CE F313-Foundation Engineering

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama

Lecture-9
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus Retaining Walls
Introduction

Structures that are built to retain vertical or nearly vertical earth banks or any other material
are called retaining walls. Retaining walls may be constructed of masonry or sheet piles.
Some of the purposes for which retaining walls are used are shown in Fig.1.
Retaining walls may retain water also. The earth retained may be natural soil or fill. The
principal types of retaining walls are given in Figs. 1 and 2.

In general, retaining walls can be divided into two major categories: (a) conventional
retaining walls, and (b) mechanically stabilized earth walls.

Conventional retaining walls can generally be classified as

1. Gravity retaining walls
2. Semi gravity retaining walls
3. Cantilever retaining walls
4. Counterfort retaining walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Introduction

Whatever may be the type of wall, all the walls listed above have to withstand lateral pressures either
from earth or any other material on their faces. The pressures acting on the walls try to move the walls
from their position. The walls should be so designed as to keep them stable in their position.

 Gravity walls resist movement because of their heavy sections. They are built of mass concrete or
stone or brick masonry. No reinforcement is required in these walls.

 Semi-gravity walls are not as heavy as gravity walls. A small amount of reinforcement is used for
reducing the mass of concrete.

 The stems of cantilever walls are thinner in section. The base slab is the cantilever portion. These
walls are made of reinforced concrete.

 Counterfort walls are similar to cantilever walls except that the stem of the walls span horizontally
between vertical brackets known as counterforts. The counterforts are provided on the backfill side.

 Buttressed walls are similar to counterfort walls except the brackets or buttress walls are provided on
the opposite side of the backfill.
 In all these cases, the backfill tries to move the wall from its position. The movement of the wall is
partly resisted by the wall itself and partly by soil in front of the wall.
Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Introduction

Mechanically stabilized retaining walls have their backfills stabilized by inclusion of reinforcing elements
such as metal strips, bars, welded wire mats, geotextiles, and geogrids. These walls are relatively flexible
and can sustain large horizontal and vertical displacement without much damage.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Introduction

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Proportioning Retaining Walls

AS Per Indian Conditions

Stem: Top width 200 mm to 400 mm
Base slab width b= 0.4H to 0.6H, and
0.6H to 0.75H for surcharged wall
Base slab thickness= H/10 to H/14
Toe projection= (1/3-1/4) Base width

Approximate dimensions for various components of retaining wall

for initial stability checks: (a) gravity wall; (b) cantilever wall

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Proportioning Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Application of Rankine and Coulomb formulas to retaining walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Application of Rankine and Coulomb formulas to retaining walls

Fig. 19.1 Application of Rankine's active

condition to gravity Fig. 19.2 Lateral earth pressure on
cantilever walls under active condition

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Application of Rankine and Coulomb formulas to retaining walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Application of Rankine and Coulomb formulas to retaining walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Earth Pressure Charts For Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Earth Pressure Charts For Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Earth Pressure Charts For Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Earth Pressure Charts For Retaining Walls

Earth Pressure on Retaining walls with backfill slope of finite distance

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Earth Pressure Charts For Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

is a tensioned
cable designed to
add stability to a
free-standing
structure

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis
Example Problemsof Retaining Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

2) The cross section of a cantilever retaining wall

is shown in Figure . Calculate the factors of safety
with respect to overturning, sliding, and bearing
capacity.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Stability analysis of Retaining Walls

3) A gravity retaining wall is shown in

Figure. Use δ`= 2/3Φ1` and Coulomb’s
active earth pressure theory. Determine

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Reinforced Earth Walls

Reinforced Earth is a composite

material formed by cohesion less soil
and flexible metal reinforcing strips.
The earth and the reinforcement are
combined through friction. The result is
a monolithic mass that acts cohesively,
supporting its own weight and applied
loads.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Chronology of Reinforced Soil Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Reinforced Earth Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Reinforced Earth Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Components of Reinforced Earth Walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Mechanically Stabilized Earth(MSE) Walls

 More recently, soil reinforcement has been used in the construction and design of
foundations, retaining walls, embankment slopes, and other structures.
 Depending on the type of construction, the reinforcements may be galvanized metal strips,
geotextiles, geogrids, or geocomposites.
 The use of reinforced earth is a recent development in the design and construction of
foundations and earth-retaining structures.
 Reinforced earth is a construction material made from soil that has been strengthened by
tensile elements such as metal rods or strips, non biodegradable fabrics (geotextiles),
geogrids, and the like.
 The present concept of systematic analysis and design was developed by a French engineer,
H. Vidal (1966). The French Road Research Laboratory has done extensive research on the
applicability and the beneficial effects of the use of reinforced earth as a construction
material. The tests that were conducted involving the use of metallic strips as reinforcing
material.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Mechanically Stabilized Earth(MSE) Walls

