3.

Microbial Structure and Functions

1. Prokaryotic cellular structures and functions
* Principles of Gram stainings for bacteria
2. Eukaryotic cellular structures and functions
3. Microbial membrane transports/ Nutrition uptakes
1. Prokaryotic Cell Structure and Function
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
Structure Function
1. Cell wall Gives procaryotes shape and protection from osmotic stress
2. Plasma membrane Selectively permeable barrier, mechanical boundary of cell, nutrient and waste
transport, location of many
metabolic processes (respiration, photosynthesis), detection of environmental
cues for chemotaxis
3. Periplasmic space Contains hydrolytic enzymes and binding proteins for nutrient processing and
uptake
4. Nucleoid Localization of genetic material (DNA)
5. Ribosomes Protein synthesis
6. Inclusion bodies Storage of carbon, phosphate, and other substances
7. Gas vacuole Buoyancy for floating in aquatic environments
8. Capsules and slime Resistance to phagocytosis, adherence to surfaces
layers
9. Fimbriae and pili Attachment to surfaces, bacterial matting
10. Flagella Movement
11. Endospore Survival under harsh environmental conditions
12. Plasmid Transmittable genetic element to adapt to toxic environment
 1. Cell wall

Gram(-)
Gram(+)

70-100 layers of peptidoglycan 2 layers of peptidoglycan

20-80 nm thick 1-71 nm thick
Watching a clip for Gram (+) and Gram (-) difference in cell wall structure
These differences is fundamentals for Gram staining method
Peptidoglycan

Lysozyme (muramidase or N-acetylmuramide

glycanhydrolase) is an enzyme that
hydrolyzes glycosidic bonds between NAG
and NAM monomer of glycan chain
 Teichoic acid
Gram positive bacterial envelope

Gram-positive bacteria normally have cell walls that are thick and composed primarily of peptidoglycan and
large amounts of teichoic acids, polymers of glycerol or ribitol joined by phosphate groups . Teichoic acids
are covalently connected to either the peptidoglycan itself or to plasma membrane lipids. Peptidoglycan is
porous and any proteins secreted by the cell usually pass through it- exoenzymes. Surface cell wall protein
(S- layer )are involved in the interactions of the cell with its environment.
 Gram negative bacterial envelope
LPS

Lipopolysaccharides (LPSs ) contains 1) lipid A, (2) the core polysaccharide, and (3) the O side chain . O
side chain or O antigen is a polysaccharide chain extending outward from the core. Porin proteins: its
narrow channel allows passage of molecules smaller than about 600 to 700 daltons. Molecules do not pass
through porins; instead, are passed by specific carriers transporting them across the outer membrane
 Archaea envelope

CW: cell wall (pseudomurein)

Methanobacterium formicicum SL: surface layer
CM: cell membrane or plasma
membrane
CPL: cytoplasm

Thermoproteus tenax
 Archaea cell wall
Many archaea have a wall with a single, thick homogeneous layer
resembling that in Gram-positive bacteria, they often stain Gram positive.
Their wall chemistry varies from species to species but usually consists of
complex heteropolysaccharides.
Pseudomurein is a peptidoglycan-like polymer that has L-amino acids
instead of D-amino acids in its cross-links, N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid
instead of N-acetylmuramic acid,and a(1→3) glycosidic bonds instead of
a(1→4) glycosidic bonds.
Many archaea that stain Gram-negative have a layer of glycoprotein or
protein outside their plasma membrane.
Membrane lipid bilayers are phosphoglycerides, sphingolipids.
2. LIPID BILAYER OF PLASMA MEMBRANE

SEE VIDEO CLIPS: Gram staining

 3. Slim layer

Similarly to a capsule, slime layer is a zone of diffuse, unorganized materials (polysaccharides or

proteins) that is removed easily.
•To protect the bacteria cells from environmental dangers such as antibiotics and desiccation.
•To allows bacteria to adhere to smooth surfaces such as prosthetic medical devices and catheters.
•To permit bacterial colonies to survive in chemical sterilization and autoclaving or decontamination.
 4. Capsules

Bacterial Glycocalyx connected to each other

and to the intestinal wall (x17,500).

