battle.

The English, of whom there were only fifteen on shore, were generally
much alarmed at this news, and could easily perceive that Opechancanough
enjoyed their surprise. But Smith was now in his element. "My worthy
countrymen," said he to his trembling comrades, "Had I no more to fear from
my friends, than from these enemies, I should be willing to meet twice as many
—would you but second me. But what course shall be taken? If we begin with
them, and seize the king, we shall have more than our hands full to keep him
and defend ourselves. If we kill them all, we must starve for want of their
provisions. As for their fury, that is the least subject of apprehension. You know
I have heretofore managed two or three hundreds of them alone. Now here are
sixteen of us, to their seven hundred. If you dare stand but to fire your pieces the
very smoke will be enough for them. But at all events let us fight like men, and
not die like sheep. First, however, let me propose some conditions to them, and
so we shall have something to fight for." The occasion admitting of no
argument, the company pledged themselves promptly to second him in whatever
he attempted, or die.

The captain then advanced towards the Sachem, and addressed him.
"Opechancanough," said he, "I perceive you are plotting to murder me, but I
fear you not. As yet neither your men nor mine have done much harm. Now
therefore take your arms—as you see here are mine—my body shall be as naked
as yours—the island in the river is a fit place for a combat, and the conqueror of
us two, shall be master of all. If you have not men enough about you, take time
to muster more—has many as you will—only let everyone bring his basket of
corn, and against that I will stake the value in copper."

The Sachem replied very soothingly to this proposal. He was sorry to see
any suspicion of unkindness; and begged that the captain would do him the
honor to accept a handsome present, (by way of peace-offering,) which was
ready for him at the door of the house. The object of this suggestion was
sufficiently obvious; for besides the forty or fifty Indians constituting the
Sachem's body-guard within, "the bait," as Smith calls it, at the door, (meaning
the present) was guarded by about two hundred men, and thirty more were
stationed behind a large tree which lay lengthwise athwart the passage-way with
their arrows ready notched. It was now Smith's turn to make a movement. He
seized the Sachem in the midst of his retinue, by his long locks, presenting a
pistol ready-cocked at his bosom; and in this position led him out trembling
with terror, among the multitude who surrounded the house. He immediately
gave up his vambrace, bow and arrows, and his frightened subjects hastened to
follow his example.

"I perceive, ye Pamunkies"—shouted the captain at this moment, still

holding on by the Sachem's hair—"I perceive how eager ye are to kill me. My
own long suffering is the cause of your insolence. Now shoot but one arrow to
shed one drop of blood for one of these men, or steal but the least of these
beads, and ye shall not hear the last of me so long as a Pamunkey remains alive
who will not deny the name. I am not now in the mire of a swamp, ye perceive.
Shoot then, if ye dare. But at all hazards ye shall load my boat with your corn,
or I will load her with your carcasses. Still, unless you give me the first
occasion, we may be friends, and your king may go free. I have no wish to harm
him or you."

This speech had its effect. The savages laid aside their arms, and brought in
their commodities for trade in such abundance, that the English at length
became absolutely weary of receiving them. Once indeed, in the course of the
day, some forty or fifty stout fellows made a violent rush into the house when
Smith was asleep, and some two hundred more followed close after them; but
by Smith's usual activity they were soon driven back, and then the Sachem sent
some of his ancients, or counselors, to excuse the intrusion. The rest of the day
passed in harmony, and towards night the captain began his return-voyage down
the river, leaving the Sachem at liberty. Various attempts were made to surprise
him on the route, and he was at one time near being poisoned to death in his
food. On the other hand, Smith was determined not to go home without his
revenge upon Powhatan. He returned by way of Werowocomoco for the purpose
of seizing him; but he found, when he reached that village, that the traitorous
Germans had caused the emperor to abandon his new house, and carry off all his
family and provision. Those of the Powhatans who remained, treated the
English so indifferently, that the latter had much ado to escape with their lives.
They finally reached Jamestown after an absence of six weeks, with a cargo of
four hundred and seventy-nine bushels of corn and two hundred pounds of deer-
suet, that entire amount having been purchased for twenty-five pounds of
copper and fifty pounds of iron and beads.
 CHAPTER II.

