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Steven P. Starkovich

The Structures
of Mathematical
Physics
An Introduction
The Structures of Mathematical Physics
Steven P. Starkovich

The Structures
of Mathematical Physics
An Introduction
Steven P. Starkovich
Department of Physics
Pacific Lutheran University
Tacoma, WA, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-73448-0 ISBN 978-3-030-73449-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73449-7

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

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 To the memory
of
Fred Cooperstock
Preface

This textbook serves as an introduction to groups, rings, fields, vector and tensor
spaces, algebras, topological spaces, differentiable manifolds and Lie groups—math-
ematical structures which are foundational to modern theoretical physics. It is aimed
primarily at undergraduate students in physics and mathematics with no previous
background in these topics.
Although the traditional undergraduate course in mathematical methods for physi-
cists is vitally important for a college-level education in physics (a course that is
often taken by mathematics and engineering majors as well), too many undergrad-
uate students see mathematical physics as a disconnected set of arbitrary methods,
or a bag of manipulative tricks, rather than as being organized around these carefully
crafted structures. The first goal of this book is to describe these structures.
Further, students who pursue advanced studies—particularly in physics—are
often confronted by a chasm between the methods they learned in school and the
structures and methods they find in advanced texts and the professional literature.
The second goal of this book is to help bridge that gap.
The motivation for this book is derived from many years of observation of this
student experience and its consequences, and the earlier in the student’s education
we can provide a sense of unity and context to their studies the better. Therefore, the
book’s principal audience is the undergraduate student in physics or mathematics
who is in their second or third year of study; students should not have to wait until
they are in graduate school to gain this perspective.
The typical physics student is often dissuaded from pursuing courses in pure
mathematics by the seeming lack of an immediate relevance of these courses to
physics, and by their emphasis on formal proof. For these students, those doors and
the opportunities that lie behind them remain closed.
Rather, what this student needs is a short introduction that articulates the essential
concepts and vocabulary in a more expository but nonetheless rigorous fashion, and
which does so with an eye on the physics. From atop this kind of “middle ground” a
student would then have a secure vantage point from which to survey the possibilities
that await. In that spirit, this book seeks to provide a path to that vantage point.
The book is organized around algebraic and topological concepts and structures,
rather than methods of solution, and it makes connections to various elements of the
vii
viii Preface

undergraduate physics curriculum—a feature that would be out of place in a more

formal mathematics text. It is written for the reader who has no formal background
in advanced algebra or topology, but those who complete it will be well prepared to
delve more deeply into advanced texts and specialized monographs.
Consider a small sample of the things a student encounters in the typical physics
curriculum: a multi-variable problem in vector analysis whose domain is three-
dimensional Euclidean space; an energy-momentum conservation problem in special
relativity whose domain is four-dimensional spacetime; the evaluation of a function
in the complex plane via Cauchy’s integral formula; a classical mechanics problem
that is framed in Hamiltonian phase space; or a Fourier transform of a time signal
into an abstract function space (the frequency domain), and then (perhaps after some
filtering or analysis) back again into the time domain.
In each of these examples, and the many others encountered over several years
of college-level study, there is an underlying mathematical space (a structure) and
a collection of tools (operations within a space or between spaces) that are used
to define and solve a problem. In a most basic sense, however, there is only one
fundamental structure, and there are only three fundamental operations involved;
everything else is an elaboration or a specification.
The one fundamental structure is the set (or space, depending on context).
With sets we have equivalence relations, quotient structures and product structures,
which are then replicated across groups, rings, fields, modules, linear vector spaces,
associative algebras, non-associative algebras and topological spaces.
The three fundamental operations are composition, taking a limit, and mapping.
We can think of a composition—a binary operation where two things combine to
yield a third—in the context of algebraic structures. We can think of the process of
taking a limit—whereby we assess the continuity of maps (functions) and spaces—in
fundamentally topological terms. The mapping concept transcends both algebra and
topology, and is the connecting tissue of modern mathematics.
This text is organized accordingly, and consequently the sequence of topics will
seem unusual to most physics students and instructors. For example, in a typical
mathematical methods text vectors are presented early and groups usually much
later. However, vector spaces are rather elaborate algebraic structures compared to
groups, so here groups are discussed first. Another consequence is that a single topic
may appear in different chapters as different structural aspects are highlighted (e.g.,
groups generally in Chap. 2, as matrices in Chap. 5 and as manifolds in Chap. 8). At
other times we show a fundamental idea (e.g., a map) in different settings.
Chapter 1 is an introduction to sets, relations and mappings and is essential for
all that follows. If there is one overriding objective of this chapter, it is to frame the
reader’s thinking about functions as being maps between sets rather than formulas.
Also, although product sets may be familiar to the student, the material here on
quotient sets will likely be new.
Chapters 2–5 develop the main algebraic structures of interest. The approach taken
in these chapters is to develop the hierarchy of algebraic structures from the bottom
up: groups → rings → fields → vector spaces → algebras. One consequence of this
Preface ix

