Self-compacting concrete

•In order to overcome the problem of adequate compaction,

self-compacting concrete is increasingly being adopted all over
the world.
• Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a flowing concrete mixture
that is able to consolidate under its own weight.
•The highly fluid nature of SCC makes it suitable for placing in
difficult conditions and in sections with congested
reinforcement.
Very small clearance
between rebars:
prevents penetration
of vibrator nozzle
85
 Why self-compacting concrete?
•A typical example is a beam-column junction. In a frame structure
beam column junctions are critical locations and potential sites for
initiation of cracks leading to failure.
•These junctions are therefore
heavily reinforced to prevent
cracking leading to failure.
•Ensuring adequate compaction
at such junctions is challenging.
Self-compacting concrete is of
great benefit in such situations.
•Another advantage of SCC is that it considerably reduces the turn-
around time required to place large sections. It has been estimated
that SCC can be placed up to 73% faster than conventional
concrete. 86
 Limitations
• SCC also reduces noise levels since it does not require the
use of mechanical vibrators. This is particularly important at
urban work sites.
•There are however certain limitations which have stood in the
way of more wide usage of SCC.
•The cost of SCC is typically higher than normal concrete.
According to one estimate, it is 1.5 times more expensive.
•Another major barrier is the lack of standardization. Quality
control of SCC is difficult, because mix design depends strongly
on aspects which are difficult to characterize exactly e.g. the
degree of roundedness of the aggregates.
•The other issue is developing reliable performance indicators
(e.g. is shrinkage and creep more significant compared to
regular concrete?) 87
 Difference in constituents
• There are some major differences in the constituents of SCC and
conventional concrete.
• Generally SCC has more “powder content” and less coarse
aggregates by volume. The increased “powder content” may include
fine aggregates (river sand or other fillers). It may also include reactive
powders such cement and silica fume.
Comparison: . At around 2000°C the reduction of
typical SCC high-purity quartz to silicon produces
Silicon vapor, which oxidizes and
& NC mixes condenses at low temperatures to from
silica fume. The particles have size
range of 0.1-0.2 microns and when
added to concrete undergo fast
hydration, leading to a denser C-S-H gel
•In addition SCC must include High Range Water Reducers (HRWRs)
which give it adequate flowability without excessive water content.
•They often contain viscosity modifying agents (VMAs) to ensure
stability of the mix and prevent segregation. 88
 HRWRAs and VMAs
• HRWRs that work on the principle of ‘steric hindrance’ are
more effective in SCC than those based on ‘electrostatic
repulsion’.
•Thus PCE superplasticizers can be used in relatively low
dosages in SCC.
•VMAs increase the viscosity but usually cause only a small
increase in the yield stress.
• Prior to the use of VMAs, the percentage of fines in SCC had
to be even higher to ensure stability and prevent segregation.
•Use of VMAs, which have polysaccharides as their active
ingredient, allows design of stable SCC mixes, while reducing
the amount of fines.
•This reduces the potential of shrinkage and creep in SCCs. 89
Effect of HRWR & VMA on rheology
Control
HRWR
VMA
𝜇VMA 𝜇Control 𝜇HRWR
𝜏VMA 𝜏Control 𝜏HRWR
90
 HRWRs and VMAs
•VMAs, being polysaccharides, have a significant retarding effect.
•The retarding effect of VMAs extends the slump retention time. This
reduces the need of retarders in SCCs for slump retention in hot
weather conditions or CDT.
•The sequence of addition of VMA and HRWR in the concrete
mixture is important.
•VMA swells in water and if added before HRWR, it affects dispersal
of the HRWR.
•VMA should be added after the HRWR has come in contact with
cement particles.
•Thus HRWR should be first dispersed in mixing water, and then
VMA should be added.
•The VMA should be uniformly dispersed across the entire volume of
concrete, otherwise it cannot perform its intended function. 91
 Difference in constituents
• As mentioned earlier, the effectiveness of an SCC mix
depends on the shape of the coarse aggregates.
•It has been observed that self-compaction is achievable at
lower cement (or fines) content when rounded aggregates are
used, as compared to angular aggregates.
•Rounded aggregates provide better flowability because of
their lower “blocking potential”, compared to angular and semi-
rounded aggregates.
•Use of angular aggregates (as well as flaky ones) may give
rise to blocking problems in confined areas, and also increase
the yield stress of plastic concrete.
•Thus, incorporation of aggregate shape in the mix design is
essential for SCC. 92
Difference between composition of
regular concrete and SCC
Small sized and reduced coarse Reduced internal
aggregates stresses that may cause
blockage
HRWRs Reduce yield stress to
increase plastic flow
Increase viscosity to
VMAs
prevent segregation
Lower heat of hydration/
Mineral admixtures enhance stability*
(pozzolanic or non-pozzolanic)
*It has been reported that use of natural pozzolana (calcined clay, calcined shale,
93
metakaolin) leads to increase in viscosity and hence enhances stability of SCC
 Mix Design of SCCs
•Self-compacting concrete mixes should be designed for a
combination of filling ability, resistance to segregation, and
ability to pass through and around reinforcement without
blockage.