Conduct of Powhatan after Smith's departure for England, and causes of it—Hostilities
resumed—Peace finally effected by the capture of Pocahontas—Manner of gaining this
point—Marriage of Pocahontas with John Rolfe—Death and character of Powhatan—His
person, manner of living, talents, influence. His method and means of warfare—The
discipline of his warriors—The manner in which he availed himself of the English arms
and science—Causes of his hostility towards the colonists—His dignity—Shrewdness—
Independence—Courtesy—Liberality— Simplicity—Affection for his relatives—A review
of various opinions entertained of him by various historians.

From the date of the expedition of which the particulars have just been
given, to the time of Smith's departure for England, a few months subsequent,
the English and the Powhatans treated and traded with each other upon tolerably
amicable terms. A principal cause of this harmony is to be looked for in several
fortunate incidents which went to impress the savage simplicity of one party
with an inordinate conception of the superiority of the other.

Soon after the return of the expedition, several articles were stolen at
Jamestown by one of the Chickahominy Indians who traded there; and a pistol
among the rest. The thief fled, but two of his brothers, suspected of being
accessories in the case, were apprehended. One of them was discharged, to go in
search of the offender; and the other was imprisoned, with the understanding
that unless the former should be successful in his search within twelve hours, he
was to be hanged. But for his comfort during that interval, Smith furnished him
with victuals, and charcoal for a fire. In the evening, the man who had been
discharged, returned with the pistol; but the poor fellow in the dungeon was
meanwhile very nearly smothered with the smoke of his coal. Those who came
to release him took him up for dead. "The other most lamentably bewayled his
death, and broke forth into such bitter agonies that the President [Smith] to quiet
him, told him that if he would steale no more, he would make him [his brother]
alive again; but he little thought he could be recovered. Yet we doing our best
with aqua Vita and Vinegar, it pleased God to restore him againe to life, but so
drunke and affrighted that he seemed lunaticke, the which as much tormented
and grieued the other, as before to see him dead. Of this maladie, vpon promise
of their good behavour, the President promised to recover him; and so caused
him to be layd by a fire to sleepe, who in the morning having well slept had
recovered his perfect senses, and then being dressed of his burning, and each a
peece of copper given them, they went away so well contented that this was
spread among all the savages for a miracle, that Captain Smith could make a
man alive that was dead" [FN]

[FN] Smith's History, p. 226.

Another of the incidents just alluded to is as follows. One of Powhatan's

subjects, in his zeal to acquire knowledge and some other things, obtained
possession of a large bag of gun-powder and the backe, as Smith calls it, of an
armour. This ingenious artisan, on his return to Werowocomoco, determined to
display these precious prizes to his wondering country-men, and at the same
time to exhibit his own extraordinary skill in the management of them. He
therefore began drying the powder upon the armour, as he had seen the soldiers
do at Jamestown. Unluckily, he dried it too much. An explosion took, place,
which blew up the proprietor, together with one or two of the spectators who
were peeping over his shoulders. Several others were badly scorched, and all
horribly frightened; and for some time after powder fell into a general disuse
with the savages, much to the benefit of the English.

These and other similar accidents, we are told, so affrighted Powhatan and
his people, that they came in from every quarter with proffers of peace. Several
stolen articles were returned, the loss of which had never before been
discovered; and whenever an Indian was convicted of theft, wherever he might
be found, he was promptly sent in to Jamestown for his punishment. Not long
afterwards we find that "so affraide was al those kings and the better sort of the
people to displease vs [the colonists] that some of the baser sort that we haue
extreamely hurt and punished for their villianies, would hire vs we should not
tell it to their kings or countrymen, who would also punish them, and yet returne
them to Iames-Toune to content the President for a testimony of their loues."

Still, the prowess and the name of Smith himself were the best
preservatives of peace; and he had scarcely left the country for England when
matters relapsed into their worst state. About thirty of the English were cut off
by Powhatan's men at one time; and of a population of six hundred left in the
colony at Smith's departure, there remained at the end of six months only sixty
men, women and children. These were subsisted chiefly upon roots, herbs,
acorns, walnuts, berries and now and then a little fish. The skins of horses, and
even considerable quantities of starch, were used for food. Others went so far as
to disinter and devour the body of an Indian who had been slain and buried. One
man killed his wife, "powdered her," and had eaten a part of her before it was
known. The poor wretch was hanged for his horrible deed of despair.

