Structural Health Monitoring and Control

Structural Health Monitoring and Control

Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

Nirjhar Dhang

√
Version : 1.414 : 2
Created on : January 01, 2017
Last revision : January 11, 2025
Module D : Non-destructive Testing of Concrete
Module D-1.1 : Non-destructive Testing of Concrete - part 1.1
Overview

1 Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

3 References
Non-destructive Testing of Concrete
Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

Concrete is a highly nonhomogeneous composite material with

varying composition and different raw materials.
Apart from precast concrete units that, like steel products, are
fabricated at a plant, most concrete is produced in relatively
small ready-mixed concrete plants and delivered to the
construction site.
The placing, consolidation, and curing of concrete takes place in
the field using labor that is relatively unskilled.
The resulting product is, by its very nature and construction
method, highly variable and does not lend itself to testing by
traditional nondestructive methods as easily as steel products.
Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

Despite these drawbacks, there has been progress in the

development of nondestructive methods for testing concrete, and
several methods have been standardized by the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the Canadian Standards
Association (CSA), the International Standards Organi- zation
(ISO), the British Standards Institute (BSI), and others.
Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

The direct determination of mechanical and other properties

requires that concrete specimens taken from the structure be
tested destructively; therefore, nondestructive methods cannot
yield absolute values of these properties.
Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

Methods have been developed to measure other properties of

concrete from which estimates of mechanical properties or other
characteristics related to performance can be inferred.
Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

There are two classes of nondestructive test methods for

concrete.
Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

The first class consists of those methods that are used to estimate
strength.
The surface hardness, penetration resistance, pullout, break-off,
pull-off, and maturity techniques belong to this category.
Some of these methods are not truly nondestructive because
they cause some surface damage, which is, however, minor
compared with that produced by drilling a core.
Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

The second class includes those methods that measure other

characteristics of concrete such as moisture content, density,
thickness, resistivity, and permeability.
Also included in the second class are such methods as stress
wave propagation, ground probing radar, and infrared
thermography techniques, which are used to locate
delaminations, voids, and cracks in concrete.
In addition, there are methods to provide information on steel
reinforcement such as bar location, bar size, and whether the
bars are corroding.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method
Basic Principles and different methods

The ultrasonic pulse velocity method has been used successfully

to evaluate the quality of concrete for more than 60 years.
This method can be used for detecting internal cracking and
other defects as well as changes in concrete such as deterioration
due to aggressive chemical environment and freezing and
thawing.
By using the pulse velocity method it is also possible to estimate
the strength of concrete test specimens and in-place concrete.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The pulse velocity method is a truly nondestructive method, as

the technique uses mechanical waves resulting in no damage to
the concrete element being tested.
A test specimen can be tested again and again at the same
location, which is useful for monitoring concrete undergoing
internal structural changes over a long period of time.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

Three types of propagating mechanical waves (also called stress

waves) are created when the surface of a large solid elastic
medium is disturbed by a dynamic or vibratory load:
(i) compressional waves (also called longitudinal or P-waves),
(ii) shear waves (also called transverse or S-waves),
(iii) surface waves (also called Rayleigh waves).
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The compressional waves propagate through the solid medium in

a fashion analogous to sound waves propagating through air.
Each wave type propagates with its characteristic velocity.
For a given solid, compressional waves have the highest velocity
and surface waves the lowest.
In concrete, the velocities of the shear and surface waves are
typically 60 and 55%, respectively, of the compressional wave
velocity.
The particular velocity of a wave depends on the elastic
properties and density of the medium.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

For elastic, homogeneous solid media the compressional wave

velocity is given by the following:
s
KE
V = (1)
ρ
where
V = compressional wave velocity
K = (1 − µ)/(1 + µ)(1 − 2µ))
E = dynamic modulus of elasticity
ρ = density
µ = dynamic Poisson’s ratio
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

s
KE
V = (2)
ρ
The value of K varies within a fairly narrow range.
For example, as µ increases from 0.15 to 0.25 (67% increase),
the associated K value increases from 1.06 to 1.20 (12%
increase).
Thus, variations in E and ρ have a more significant effect on V
than variations in µ.
For concrete, V typically ranges from 3000 to 5000 m/s.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The frequency f and wavelength λ of propagating wave motion

are related by the velocity of propagation:V = f λ.
The frequency is reported in units of hertz (or cycles per second)
and the wavelength in units of distance (e.g., mm).
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

In a given medium, an increase in wave frequency therefore

dictates a decrease in the wavelength, and vice versa.
When a propagating wave pulse impinges on an interface with a
medium having distinct material properties, a portion of the
wave energy is scattered away from the original wave path
For example, voids, cracks, and aggregate particles in concrete
act to scatter some of the initial energy of the compressional
wave pulse away from the original wave path.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The magnitude of the scattering is especially intense if the

wavelength of the propagating wave is the same size or smaller
than the size of the scatterer, resulting in rapid wave
attenuation.
For concrete, the upper limit of usable frequency is about 500
kHz as the associated wavelength is approximately 10 mm,
which is in the size range of the coarse aggregate particles.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

As a result, the path length that can be effectively traversed at

this upper limit of frequency before the wave pulse becomes
completely scattered is only several centimeters.
Greater path lengths can be traversed using lower frequencies
(thus larger wavelengths): a frequency of 20 kHz can usually
traverse up to 10 m of concrete.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

Schematic view of pulse velocity test circuit

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The transmitting transducer of the pulse velocity instrument

transmits a wave into the concrete and the receiving transducer,
at a distance L, receives the pulse through the concrete at
another point.
The pulse velocity instrument display indicates the transit time,
∆t, it takes for the compressional wave pulse to travel through
the concrete.
L
The compressional wave pulse velocity V, therefore, is V = ∆t
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