 Retaining walls with reinforced earth have been constructed around the world since Vidal
began his work. The first reinforced-earth retaining wall with metal strips as
reinforcement in the United States was constructed in 1972 in southern California.
 The beneficial effects of soil reinforcement derive from (a) the soil’s increased tensile
strength and (b) the shear resistance developed from the friction at the soil-reinforcement
interfaces.
 Currently, most reinforced-earth design is done with free- raining granular soil only. Thus,
the effect of pore water development in cohesive soils, which, in turn, reduces the shear
strength of the oil, is avoided.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Different types of Reinforcement

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Types of Wall facings

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Types of Wall facings

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Types of Wall facings

Geogrid apertures allowing interlocking with surrounding soil

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Different types of wall configurations

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Different types of wall configurations

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Cost Comparison

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Advantages of Reinforced Earth Wall

Exceptional Wall Heights

Theoretically, Reinforced Earth can be constructed to any height. Irrespective of the wall height, the details
and technique used in the construction of Reinforced Earth wall remain the same. This allows for
uniformity in construction control and monitoring. On the other hand, the detailing for conventional walls
vary substantially with the height, as the design changes from a cantilever wall to counterfort wall.

High Load-Carrying Capacity

Reinforced Earth wall is capable of supporting large loading, and is most suitable for use in bridge
abutment construction. In abutment where the bridge loading are structurally supported on piles,
reinforced Earth wall and embankments are used as a working platform to support the loading and dead
loads during the casting of the cross beams or bank seats.

Structural flexibility
The modular nature of Reinforced Earth wall and the reinforced granular backfill allows for significant
differential movement along the wall. Its flexible mass produces uniform bearing pressure at the base,
resulting in lower design bearing pressure, hence requiring lesser foundation treatment at the base.

Fast Track Construction

In the construction of highways, the construction time is directly related to the cost of construction. Speedy
construction helps to cut down machinery costs and overheads.
Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Advantages of Reinforced Earth Wall

Minimum working area

Highways interchanges are mostly required in developed areas, where working area is limited. Reinforced
Earth is constructed from the rear side, and requires very little working area in front of the wall. This
minimizes traffic disruption, and allows for uninterrupted construction.

Long-term durability
Reinforced Earth walls can be designed to 100 years design life or more. Highway operators are often
required to take responsibility for the highway for the duration of their operation, which sometimes
exceeds 30 years.

Cost effectiveness
Reinforced Earth designs are optimized to ensure maximum cost effectiveness. Its simple and repetitive
construction technique simplifies control and management, and helps to minimize wastage and pilferage
on site.

Aesthetic appearance
Precast Reinforced Earth panels can be easily modified to allow for specific architectural finishes.
Combinations of geometrical shapes (such as ribbed, embossed, logo) and concrete textures (such as plain,
rock finishes) provide for infinite possibilities in the finished product.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Applications of Reinforced Earth Walls

1.Reinforced Earth technology has revolutionized construction with wide-ranging uses in transport,
mining, industry, energy, water and military infrastructure.

2.Reinforced Earth structures are used for retaining walls, bridges, abutments, ramps, mine dump walls,
ore storage silos and reclaim bunkers, haul road overpasses, containment dykes, wharf and quay walls,
dams and weirs, materials handling, blast barriers and landscaping.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Walls in India

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

General Design Considerations

The general design procedure of any

mechanically stabilized retaining wall
can be divided into two parts:
1. Satisfying internal stability
requirements
2. Checking the external stability of the
wall
The internal stability checks involve
determining tension and pullout
resistance in the reinforcing elements.

The external stability checks include

checks for overturning, sliding, and
bearing capacity failure .