Capsules are clearly visible in the light microscope

when negative stains or special capsule stains are
Bacterial Capsules. (a) Klebsiella employed. They do confer several advantages when
pneumoniae with its capsule stained for procaryotes grow in their normal habitats. For a
observation in the light microscope example: Streptococcus pneumoniae lacks a capsule,
(x1,500). (b) Bacteroides glycocalyx it is destroyed easily and does not cause disease
(gly),TEM (x 71,250).
5. S-Layers (surface layer)
S-layer is external to the cell wall, and highly organised
glycoprotein layer .
In archaea, the S-layer may be the only wall structure outside
the plasma membrane. It is composed of protein or
glycoprotein.
In Gram-negative bacteria the S-layer adheres directly to the
outer membrane; it is associated with the peptidoglycan
surface in Gram-positive bacteria.
It may protect the cell against ions and pH fluctuations,
osmotic stress, enzymes, or the predacious bacterium
Bdellovibrio.
S-layer helps maintain the shape and envelope rigidity of some
cells. It can promote cell adhesion to surfaces.
S-layer seems to protect some bacterial pathogens against
host defenses, thus contributing to their virulence
 6. Pili and Fimbriae
• Pili or fimbriae are nonflagellar, hair‐like structures
protruding from the cell surface that are critical for
bacterial virulence and fitness
• A cell may be covered with up to 1,000 fimbriae, but
fewer pili.
• Fimbriae are sometimes called "attachment pili"
• They are 3 to 10 nm in diameter and up to several
mm long.
• They are involved in adhesion, motility and DNA
exchange.
• Some fimbriae can contain lectins, so that can
recognize oligosaccharide units on the surface of
target cells to adhere .
Pili (pilus) DNA plasmid exchange

Horizontal gene transfer mechanism

 7. Flagella and Mobility

Pseudomonas—monotrichous polar Spirillum — Lophotrichous flagellation

flagellation

Proteus vulgaris —peritrichous

flagellation
 Ultra-structure of Bacterial Flagella.

Gram-positive bacteria
Gram-negative bacteria
SEE VIDEO CLIPS: Bacterial_motility
 Mechanism of Flagella Movement

Procaryotic flagella operate differently from eucaryotic

flagella.
The filament is in the shape of a rigid helix, and the cell
moves when this helix rotates.
The flagellar motor can rotate very rapidly. The E. coli
motor rotates 270 rps; Vibrio alginolyticus averages
1,100 rps.
Monotrichous, polar flagella rotate counterclockwise
(when viewed from outside the cell) during normal
forward movement, whereas the cell itself rotates slowly
clockwise.
Peritrichously flagellated bacteria move forward, the
flagella rotate counterclockwise and when it stops the
cell tumbles
Mobidity test in semi-solid
agar medium
 8. BACTERIAL ENDOSPORE
Endospore are special resistant, dormant (không
hoạt động) structure, seen in Bacillus and
Clostridium (rods), Sporosarcina (cocci), and others.
These structures are extraordinarily resistant to
environmental stresses such as heat, ultraviolet
radiation, gamma radiation, chemical disinfectants,
and desiccation.
Because of their resistance, several species of
endospore-forming bacteria are dangerous
pathogens, endospores are of great practical
importance in food, industrial, and medical
microbiology.
Some endospores have remained viable for
around 100,000 years

Endospores can be examined with light and electron microscopes. Because endospores are impermeable to
most stains,they often are seen as colorless areas in bacteria treated with methylene blue and other simple
stains; special endospore stains are used to make them clearly visible.
 9. THE NUCLEOID/ CHROMOSOME
A color-enhanced transmission electron
micrograph of a thin section of a dividing E.
coli cell. The red areas are the nucleoids
present in the two daughter cells.

•Chromosome
released from a gently
lysed E. coli cell. Note
how tightly packaged
the DNA must be
inside the cell.
•It is about 230–700
times longer than the
 10. PLASMIDS

1. Plasmids are small, double-stranded DNA

molecules, that can exist independently of the
chromosome.
2. Most of them are in circular form.
3. Contains few genes, generally less than 30.
4. Genetic information is not essential to the host,
and cells that lack them usually function normally.
5. Plasmids carry genes that confer a selective
advantage to their hosts in certain environments.
6. Single-copy plasmids produce only one copy per a host cell. Multicopy plasmids may be
present at concentrations of 40 or more per a cell.
7. Some plasmids are able to integrate into the chromosome and are thus replicated with the
chromosome (called episomes).
8. Resistance factors (R factors, R plasmids) confer antibiotic resistance on the cells that
contain them.
 2. Eucaryotic Cell Structure and Function
Protista (protist) Fungi (microfungi)

Paramecium Penicillium

•Protists and fungi also are microorganisms and have been extensively studied. These
eucaryotes often are extraordinarily complex, interesting in their own right, and prominent
members of ecosystems .
•Number of protist and fungi are also major human pathogens such as candidiasis (nấm kí sinh),
malaria (sốt rét), or African sleeping sickness.
2. Eukaryotic Cell Structure and Functions

1. Eukaryotic cells differ most obviously from prokaryotic cells in having a variety of complex
membranous organelles in the cytoplasmic matrix and the majority of their genetic material
within membrane-delimited nuclei. Each organelle has a distinctive structure directly
related to specific functions.
2. Organelles are intracellular structures that perform specific functions in cells analogous to
the functions of organs in the body.
3. A cytoskeleton composed of microtubules, microfilaments,and intermediate filaments helps
give eukaryotic cells shape; the cytoskeleton is also involved in cell movements, intracellular
transport, and reproduction.
4. When eukaryotes reproduce, genetic material is distributed between cells by the highly
organized, complex processes called mitosis and meiosis.
5. Despite great differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes with respect to such things as
morphology, they are similar on the biochemical level.
1. CELL STRUCTURE