Peace was finally effected with Powhatan through the intervention, or

rather by the mere medium of Pocahontas, in the following manner. Early in
1613, [FN-1] two ships arrived at Jamestown with supplies for the colony.
These being insufficient, Captain Argall, who commanded one of them, was
sent up the Potomac river to trade with the natives for corn. Here Argall formed
a particular acquaintance with Japazaws, the chief sachem of the Potomacs or
Patawomekes, and always a stanch friend of the English. He informed the
captain, among other things, that Pocahontas was at this time in his territories,
and not far distant, keeping herself in seclusion, and known only to a few trusty
friends. What were the reasons which induced her thus to forsake her father's
dominions for a foreigner's, does not appear. Stith supposes it was to withdraw
herself from being a witness of the frequent butcheries of the English, whose
folly and rashness, after Smith's departure, put it out of her power to save them.
And very probably, as a later historian suggests, [FN-2] she had already
incurred the displeasure of the emperor by these repeated and futile though
highly honorable attempts.

[FN-1] This date is mentioned by all the Virginian historians; but Prince, in his Annals,
says that the voyage took place a year afterwards. Belknap (Am. Biog.) is of same opinion.

[FN-2] Burk's History of Virginia, Vol. I. p. 167.

But whatever her motives might be, Argall had no sooner received
intelligence of her situation, than he resolved on obtaining possession of her
person, as a means—which he had no doubt the colony would thank him for—
of effecting a peace with Powhatan. Japazaws seems to have been a well-
meaning and honest fellow in general; but the temptation of a large new copper
kettle, which Argall held out before him as the promised recompense for his aid
and abettance in the case—the consideration of the praiseworthy object
proposed to be accomplished by the measure—and last though not least of all,
the captain's pledge that Pocahontas should not be harmed while in his custody,
were sufficient to overcome his scruples. The next thing in order was to induce
the princess—as this amiable and talented Indian female has generally been
styled to go on board Argall's boat. To that end, Japazaws, who had himself seen
many of the English vessels before this, induced his wife to affect an extreme
curiosity upon the subject, so intolerably importunate that he finally threatened
to beat her. The good woman on the other hand actually accomplished a few
tears. This happened in the presence of Pocahontas, and the scene was
frequently repeated, until at last Japazaws, affecting to be subdued by the
manifest affliction of his wife, reluctantly gave her permission to visit the
vessel, provided that Pocahontas would have the politeness to go with her.

The princess, always complaisant, and unable to witness any longer the
apparent distress of her kind friend and hostess, consented to go on board the
ship. There they were civilly welcomed, and first entertained in the cabin. The
captain then found an opportunity to decoy Pocahontas into the gun-room, on
pretence of conferring there with Japazaws, but really because the kind-hearted
Sachem, who had received ere this the brilliant wages of his sin, and began
perhaps to relent, was unwilling to be known by the princess to have been
concerned in the plot against her liberty. When Argall told her, in his presence,
that she must go with him to the colony, and compound a peace tween her father
and the English, she wept indeed in the bitterness of her soul; as for Japazaws
and his wife, they absolutely howled with inconsolable and inconceivable
affliction. But the princess recovered her composure on finding herself treated
with kindness; and while she turned her face towards the English colony, (which
she had not seen since Smith's departure) with something even like cheerfulness
at the prospect of doing good, her distressed guardian and his pliant spouse with
their copper kettle filled with toys, trudged merrily back to their own wigwam.

On Argall's arrival at Jamestown, a message was immediately despatched

to Powhatan, "that his daughter Pocahontas he loued so dearly, he must ransom
with our men, swords, peeces, tooles, &c., hee trecherously had stolen." [FN]
This was not so complimentary or soothing as might have been imagined, it
must be allowed (—the courtesy of Smith was no longer in the colony—) and
this perhaps was the reason why, much as the unwelcome news of his daughter's
captivity is said to have troubled him, he sent no answer to the message for the
space of three months. Then, at the further persuasion of the council of
Jamestown, he liberated and sent in seven of his English prisoners, with three
rusty unserviceable muskets, an axe, a saw, and one canoe laden with corn.
They were instructed to say that if Pocahontas should be given up, he would
make satisfaction for all the injuries he had done, conclude a perpetual peace,
and send in a bonus of five hundred bushels of corn. To this the council replied
that his daughter, though they would use her well, could not be restored to him
until all the English arms and captives in his possession should be delivered
back to the owners. They did not believe, what he or some of his men had
asserted, that these arms had been lost, or that the whites who remained with
him were free volunteers in his service.