•A number of methods for designing mixes for SCCs have
been proposed.
•The empirical methods of Okamura and Ozawa, e.g. start with
prescribed volume fractions of coarse and fine aggregate and
then adjust them to achieve desired flow properties.
• The rheology based methods attempt to control the yield
stress and viscosity of SCC by use of superplasticizers and
VMAs. 94
 Mix Design of SCCs
•Alternatively, the particle packing method attempts to optimize
the volume of fine and coarse aggregates to ensure minimum
voids and high density.
•The goal is to cut down the volume of cement paste and
minimize water required for hydration, thereby ensuring
availability of adequate water to achieve the desired flowability.
•It is however not apparent if there can be one generalized
method that will be applicable for the design of SCC.
•Such a method, if arrived at, has to incorporate the effect of all
essential parameters, viz. differences in aggregate proportions,
rheology of cement paste and particle packing density.
•It is possible that the particle packing models in combination with
the rheological models could provide a generalized procedure for
95
SCC mix design.
 Tests for self compactibility
•Recall that the distinguishing characteristics of SCC are:
(i) filling ability i.e. the ability to fill the form work without
external compaction
(ii) passing ability i.e. the capacity to pass through narrow
openings in order to fill the spaces between rebars.
(iii) stability: the ability to flow without segregation.
• Tests have been devised to ensure that the SCC satisfies
each of the above requirements.
•Based on their experience with SCC, researchers have
suggested allowable limits on test values.
• Filling ability/flowability is usually measured using the ‘slump
flow’ test, which is simple and reliable.
96
 Test for Flowability
•An estimate of the viscosity and the ability to flow through a
narrow-opening can be obtained using the V-funnel test.
•The funnel is filled with around 10 litres of plastic concrete,
with maximum aggregate size < 25 mm, and then released i.e.
the concrete is allowed to flow out through the aperture at the
bottom, within 10 sec of levelling of the top surface.
𝑡
65
Avg. flow through speed: 2.05⁄𝑡0 2.05=.01/(.065×.075)
Relative flow through speed, 𝑅𝑚 10⁄𝑡0 97
Flow through Index, 𝑆𝑓 𝑡5 𝑡0 ⁄𝑡0
 Tests for passing ability
•There are a number of tests to determine the passing ability of
SCC. These tests measure the ability of the concrete to
overcome potential barriers to its flow.
•The L-box test for instance determines the one-dimensional
passing ability in a restrained condition. It can also provide
visual indication of lack of stability.
•Another passing ability test involves the use of the U-box
apparatus which also tests the ability to flow despite obstacles
in the flow path.
•The J-ring test determines the passing ability of SCC by using
a J-Ring in combination with a slump cone mould.
98
 L-Box and U-Box tests
L-Box Test
U-Box Test
99
J-ring test
100
 Tests for stability
•Three tests have been suggested to determine the segregation
potential of SCCs. These include the settlement column test, sieve
stability test, and penetration test .
A.In the settlement column test, fresh
SCC is poured into a mould of height
400-500 mm, and subjected to
controlled agitation. After a settlement
period, the ratio of the mass of coarse
aggregates in the top and bottom
parts is measured. The greater the
difference in this ratio from one,
greater is the segregation potential of
the SCC.
B.In the sieve stability test, a fresh SCC sample is left undisturbed for
15 minutes in a bucket. The top layer of the sample is then poured
onto a 5 mm sieve, and the mass of the mortar passing through the
sieve is determined. 101
 Tests for segregation potential
Higher the fraction of the mass of the top layer that passes
the sieve, higher is the likelihood that there has been
segregation of the mix.
The segregation potential is therefore expressed as the ratio
between the mass of mortar collected through the sieve and
the original mass of the top portion.
C.The penetration test measures the segregation potential as
the depth of penetration of a standard mass (54g) into the
concrete.
If segregation is high, then the top part of the concrete would
be mainly mortar, and the resultant depth of penetration would
be high.
For a good SCC, the penetration depth should not be more
than 8 mm. 102
 Need for curing
•Fresh concrete gains strength most
rapidly during the first few days:
65%-70% of 28 days strength is
attained at the end of first week
•Final strength attained depends on
moisture and temperature
conditions during the first 28 days.
•The maintenance of proper moisture
and temperature conditions during
this period is known as curing.