approach is that we clearly see how the same set may assume the guise of different
algebraic structures, depending on the operations defined on that set.
Chapter 2 introduces continuous groups only in passing and in context with the
finite groups discussed earlier in the chapter. We revisit continuous groups at several
points later in the text. Antisymmetric groups are introduced here, but symplectic
structures are discussed in the context of Hamilton’s equations in Chap. 7.
Chapter 3 places the real and complex number fields and the quaternion skew
field in context with other rings. I have found this to be an important topic to at
least touch upon in my lectures because I have encountered too many students who
think of complex numbers as useful contrivances for solving electrical engineering
and quantum mechanics problems, and who fail to see complex numbers in a larger
algebraic hierarchy. A brief historical account of the development of the complex
and quaternion number systems is followed by an introduction to quaternion algebra.
The matrix formulation of quaternions appears in the problems in Chap. 5.
Chapter 4 defines a vector space and proceeds to discuss inner products—both
bilinear and sesquilinear (Hermitian)—for vectors in real and complex spaces,
respectively. For the most part we use the Dirac notation (bras and kets) for vectors.
The role of linear functionals (in function spaces) and one-forms (in coordinate
spaces) is central to our treatment of the inner product; the higher-order antisym-
metric descendants of one-forms ( p-forms) are discussed in Chap. 7. Gram-Schmidt
orthogonalization is developed along two parallel tracks, with one track for coor-
dinate spaces and another for function spaces, and we include a short account of
the defining characteristics of Hilbert spaces. A discussion of sums, products, cosets
and quotients of vector spaces rounds out the chapter, with a particular emphasis
on the tensor product and tensor spaces. The metric tensor gets special attention;
antisymmetric tensors are discussed later in the context of p-forms.
Chapter 5 brings us to the pinnacle of the our algebraic hierarchy, and a good
deal of attention is paid to structure constants and associative operator algebras. Lie
and Poisson algebras, the vector cross product and Hamilton’s equations of clas-
sical mechanics appear together in ways that most physics students are unlikely to
have seen at this point in their studies. Linear transformations, including unitary
and Hermitian operators, are framed both as matrices and as maps between sets. We
include a standard account of matrix algebra, eigenvectors and similarity transforma-
tions. The chapter closes with a discussion of functions of operators. The exponential
mapping will reappear in Chap. 8 in the context of Lie groups.
Chapters 6–8 shift our attention from algebraic to topological and differential
structures. Chapter 6 is a survey of general (point set) topology for a reader assumed
to have no previous background in the subject. Beyond the standard definitions, this
chapter includes an account (with figures) of the meaning of the separation axioms.
As important as these axioms are to a mathematician’s approach to topology, it is
debatable as to whether physicists really must know this. My view is that if a text
at this introductory level uses a phrase such as “the space X is a T2 space,” then it
owes the reader the courtesy of an explanation as to what that could possibly mean,
and whether there are other “T’s” we should know about! For us, knowledge of
x Preface