[FN] Smith's History, Vol. II. p. 14.

This ungracious message was no more conciliating than the former; nor
was any thing more seen or heard of the emperor until the spring of 1614, when
a party of one hundred and fifty colonists, well armed, went up his own river to
Werowocomoco, taking Pocahontas with them. The Powhatans received them
with scornful bravadoes, proudly demanding the purpose of this new invasion.
The English answered, that they had brought the emperor's daughter, and that
they expected the proper ransom for her, either peaceably or by force. The
Powhatans rejoined, that if they came to fight, they were welcome, and should
be treated as Captain Ratcliffe [FN] had been. Upon this the English said they
would have a more civil answer at least, and forthwith commenced making
rapidly for the shore in their small boats, the Indians having about the same time
begun to let fly their arrows among them. They effected a landing, and burned
and destroyed every thing they could find. The next day they sailed farther up
the river; and meeting with a fresh party of Powhatans, after some altercation
and explanation, a truce was concluded, and messengers were promised to be
sent off for the emperor. This was probably a mere feint. It was also stated, that
the English captives or deserters had run off for fear of being hanged by their
countrymen. As for the swords and pieces, they were to be brought in the next
day. But nothing was seen of them, and the English proceeded till they came to
a residence of Powhatan (called Matchot) where were collected about four
hundred of his warriors, well armed. These men challenged the English to land;
and when they did so, walked boldly up and down among them; demanded a
conference with their captain; and said, that unless time should be allowed them
to send and receive directions from Powhatan, they would fight for their own as
well as they were able. Other bravadoes passed between the parties, but a truce
was finally agreed upon until noon of the next day. Meanwhile, two of the
brothers of Pocahontas—of whom this is the first mention—came to see her.
They were delighted to find her in good health, and promised to do every thing
they could to effect her redemption. Two of the English also set off to visit
Powhatan. They were not admitted to the emperor's presence—for what reason,
it is not stated—but Opechancanough treated them in the most hospitable
manner. On their return, the whole party descended the river to Jamestown.

[FN] Massacred with the thirty colonists mentioned previously in this chapter. He was
otherwise called Sicklemore.

One of the two messengers last named was John Rolfe, styled by an old
historian, [FN] "an honest gentleman and of good behaviour;" but more
especially known by the event which we have now to notice—his marriage with
Pocahontas—between whom and himself there had been an ardent attachment
for some time. The idea of this connexion pleased Powhatan so much, that
within ten days after Rolfe's visit, he sent in one of his near relatives named
Opachiko, together with two of his sons, to see (as says the authority just cited)
the manner of the marriage; and to do in that behalf what they were requested
for the confirmation thereof as his deputies. The ceremony took place about the
first of April; and from that time until the death of the emperor, which happened
in 1618, the most friendly relations were uniformly preserved with himself and
with his subjects.

[FN] Ralph Hamer, whose relation is incorporated with some of the oldest histories of
other writers. He was subsequently one of the Council.

There are too many memorable passages in the history of this celebrated
chieftain, and too many remarkable traits in his character, to be passed over with
a mere general notice. But, previous to any other comment, it may be proper to
mention certain facts respecting him, which belong rather to the curious than to
the characteristic class. In the case of all great men, as well as of many noted
men who are not great, there is a good deal of information generally to be
gathered, which maybe interesting without being strictly important. Powhatan
was both a great and a noted man, though a savage; and the rude circumstances
under which he proved himself the one, and made himself the other, should only
render him the more signally an object of popular admiration and of
philosophical regard.