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

General Design Considerations

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

General Design Considerations

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

General Design Considerations

The general considerations for the design are:

1. Selection of backfill material: granular, freely draining material is normally specified.
However, with the advent of geogrids, the use of cohesive soil is gaining ground.
2. Backfill should be compacted with care in order to avoid damage to the reinforcing material.
3. Rankine's theory for the active state is assumed to be valid.
4. The wall should be sufficiently flexible for the development of active conditions.
5. Tension stresses are considered for the reinforcement outside the assumed failure zone.
6. Wall failure will occur in one of three ways.
a. tension in reinforcements
b. bearing capacity failure
c. sliding of the whole wall soil system.
7. Surcharges are allowed on the backfill. The surcharges may be permanent (such as a
roadway) or temporary.
a. Temporary surcharges within the reinforcement zone will increase the lateral pressure on
the facing unit which in turn increases the tension in the reinforcements, but does not
contribute to reinforcement stability.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

General Design Considerations

b. Permanent surcharges within the reinforcement zone will increase the lateral pressure and
tension in the reinforcement and will contribute additional vertical pressure for the
reinforcement friction.
c. Temporary or permanent surcharges outside the reinforcement zone contribute lateral
pressure which tends to overturn the wall.
8. The total length L of the reinforcement goes beyond the failure plane by a length Le. Only
length Le (effective length) is considered for computing frictional resistance. The length LR
lying within the failure zone will not contribute for frictional resistance (Fig. 19.15a).
9. For the propose of design the total length L remains the same for the entire height of wall H.
Designers, however, may use their discretion to curtail the length at lower levels. Typical
ranges in reinforcement spacing are given in Fig. 19.16.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Principles of MSE Wall Design

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Principles of MSE Wall Design

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Design Method

The following forces are considered:

1. Lateral pressure on the wall due to backfill
2. Lateral pressure due to surcharge if present on the backfill surface.
3. The vertical pressure at any depth z on the strip due to
a) overburden pressure P0 only
b) overburden pressure P0 and pressure due to surcharge

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Principles of MSE Wall Design

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Principles of MSE Wall Design

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Principles of MSE Wall Design

o Galvanized steel strips of widths varying from 5 to 100 mm and thickness from 3 to 5 mm are generally
used.
o Allowance for corrosion is normally made while deciding the thickness at the rate of 0.001 in. per year
and the life span is taken as equal to 50 years.
o The vertical spacing may range from 20 to 150 cm ( 8 to 60 in.) and can vary with depth.
o The horizontal lateral spacing may be on the order of 80 to 150 cm (30 to 60 in.).
o The ultimate tensile strength may be taken as equal to 240 MPa (35,000 lb/in.2).
o A factor of safety in the range of 1.5 to 1.67 is normally used to determine the allowable steel strength
fa. With regards to spacing, only the vertical spacing is to be considered.
o Manufacturers provide geotextiles (or geogrids) in rolls of various lengths and widths. The tensile force
per unit width must be determined.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Principles of MSE Wall Design

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Principles of MSE Wall Design

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Principles of MSE Wall Design

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Principles of MSE Wall Design

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Installation of Reinforced Earth Wall

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

According to the Rankine active pressure theory

When a surcharge is added at the top, as shown in Figure

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Also, when a surcharge is added at the top, the lateral pressure at any depth is

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Reinforcing ties at any depth z will fail by pullout if the frictional resistance developed along the surfaces
of the ties is less than the force to which the ties are being subjected. The effective length of the ties along
which frictional resistance is developed may be conservatively taken as the length that extends beyond the
limits of the Rankine active failure zone, which is the zone ABC in Figure 8.29. Line BC makes an angle
of with the horizontal. Now, the maximum friction force that can be realized for a tie at depth z
is

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Stability check for the

retaining wall

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

RE Wall Design using Metallic Strips

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Example Problems

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

A typical section of a retaining
wall with the backfill reinforced
with metal strips is shown in fig.
The following data are available
Height H = 9m; b = 100mm
t = 5mm; fy= 240 Mpa
Fs for steel = 1.67
Fs on soil friction = 1.5
Φ = 360 ; γ = 17.5 kN/m3; δ = 250
h x s = 1 x1 m
Required
a) Lengths L and Le at varying
depths
b) The largest tension T in strip
c) Allowable tension in strip
d) Check for external Stability

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Codal Provisions

IS 14458 : Part 1 : 1998 Guidelines for retaining wall for hill area: Part 1 Selection of type of wall
IS 14458 : Part 2 : 1997 Guidelines for retaining wall for hill area: Part 2 Design of retaining/breast walls
IS 14458 : Part 3 : 1998 Guidelines for retaining wall for hill area: Part 3 Construction of dry stone walls

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Case History

For case histories I will be uploading separate handout.

Instructor: Dr. J S Kalyana Rama BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus

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