•Loss of water content in concrete
due to premature drying out of the
concrete can prevent sufficient Effect of different
curing conditions
hydration of the cement – 30% of
strength can be lost due to
premature drying. 103
 Ways of curing
•Moist curing: application of water
directly to the surface or
continuously cover the concrete
with sand, wet straw or hessian
saturated with water
•Surface application of calcium
chloride: prevent evaporation of
water from concrete and also
absorb moisture from atmosphere
•Membrane curing: chemicals
(usually resins) are sprayed on
the concrete surface to form an
impervious membrane that
prevents evaporation. It may also
involve direct application of plastic
104
sheets on exposed surface.
 Effect of curing temperature
•Curing not only depends on the relative humidity of the
environment but also on its temperature
•In general, high curing temperatures raise the very early
compressive strength of cement.
•Increasing the curing temperature from 20 to 85°C, raises the
average C–S–H gel chain length dramatically.
•This increase in the degree of polymerization contributes to the
early gain in compressive strength.
•However sustained high curing temperature has an adverse
effect on mechanical properties for curing times of over 15 days.
•The reason for this is that a high initial rate of hydration induces
non-uniform distribution of the hydration product across the
microstructure. Moisture gradients are not resolved 105
Effect of curing temperature: Crossover Effect
Crossover Effect
during strength
development of
concrete due to
different curing
temperatures
Lower curing
temperatures result
in higher offset times
(time required for
concrete to set).
However higher
curing temperatures
lead to the Crossover
Effect.
106
 Effect of curing temperature
•Dense clusters form around hydrating grains at favourable locations
which retards subsequent hydration at less favourable locations.
•The resulting increase in porosity has an adverse effect on long-term
strength.
•On the other hand, low initial rates of hydration (such as with 4°C ≤ T
≤ 22°C) favour the controlled precipitation of reaction products in
interstitial space, raising the gel/space ratio.
•Concrete compressive strength therefore depends not only on how
much hydration products precipitate but also on how uniformly they
are distributed. Both affect the pore-size distributions.
•The above observations with regard to temperatures has been seen to
be true for cements with and without fly ash. Hence they hold for OPC
as well as PPC. 107
 Effect of curing temperature
13oC 23oC 32oC 41oC 49oC
Strength tests for cement cured for 28 days at various temperatures, then kept at 23oC/100% relative
humidity till day 365
108
 High Strength Concrete
•According to the ACI, high-strength concrete is concrete with
compressive strength greater than 40 MPa. Others have suggested
compressive strengths > 65 MPa.
•High-strength concrete makes optimal use of the same basic
ingredients as normal-strength concrete.
•Aggregates are selected for high strength, optimum gradation and
surface characteristics that give rise to improved bond between
cement paste and aggregates.
•In addition high-quality cement (usually OPC) is generally used, and
the proportions of cement, water, aggregates, and admixtures is
optimized to achieve desired strength.
109
 High Strength Concrete
•Both mineral and chemical admixtures are used.
•Pozzolanic material, such as fly ash and silica fume, are the most
commonly used mineral admixtures, which react with the Ca(OH)2
produced from the primary hydration process to produce additional
C-S-H gel.
•It is difficult to produce high-strength concrete mixtures without
using chemical admixtures.
•A common practice is to use a superplasticizer in combination with
a water-reducing retarder (a retarder which also acts as a water-
reducer e.g. lignosulfonates and hydrocarboxylic acids).
•The superplasticizer gives the concrete adequate workability at low
water-cement ratios, leading to concrete with greater strength.
•The water-reducing retarder lowers the water-cement ratio while
slowing down the hydration of cement, thereby allowing more time
to place the concrete. 110
 Ultra High Performance Concrete
•Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) must have
compressive strength>120 Mpa.
•In addition, it has to fulfil durability, tensile ductility and toughness
requirements. In addition it must have good workability well. This
is because high performance is required, not just high strength.
•To achieve the high compressive strength, high quality OPC
along with supplementary cementitious materials, fine sand and
high-range water reducers are used.
•The UHPC matrix is very dense and has a disconnected pore
structure resulting in low permeability.
•The material’s low permeability prevents the ingress of harmful
materials such as chlorides. This yields superior durability.
•UHPC can eliminate the need for reinforcing steel in some
applications (e.g. pure compression members). 111
 Ultra High Performance Concrete
•Also the material has high flow characteristics that make it self-
compacting – which is advantageous in densely reinforced sections.
•In addition to high compressive strength and ductility, its flexural
strength is also significantly higher than normal strength concrete
•Fibers are generally included in the mix to achieve the target tensile
ductility and toughness requirements.
•Fiber types used in UHPC include high carbon steel, polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA), polypropelene, glass, or carbon.
112
Fibers in UHPC
113
 Use of fibers in UHPC
•If, instead of using a single type of fiber, a mix of fibers e.g.
comprising polypropelene and PVA fibers are used, then gains in
flexural strength and fracture toughness are reported to be higher.
•The PVA fibers used are micro-fibers (with lengths as small as 6
mm) and can arrest micro-cracks and control their propagation.