In person, he is described, by one who saw him frequently, as a tall well-

proportioned man, with a severe aspect; his head slightly gray; his beard thin (as
that of the Indians always is;) and "of a very able and hardy body to endure any
labor." As he appeared to be about sixty years of age, when the English first saw
him, in 1607, he was probably about seventy at his death. He troubled himself
but little with public affairs during his last years, leaving the charge of them
chiefly to Opechancanough, as his viceroy, and taking his own pleasure in
visiting the various parts of his dominions.

We have already had occasion to observe, that he had as many as three or

four places of residence. Werowocomoco was abandoned for Orapakes, with the
view of keeping at an agreeable distance from the colonists. The latter became a
favorite resort. There, at the distance of a mile from the village, he had a house
in which were deposited his royalties and his revenue—skins, copper, beads, red
paint, bows and arrows, targets and clubs. Some of these things were reserved
for the time of his burial; others were the resources of war. The house itself was
more than one hundred feet in length—one historian says fifty or sixty yards—
and as it seems to have been frequented only by the Indian priests, probably a
sacred character attached to it in the minds of the multitude, which was one of
the means of its security. Four rudely-graven images of wood were stationed at
the four corners; one representing a dragon, the second a bear, the third a
panther, and the fourth a gigantic man—all made evil-favoredly as we are told,
but according to the best workmanship of the natives.

The state which Powhatan adopted as emperor, appears in some degree

from the preceding details of his history. He is said to have kept about his
person from forty to fifty of the tallest men in his dominions; which might be
the case in war, and upon occasions of parade and ceremony, more regularly
than in peaceable and ordinary times. Every night, four sentinels were stationed
at the four comers of his dwelling; and at each half-hour one of the body-guard
made a signal to the four sentinels. Want of vigilance on their part was punished
with the most exemplary strictness.

According to the universal custom of the North American natives, he kept

as many wives as he thought proper; and is represented to have taken no little
pleasure in their society. When the English saw him at home, reclining on his
couch or platform, there was always one sitting at his head, and another at his
feet; and when he sat, two of them seated themselves on either side of him. At
his meals, one of them brought him water in a wooden platter to wash his hangs,
before and after eating; and another attended with a bunch of feathers for a
towel. Some were the daughters, and had been the wives of distinguished rivals
and enemies, conquered in battle. When he became weary of them, he
transferred them as presents to his favorite warriors.
 A general proof of the talents of Powhatan may be found in the station
which he held, as well as the reputation he enjoyed far and wide among his
countrymen. The Indian tribes are democracies. He who rules over them must
acquire and sustain his influence by his absolute intellect and energy. Friends
and family may assist, occasionally, in procuring rank; but they will not secure
the permanent possession of it. Generally, therefore, the head-Sachem may be
looked upon as comparatively a model of those qualities which his countrymen
esteem suitable to that dignity. He must not only be a warrior, brave, hardy,
patient, and indefatigable; but he must show talents for controlling the fortunes
and commanding the respect of the community which he governs.

But in is case there is better evidence; and especially in the ultimate extent
of Powhatan's government as compared with his hereditary dominions. These
included but six tribes of the thirty which were finally subject to him, and all
which must have become attached to his rule in consequence of the character
maintained and the measures adopted by himself. Among others were the
Chickahominies, a very warlike and proud people, numbering from two hundred
to five hundred while the Powhatans proper, (the original nucleus, so to speak,
of the emperor's dominion,) numbered less than a hundred. The fear which these
savages entertained of him appears on many occasions, and particularly when
they embraced an opportunity, in 1611, of exchanging his yoke for that of the
English. They were so desirous of this change—or in other words of procuring
what they considered the protection of the new master against the power of the
old—that they offered to adopt a national name indicating their subjection. A
peace was accordingly concluded on condition—

I. That they should be forever called Tassautessus [Englishmen,] and be

true subjects to King James and his deputies.

II. They were neither to kill nor detain any of the colonists, or their cattle,
but to return them on all occasions.

III. They should stand ready to furnish three hundred warriors for the
colony's service, against the Spaniards or any other enemy.

IV. They were not to enter the English settlements, but send word they
were new Englishmen, (an obscure provision, meant to prevent confounding
them with hostile tribes.)
 V. Every fighting man, at the beginning of harvest, was to pay two bushels
of corn as a tribute, receiving the same number of hatchets in return.