the separation axioms allows us to place metric spaces in their proper topological
context. The chapter concludes with a discussion of product and quotient spaces.
After a short review of differentiation and the Jacobian, Chapter 7 introduces the
reader to differentiable manifolds and differential forms. These topics are frequently
skipped over in the undergraduate curriculum, and yet they are among the most
ubiquitous structures in the mathematical physics literature. Therefore, we take some
time to develop the subject, but limit this introductory account to Rn . After showing
the connection between differential forms and antisymmetric covariant tensors, we
explore the properties of the exterior differential operator. Physical or geometric
interpretations are given to lower-order p-forms, and the correspondences between
exterior calculus and vector calculus in R3 are then laid out in detail. The application
of these ideas to symplectic manifolds is discussed in the context of Hamilton’s
equations of classical mechanics. A final section discusses the all-important topic of
pullback transformations of differential forms.
In Chap. 8 we discuss integration on manifolds, followed by brief accounts of Lie
groups and integral transforms. We show (or at least infer) how a Generalized Stokes’s
Theorem follows directly from the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. After intro-
ducing the concepts of homotopy, simply connected spaces and the winding number,
we show how these are relevant to complex analysis. We then use the GST to show the
connections between vector integrals in R3 and the integration of differential forms
generally, thereby establishing how our familiar three-dimensional vector calculus
is really just a special case of a more comprehensive structure.
The discussion of Lie groups emphasizes their connection to the generators that
comprise their corresponding Lie algebras that exist in the tangent space to a mani-
fold. Admittedly, it is pedagogically simpler to introduce Lie groups solely as matrix
groups, and there are several excellent introductory accounts available along these
lines. However, having by this point developed sufficient background on differen-
tiable manifolds, we can now place Lie groups in their historical context as manifolds
that possess group characteristics. Finally, in discussing integral transforms at the
close of Chap. 8, we come full circle back to the beginning of the text inasmuch as
the fundamental concept underlying an integral transform is that of a map.
The imagined reader of this text has a background that includes single-variable
calculus, matrix multiplication, elementary vector algebra, complex numbers and
elementary functions, and first-order differential equations. As noted earlier, among
college students this is typically someone who is in the middle third of their under-
graduate physics or mathematics program; perhaps they are just about to start a math-
ematical methods course. However, at least as important as a formal background are
a modest “mathematical maturity,” a willingness to think of familiar things in new
ways and an eagerness to expand one’s intellectual horizons.
The book is designed for active engagement by the reader. Examples (where the
reader is often asked to fill in a few gaps) are woven into the narrative. Problems
(many with hints and some with answers) offer both a review and an elaboration of
material covered in that chapter. A Guide to Further Study and a list of references
are included at the close of each chapter.
Preface xi

Connections to the physics curriculum appear in various places, depending on the

topic; sometimes these connections appear in the end-of-chapter problems, but at
other times they are part of the narrative. These connections become more frequent
in the later chapters.
I have inserted portions of this book’s content into several courses, primarily
in the upper-division courses in mathematical methods, classical mechanics, elec-
trodynamics and quantum mechanics, as well as in an independent study course.
Depending on local circumstances, this book may serve as a text for a standalone
seminar course or as an accompanying text for background reading.
Questions or comments may be sent to me at [email protected]. Suggestions
for improvement are especially welcome.
Fulfilling the goals of this text, whose scope is very broad, while keeping it
relatively short frequently meant concluding a line of development far sooner than
I would have otherwise preferred. Ultimately, though, these tradeoffs will mean the
text is more likely to fulfill my wish for this book when placed in the hands of the
intended reader—namely, that it might open some new doors for many students, who
otherwise may have thought those doors closed to all but a few.

Seattle, WA, USA Steven P. Starkovich

February 2021
Acknowledgements

Approximately thirty years ago my perspective on mathematical physics began to

change. Having previously placed a primary focus on the path to a solution to a
particular problem, I began to adopt a more comprehensive perspective that respected
the mathematical landscape in which the problem and its solution reside. I owe this
transformation largely to the works of Geroch and Roman [1], and persons who are
familiar with their texts may recognize the influence these have had on how I think
about mathematical physics. Also important in subsequent years has been the work
of Choquet-Bruhat, et al. [2]
The opportunity to now record my thoughts as a text arose from a happen-
stance conversation with James Overduin (Towson University), and was subsequently
nurtured by the steady encouragement and wise counsel of Angela Lahee at Springer.
I am deeply grateful to them both.
I have benefited greatly over the years from countless conversations with my
colleagues at Pacific Lutheran University, particularly those conversations about how
best to meet the academic needs of the ever-evolving college student. Special thanks
goes to my colleague, Prof. Bogomil Gerganov at PLU for his enthusiasm for a text
like this, and for his words of encouragement for my efforts to write it.
I have been especially fortunate to have spent my career at PLU. Over the years,
I have had the pleasure of teaching and mentoring some of the most able, kind and
hard-working college students a person could ever hope to meet, and I kept them
firmly in mind while composing this text.
Most especially, it is the love and support of my partner, Ruth Williams that made
it possible for me to write this book over a span of two years. I am grateful to her for
being my partner during this, the most recent leg of our truly excellent adventure.