•By bridging the micro-cracks, PVA fibers give rise to higher tensile
and flexural strengths.
•The polypropelene fibers used on the other hand, are macro-fibers
(with lengths greater than 35 mm) that can slow down/arrest the
propagation of macro-cracks.
•The polypropelene fibers therefore result in increase in fracture
toughness and ductility.
•The combined effect of using such hybrid mixes is an increase in
114
tensile/flexural strength as well as ductility.
 A chemical bond?
• The prevalent
understanding is
that the fibers in
the mortar matrix
are chemically inert.
• Fiber-matrix bond
arises from
adhesion between
fiber & matrix
molecules.
• Of course, adhesive
forces are higher for
some fibers vis-à-
vis others.
• Recent research
however suggests
that for some novel
fibers, chemical
bonds may form as
well. 115
 Fiber Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete (FRSCC)
•Use of a higher fiber volumes in normally compacted concrete results
in loss of workability, since the fibers tend to (i) bundle & impede flow
(ii) increase the area to be wetted. This imposes severe restrictions on
the volume fraction of fibers (<3%) in normally compacted concrete.
•However, fibers in SCC tend to be more uniformly dispersed because
of the better flowability of SCC. This helps overcome the problem of
reduced workability, and allows use of higher fiber volume fractions.
•FRSCC therefore combines the higher ductility of FRC with the
superior flowability of SCC.
•Due to the higher proportion of fines in SCC, the matrix is compact.
This helps improve the fiber-matrix bond, leading to enhanced fracture
toughness of FRSCC.
•It must be ensured however, that the addition of fibers does not affect
the yield stress and viscosity of SCC: hence the volume of the fibers
must be accounted for explicitly in the mix design.
116
 Fiber Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete
•To do this, the fibers are included in the particle size distribution of the
aggregates by assigning them an equivalent particle diameter.
•Tests are performed to find the optimum w/c ratio, paste content and
superplasticizer dosage to achieve the target yield stress and viscosity.
•However, standard passing ability tests (L-box, U-box & J-ring tests)
may not be appropriate for FRSCC: the openings in these tests may
not permit the fibers to pass
through. Effect of different fiber combinations on compressive strength of SCC
DS-SCC
•The standard tests are S-SCC
D-SCC
designed to test passing
ability between rebars. N-SCC
•Since FRSCC is designed
to reduce rebar usage in
SCC, e.g. by increasing
rebar spacing, less
stringent passing ability 117
tests may be appropriate.
 Self-healing in Concrete
•It has long been known that small micro-cracks in concrete can “self-
heal”: a process which involves deposition of precipitates in the fissures
of open micro-cracks.
•The closure of the open fissures allows stress transmission across the
micro-crack.
118
Autogenous healing Bacteria assisted healing
 Autogenous healing
•This process is known as autogenous healing. There are two
causes for autogenous healing.
•The first is deposition of hydration products in the fissures and their
possible swelling.
•The other, probably main, cause is the deposition of calcium
carbonate crystals when the free lime in concrete reacts with
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
•However autogeneous healing can only close cracks of relatively
low width, usually less than 0.2 mm wide.
•A new technology, involving the use of bacterial concrete, can lead
to the closure of cracks which are more than twice that size.
•Various bacterial species have been used in concrete including
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pseudofirmus, Bacillus pasteurii, etc. 119
 Bacterial Concrete
•Bacteria, along with an appropriate organic compound, are introduced
in the concrete. The bacteria “feed” on the organic compound and
deposit calcium carbonate as a by-product.
•Thus the self-healing agent has two components: bacterial spores and
an organic compound, often calcium lactate.
•A viable approach is to impregnate porous expanded clay particles with
bacterial spores and calcium lactate yeast extract solution, and add
them to the concrete mix.
•This approach takes care of two major problems.
•It ensures that the spores are not crushed during casting and
compaction. It also prevents the spores from being inactivated by the
highly alkaline environment inside concrete. 120
 Bacterial Concrete
•Ensuring that the bacteria survive the alkaline environment is a major
consideration. Hence only alkali-resistant bacteria should be used.
•The clay particles, which act as a porous reservoir for the bacteria,
may be used to replace part of the regular concrete aggregates.
•The bacteria metabolically convert calcium lactate to calcium
carbonate:
CaC6H10O6 + 6O2 → CaCO3 + 5CO2 + 5H20
•The CO2 released can react with free lime in concrete to generate
additional CaCO3. This too helps in the healing of micro-cracks.
•Since oxygen is consumed during the process, there must be sufficient
diffused oxygen inside the concrete for the reaction to occur.
•Bacterial concrete is an active research area, and the approach
described is one of many under consideration. While the technology is
promising, the long-term durability of bacterial concrete and cost
efficiency of the technique need further investigation. 121