VI. The eight chief men were to see all this performed, on forfeit of being
punished themselves. Their salary was to be a red coat, a copper chain, the
picture of King James, and the honor of being accounted his noblemen.

This treaty was concluded with a general assent, manifested by

acclamation; and then one of the old men began a speech, addressing himself
first to those of his own age, then to the young, and lastly to the women and
children, a multitude of whom were present. He gave them to understand how
strictly these conditions must be observed, and how safe they should then be, on
the other hand, "from the furie of Powhatan or any enemie whatsoeuer," [FN]
besides being furnished with arms to resist them. The name of the emperor, it
will be observed, is not inserted in the articles of peace; there was supposed to
be a hazard, probably, of its coming to his ears; and he had then himself just
concluded an amicable treaty. "But all this," adds our historian, "was rather for
feare Powhatan and we being so linked together, would bring them again to his
subjection; the which to preuent, they did rather chuse to be protected by vs
than tormented by him, whom they held a Tyrant."

[FN] Authorities referred to in Smith's History, Vol. II.

We have seen, that of the whole Indian population between the sea-coast
and the Alleghany from east to west, and between the borders of Carolina and
the river Patuxent in Maryland from south to north, all who were not subject to
Powhatan's dominions were leagued against him. The former class comprised
the lowland tribes; and the latter, the mountaineers. In the language of Stith, the
Monacans and the Mannahoacks formed a confederacy against the power and
tyranny of Powhatan. Another writer says, that he also fought against the
famous Massawomekes; a powerful and populous nation, thought to be situated
upon a great salt-water, "which by all probability is either some part of Canada,
some great lake, or some inlet of some sea that falleth into the South Sea." This
is not a very definite description, even for Smith to give; but the Massawomekes
are generally understood to have been no other, we believe, than the celebrated
Five Nations of New York. At all events, they were exceedingly troublesome to
the northernmost tribes of Powhatan—which might be a principal reason why
they submitted the more willingly to him. And thus, while the greater part of his
own empire was a conquered one, he was environed by foreign enemies in
every direction, including the civilized colony on the sea-coast.

As to his particular system of war and conquest, we are not minutely

informed. Like Indian warfare in other sections and times, it is said to have
consisted, in a great degree, of stratagem and surprisal rather than force. In
1608, a rebellion which arose among the Payuntatanks, was suppressed in the
following manner. They being near neighbors, a number of his own tribe was
sent into their villages, who under some disguise or false pretence obtained
lodgings over night. The several houses were meanwhile beset with
ambuscades; and at an appointed signal, the two parties, within and without,
commenced an attack at the same moment. Twenty-four Payuntatanks were
slain, and their scalps carried to Powhatan, who kept them some time suspended
on a line between two trees, as a trophy. The women and children, as also the
Werowance or Sachem, were made prisoners, and afterwards slaves or servants.

Powhatan's warriors were regularly and thoroughly disciplined. At one of

his first interviews with the English, a martial parade formed part of the
entertainment. Two or three hundred Indians having painted and disguised
themselves in the fiercest manner possible, were divided into two companies,
one of which was temporarily styled Powhatans and the other Monacans. Each
company had its captain. They stationed themselves at about a musket-shot
from each other. Fifteen men abreast formed the front line of both, and the
remainder ranked themselves in the rear with a distance of four or five yards
from rank to rank; and not in file, but in the opening between the files, so that
the rear could shoot as conveniently as the front. A parley now took place, and a
formal agreement was made that, whoever should conquer, such warriors as
survived their defeat should have two days allowed them for their own
submission, while their wives and children should at once become prize to the
victor.

The parties advanced against each other—a sort of sergeant commanding

each flank, and a lieutenant the rear; and the entire company came on leaping
and singing to warlike music, but every man in his place. On the first flight of
arrows, they raised upon both sides a terrific clamor of shouts and screeches.
"When they had spent their arrows, (writes the describer of this scene,) they
joined together prettily, charging and retiring, every rank seconding the other.
As they got advantage, they caught their enemies by the hair of the head, and
down he came that was taken. His enemy with his wooden sword seemed to
beat out his brains, and still they crept to the rear to maintain the skirmish." The
Monacan party at length decreasing, the Powhatans charged them in the form of
a half moon. The former retreat, to avoid being enclosed, and draw their
pursuers upon an ambuscade of fresh men. The Powhatans retire in their turn,
and the Monacans take this opportunity of resuming their first ground. "All their
actions, voices and gestures, both, in charging and retiring, were so strained to
the height of their qualitie and nature, that the strangeness thereof made it seem
very delightful." The warlike music spoken of above was a large deep platter of
wood, covered with skin drawn so tight as to answer the purpose of a drum.
They also used rattles made of small gourds or pompion-shells; and all these—it
may well be supposed—mingled with their voices, sometimes twenty or thirty
together, "made such a terrible noise, as would rather affright than delight any
man."