References

1. Geroch, R.: Mathematical Physics. Chicago Lectures in Physics, Univ. of Chicago Press,
Chicago (1985); Roman, P.: Some Modern Mathematics for Physicists and Other Outsiders,
2 Volumes. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY (1975).

xiii
xiv Acknowledgements

2. Choquet-Bruhat, Y., DeWitt-Morette, C., Dillard-Bleick, M.: Analysis, Manifolds and Physics,
Part I: Basics, 1996 printing. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1982); Choquet-Bruhat, Y., DeWitt-
Morette, C.: Analysis, Manifolds and Physics, Part II, Revised and Enlarged Edition. Elsevier,
Amsterdam (2000).
Contents

1 Sets, Relations and Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 The Algebra of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Set Inclusion, Subsets and Set Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 The Algebra of Sets: Union, Intersection
and Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Relations Within Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Order Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Equivalence Relations and Quotient Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Mappings Between Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Injective, Surjective and Bijective Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.2 Continuous Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.3 Countable and Uncountable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Cartesian Products of Sets and Projection Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 A Universal Construction for Quotient Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Groupoids, Semigroups and Monoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Some Noteworthy Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.2 Symmetric Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.3 Alternating Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.4 Dihedral Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.5 Continuous Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4 Morphisms, and a Glance at Algebraic Topology
and Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6 Classes and Invariant Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7 Cosets and Quotient Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.8 Group Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

xv
xvi Contents

3 Rings and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.1 Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.1 Ring Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.1.2 Ring Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 Subrings, Ideals and Quotient Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3 Product Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4.1 Completeness and Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.4.2 The Complex Field C and Hamilton’s Search
for Number Triplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4.3 The Quaternion Skew Field H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4 Vector and Tensor Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1 Modules and Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2 Linear Independence, Basis Vectors and Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.1 Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.2 Basis and Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.3 Norms and Distance Functions on Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3 Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.1 Inner Products in R2 Over R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.2 Inner Products in Coordinate Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.3 Inner Products on Complex and Real Function
Spaces—Sesquilinear and Bilinear Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4 Orthogonality, Normalization and Complete Sets of Vectors . . . . . . 90
4.4.1 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization—Coordinate Space . . . . . 90
4.4.2 Orthonormalization in Function Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4.3 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization—Function Space . . . . . . . 95
4.4.4 Hilbert Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.5 Subspaces, Sums, and Products of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.5.1 Vector Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.5.2 Unions, Sums and Direct Sums of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . 99
4.5.3 Tensors and Tensor Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.5.4 Metric and Associated Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.6 Cosets and Quotient Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5 Algebras and Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.1 Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2 Structure Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.3 Lie and Poisson Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3.1 Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3.2 Poisson Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.4 Subalgebras, Quotients and Sums of Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4.1 Subalgebras, Algebra Ideals and Quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4.2 Direct Sums of Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Contents xvii

5.5 Associative Operator Algebras on Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . 130

5.5.1 Definitions, Notations and Basic Operations
with Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.5.2 Linear Transformations, Images and Null Spaces . . . . . . . . . 133
5.5.3 Eigenvectors, Similarity Transformations
and Diagonalization of Matrices in Real Spaces . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.6 Hermitian Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.7 Unitary, Orthogonal and Hermitian Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.8 Functions of Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6 Fundamental Concepts of General Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.1 General Topology in a Geometric Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.2 Foundations of General Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.3 Bases and Generators of a Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.4 Separation and Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.4.1 Separated and Connected Sets and Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.4.2 Separation Axioms and Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.5 Compactness, Continuity, Convergence and Completeness . . . . . . . . 170
6.6 Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.7 Quotient Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.8 Topological Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7 Differentiable Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.1 Differentiation in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.1.1 Review of Single-Variable Differentiation
and Directional Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.1.2 Multi-variable Differentiation and the Jacobian . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.2 Differentiable Manifolds in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3 Antisymmetric Tensors and p-Forms in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.4 Differential Forms in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7.5 Correspondences Between Exterior and Vector Calculus in R3 . . . . 204
7.6 Hamilton’s Equations and Differential Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.6.1 Lagrange’s Equation, Legendre Transformations
and Hamilton’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.6.2 Hamiltonian Phase Space as a Symplectic Manifold . . . . . . . 208
7.7 Transformations of Vectors and Differential Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8 Aspects of Integration and Elements of Lie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.1 The Generalized Stokes’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.2 Line Integrals and the Integration of One-Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.3 Homotopy and the Cauchy Theorems of Complex Analysis . . . . . . . 229
8.4 Integration of p-Forms and the Vector Integral Theorems . . . . . . . . . 233
8.5 Lie Groups as Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
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