Protozoan
(động vật nguyên
sinh )

Bud scar:
Pellicle: lớp vỏ
Centrioles: paired barrel-shaped organelles located near
the nuclear envelope. They help determine the locations of
the nucleus and other organelles within the cell.
 Microbial fungi

Septum

Pores

VIDEOCLIP: Nuclear traffic in a filamentous fungus

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AtXKcro5o30
2. Eukaryotic Cell Structure and Functions
Structures Functions
1. Plasma membrane Mechanical cell boundary, selectively permeable barrier
with transport systems, mediates cell-cell
interactions and adhesion to surfaces, secretion
2. Cytoplasmic matrix Environment for other organelles, location of many
metabolic processes
3. Microfilaments, intermediate, Cell structure and movements, form the cytoskeleton
filaments, and
microtubules
4. Endoplasmic reticulum Transport of materials, protein and lipid synthesis

5. Ribosomes Protein synthesis

6. Golgi apparatus Packaging and secretion of materials for various purposes,
lysosome formation
2. Eukaryotic Cell Structure and Functions
Structures Functions
7. Lysosomes Enzyme that digests the peptidoglycan layer
8. Mitochondria Energy production through use of the tricarboxylic acid cycle,
electron transport, oxidative phosphorylation,
and other pathways
9. Chloroplasts Photosynthesis—trapping light energy and formation of carbohydrate
from CO2 and water
10. Nucleus Repository for genetic information, control center for cell
11. Nucleolus Ribosomal RNA synthesis, ribosome construction
12. Cell wall and Strengthen and give shape to the cell
pellicle
13. Cilia and flagella Cell movement
14. Vacuole Temporary storage and transport , digest ion (food vacuoles), water
balance (contract i le vacuole)
 Eucaryotic Cytoplasmic Matrix and Cytoskeleton

The cytoplasmic matrix of eukaryotic cells contains many important organelles.The cytoskeleton helps
form a framework within which the organelles lie.The cytoskeleton is composed of three elements:
microfilaments,microtubules, and intermediate filaments.
 Cell Wall in eukaryotic cell
In contrast with most bacteria, many eukaryotes lack an external cell wall. The amoeba is an
excellent example.

Many eukaryotes do have a rigid external cell wall. The cell walls of photosynthetic protists
usually have a layered appearance and contain large quantities of polysaccharides such as
cellulose and pectin. In addition, inorganic substances like silica (in diatoms) or calcium carbonate
may be present.

Fungal cell walls normally are rigid. Their exact composition varies with the organism; usually
cellulose, chitin, or glucan (a glucose polymer different from cellulose) are present. Despite their
nature the rigid materials in eukaryotic cell walls are chemically simpler than procaryotic
peptidoglycan
 Eukaryotic plasma membrane

Eukaryotic cell membranes, unlike most prokaryotic membranes, contain sterols such
as cholesterol in their lipid bilayers, and this may make them mechanically stronger,
thus reducing the need for external support.
 PLASMA MEMBRANE LIPIDS

The major membrane lipids are phosphoglycerides, sphingolipids, and cholesterol .

Prokaryote cell’s membrane does not contain

Sterol sterol
 3. Membrane transports/ Nutrient uptakes
Relative permeability of a phospholipid bilayer to various substances
Diffusion
Type of substance Examples Behaviour
Gases CO2, N2, O2 Permeable
Small uncharged polar Permeable, totally
Urea, water, ethanol
molecules or partially
Large uncharged polar
glucose, fructose Not permeable
molecules
Ions K+, Na+, Cl−, HCO3− Not permeable
Charged polar ATP, amino acids,
Not permeable
molecules glucose-6-phosphate
Uptake transport : Most of microorganisms
Phagocytosis : Protozoa Facilitated transports
Virulence: virus, bacterial phages
SEE VIDEO CLIP: Amoeba_eats_two_paramecia_(Amoebas_lunch)
SEE VIDEO CLIP: Bacteriophage T4 Virus
 Nutrient molecules frequently cannot cross selectively permeable plasma membranes
through passive diffusion and must be transported by one of three major mechanisms
involving the use of membrane carrier proteins.

VIDEO CLIPS: Membrane Transport animation

 Comparison of transport systems
Features Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion Active transport Group translocation

carrier proteins Non Yes Yes Yes

transport speed Slow Rapid Rapid Rapid

against gradient Non Non Yes Yes

transport Not specific Specific Specific Specific

molecules
metabolic energy No need Need Need Need

Solutes molecules Not charged Charged Charged Charged

 Osmosis and cell- membranes- comparative terms

Isotonic – equal
concentration of solute
on both sides of a
Hypotonic – higher water membrane Hypertonic – refers to an
concentration ( water potential) environment with higher salt
and lower solute  cell is concentration and lower water
swollen and easily broken potential cell is shrunken.