It was probably by no little drilling of this description that Powhatan made

soldiers of his subjects; and it naturally enough mortified him, after taking so
much trouble with so much success, to see them defeated so readily as they
were by the English. The chief cause, too, of this superiority, was a matter of
wonder. No Indian had ever before seen any thing which resembled, in form or
effect, the fire-arms of their strange enemy. For some time, therefore, their fear
was attended with a superstition, against which no courage could prevail. But
Powhatan was not long in determining at all events to put himself on equal
terms with the colonists, whatever might be the hazard; and from that moment
he spared no efforts to effect his purpose. On Newport's departure for England,
he bargained away from him twenty swords for twenty turkeys. He attempted
the same trade with Smith; and when the latter shrewdly declined it, his
eagerness became such, we are told, "that at last by ambuscadoes at our very
gates they [the Powhatans] would take them per force, surprise vs at worke, or
any way." [FN] Some of these troublesome fellows being seized and threatened,
they confessed that the emperor had ordered them to get possession of the
English arms, or at least some of them, cost what it might.

[FN] Smith's History, Vol. I.

He availed himself, with great ingenuity, of a disposition among some of

the colonists to trade privately in these contraband articles; and in that way
obtained large quantities of shot, powder and pike-heads. So, upon Smith's
departure for the settlement, after his famous visit, in December, 1608, he
artfully requested the captain "to leaue him Edward Brynton to kille him foule,
and the Dutchmen to finish his house." This house, we have seen, was
abandoned; and as for fowl, the idea of employing an Englishman to hunt for
his Powhatans was absurd. He had no objection, however, to Brynton's gun or
his martial services. The Germans he was probably sure of already. They
proved, traitors to the colony, and soon after we find them diligently engaged in
arming and instructing the savages. One of them subsequently stated, that the
emperor kept them at work for him in duress. He himself sent answer to Smith's
demand for them, that they were at liberty to go if they chose—but as for
carrying them fifty miles on his back, he was not able. The adroitness with
which he obtained arms at Jamestown, during Smith's absence, has already been
the subject of comment.

The implicit obedience which he exacted of his own subjects,

notwithstanding the apparently precarious tenure by which he held his
command, is a striking indication of the extent of his mere personal influence.
"When he listeth," says an old writer, "his will is a law, and must be obeyed; not
onely as a King, but as halfe a God, they esteeme him. What he commandeth
they dare not disobey in the least thing. At his feete they present whatsoever he
commandeth, and at the least froune of his browe, their greatest spirits will
tremble with feare." This subordination was sustained by measures which, for
severity and courage, would do no discredit to the most absolute despot of the
Eastern world. On one occasion, certain, offenders were burned to death in the
midst of an immense heap of glowing coals, collected from many fires made for
the purpose. A more merciful punishment was by braining the criminal with a
club, as Smith was to have been sacrificed. The most horrible was fastening the
poor wretch to a tree, breaking his joints one by one, and then whittling down
the body with reeds and shells. Thrashing with cudgels was no trifle. Smith says
he saw a man subjected to this discipline under the hands of two of his practised
countrymen, till he fell prostrate and senseless; but he uttered no cry or
complaint.

The extraordinary native shrewdness of Powhatan was abundantly

manifested in the amusing advantages he obtained over Newport; his long and
artful conversations with Smith, some of them sustained under the most
embarrassing circumstances, merely to procure time; the promptness with which
he rejected and defeated the proposal to make common cause against the
Monacans—a bait, as he expressed it, too foolish to be taken; and, in fine, upon
every occasion when the English undertook to negotiate or to argue with him.
He availed himself most essentially of the aid of the German deserters
heretofore mentioned, but he had too much sagacity to trust them after they
deserted himself; and so, when two of them fled to him a second time, with
proposals for delivering his great rival, Captain Smith, into his hands, he only
observed, that men who betrayed the captain would betray the emperor, and
forthwith ordered the scoundrels to be brained upon the spot. [FN]

[FN] Stith Book III.

Powhatan, like many others of his race, has been regarded with prejudice
for the very reasons which entitle him to respect. He was a troublesome enemy
to the colonists. His hostile influence extended for hundreds of miles around
them; cutting off commerce with the natives in the first place, and making
inveterate enemies of them in the next. Powhatan, we are told, "still as he found
means cut off their boats, and denied them trade;" [FN] and again, "as for corne,
contribution and provision from the salvages, we had nothing but mortall
wounds, with clubs and arrowes." Here, too, we find the emperor availing
himself of the disasters and despair of the colony, to procure swords, muskets
and ammunition—so reckless had the colonists become through famine.

[FN] Authorities in Smith's History, Vol. II.

Still, it does not appear, that Powhatan adopted any policy but such as he
believed indispensable to the welfare, not to say, the existence, of his sovereign
dominions. His warfare was an Indian warfare, indeed. But setting aside those
circumstances of education and of situation which rendered this a matter both of
pride and necessity, it may be safely said, that he but followed the example of
those who should have known better. Not only did he act generally in self-
defence against what he deemed the usurpation of a foreign and unknown
people, who had settled without permission upon his shores; but he was galled
and provoked by peculiar provocations in numerous instances. The mere liberty
of taking possession of a part of his territory might have been overlooked.
Probably it was so. In the earliest days of the settlement, when nothing could be
easier for Powhatan than to extinguish it at a single assault, it is acknowledged
that his people often visited the English and treated them with kindness. [FN]
Not long afterwards, indeed, they committed some trespasses, but meanwhile a
party of the English had invaded the interior of the country. Considering the
dissolute and unprincipled character of a large part of them, it is not improbable
that still greater freedom was exercised with the Indians; such of course as the
historians would be likely neither to record nor to know. And yet Smith himself
has told enough—of himself—to make this point clear. In his very first
expedition after corn, seeing, he says, "that by trade and, courtesie nothing was
to be had, he made bold to try such conclusions as necessitie inforced." He let
fly a volley of musketry, ran his boats ashore, skirmished with the natives, and
forcibly obtained a supply of provisions. And thus—adds the scrupulous captain
—

"Thus God vnboundlesse by his power

Made them so kinde would vs devour."

[FN] Ibid, Vol. I.

It was nothing to the emperor, or to his subjects, that Smith went beyond
his authority in these matters. "The patient council"—he writes in another
connexion—"that nothing would moue to warre with the sauages, would gladly
have wrangled with Captaine Smithe for his crueltie." He adds, that his
proceedings—his conclusions, is his own language—had inspired the natives
with such fear, that his very name was a terror. No wonder that he sometimes
had peace and war twice in a day. No wonder that scarcely a week passed
without some villainy or other. Again, when the Chickahominies refused to
trade, the resident, "perceiving [supposing] it was Powhatan's policy to starve
him," landed his company forthwith, and made such a show of anger and
ammunition that the poor savages presently brought in all their provisions.

So we are summarily informed in Mr. Hamer's relation, that about

Christmas (1611) "in regard of the iniurie done vs by them of Apamatuk, Sir
Thomas Dale, without the losse, of any except some few Salvages," took
possession of the territory and provision of the tribe, made a settlement upon the
former without ceremony, and called it New Bermudas! One more illustration
must suffice. It is a passage of Smith's history relating to a detachment of
vagabonds, under the command of one West, who left Jamestown, and located
themselves not far from Powhatan's residence at the falls of the river. "But the
worst was, that the poore Salvages that daily brought in their contributions to
the President, that disorderly company so tormented these poore soules, by
stealing their corne, robbing their gardens, beating them, breaking their houses,
and keeping some prisoners, that they daily complained to Captaine Smith he
had brought them for Protectors worse enemies than the Monacans themselves,
which though till then for his love they had endured, they desired pardon if
hereafter they defended themselves—since he would not correct them as they