There are three possible configurations in which the transducers

may be arranged. These are
(i) direct transmission;
(ii) semidirect transmission;
(iii) indirect or surface transmission.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

Different configuration (a) direct method, (b) semi-direct method (c)

indirect method
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The direct transmission method is the most desirable and the

most satisfactory arrangement because maximum energy of the
pulse is transmitted and received with this arrangement.
The semidirect transmission method can also be used quite
satisfactorily.
However, care should be exercised that the transducers are not
too far apart; otherwise the transmitted pulse might attenuate
and a pulse signal might not be detected.
This method is useful in avoiding concentrations of
reinforcements.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The indirect or surface transmission method is least satisfactory

because the amplitude of the received signal is significantly lower
than that received by the direct transmission method.
This method is also more prone to errors and a special procedure
may be necessary for determining the pulse velocity.
First, the location of the transmitting transducer is fixed and the
receiver location is changed in fixed increments along a line, and
a series of transit time readings are taken.The direct distance
between the two transducers is plotted on the X-axis and the
corresponding pulse transit time is plotted on the Y-axis
The inverse of the slope of this plot is the pulse velocity along
the line.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

When this surface method is used, the pulse propagates in the

concrete layer near the surface.
The near-surface concrete is sometimes of a composition slightly
different from the concrete in the lower layer.
For example, the concrete near the surface of a slab has higher
amounts of fine materials than the concrete in the lower portion
of the slab.
Thus, velocities measured by the surface transmission method
are typically lower than those measured with direct transmission.
This behavior, however, can be turned into a means to detect
and estimate the thickness of a layer of different quality material.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

A layer of lower quality concrete may occur due to improper

construction practices (e.g., poor vibration and finishing, poor
curing, cold joints due to delay, incorrect placement), damage
due to weathering action (e.g., freezing and thawing, sulfate
attack, and corrosion of reinforcement and other embedded
items), and damage by fire.
The layer thickness can be estimated by using the surface
transmission procedure.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

When the two transducers are closer together, the fastest travel
path is through the upper layer of concrete, and as the
transducers are moved further apart, the fastest travel path is
the combined path through both layers.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The pulse velocity through the upper layer (V1 ) and the lower
layer (V2 ) will be indicated on the plot by the different slopes of
the two straight lines fitted to the data
The distance X at which the change in these slopes occurs is
measured and the thickness of the upper layer, t, is estimated
from the following equation:
s
X V2 − V1
t= (3)
2 V2 + V1
This method is only suitable when the upper layer (the
poor-quality layer) is distinct, is of reasonably uniform thickness,
and V2 > V1 .
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Aggregate Size, Grading, Type, and Content Many

investigators have found that the pulse velocity is affected
significantly by the type and amount of aggregate.
In general, the pulse velocity of cement paste is lower than that
of aggregate.
Concrete with rounded gravel had the lowest pulse velocity,
crushed limestone resulted in the highest pulse velocity, and
crushed granite gave a velocity that was between these two.
On the other hand, type of aggregate had no significant effect
on the relationship between the pulse velocity and the modulus
of rupture.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Cement Type The type of cement did not have a significant effect
on the pulse velocity.
The rate of hydration, however, is different for different cements
and it will influence the pulse velocity.
As the degree of hydration increases, the modulus of elasticity
will increase and the pulse velocity will also increase.
The use of rapid-hardening cements results in higher strength for
a given pulse velocity level.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Water Cement Ratio As the water/cement ratio increases, the

compressive and flexural strengths and the corresponding pulse
velocity decrease assuming no other changes in the composition
of the concrete.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Admixtures Air entrainment does not appear to influence the

relationship between the pulse velocity and the compressive
strength of concrete.
Other admixtures will influence the pulse velocity in
approximately the same manner as they would influence the rate
of hydration.
For example, the addition of calcium chloride will reduce the
setting time of concrete and will increase the rate by which the
pulse velocity increases.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Age of Concrete The effect of age of concrete on the pulse velocity

is similar to the effect on the strength development of concrete.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Transducer Contact If sufficient care is not exercised in obtaining

a good contact (e.g., inconsistent pressure applied to
transducers), an incorrect pulse velocity reading may result.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Temperature of Concrete Temperature variations between 5 and

30C have been found to have an insignificant effect on the pulse
velocity.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Moisture and Curing Condition of Concrete The pulse velocity

for saturated concrete is higher than for air-dry concrete.
Moisture generally has less influence on the velocity in
high-strength concrete than on low-strength concrete because of
the difference in the porosity.
A 4 to 5% increase in pulse velocity can be expected when dry
concrete with high w/c ratio is saturated.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Path Length Theoretically the path length traveled by the wave

and the frequency of the wave (which is the same as the
frequency of the transducer) should not affect the propagation
time; therefore, they should not affect the pulse velocity.
However, in practice, smaller path lengths tend to give more
variable and slightly higher pulse velocity because of the
inhomogeneous nature of concrete.
RILEM has recommended the following minimum path lengths:
100 mm for concrete having maximum aggregate size of 30 mm
150 mm for concrete having maximum aggregate size of 45 mm
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Size and Shape of a Specimen In most cases, the pulse velocity

is not dependent on the size and the shape of a specimen.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Level of Stress Pulse velocity is generally not affected by the level

of stress in the element under test.
However, when the concrete is subjected to a very high level of
static or repeated stress, say, 65% of the ultimate strength or
greater, microcracks develop within the concrete, which will
reduce the pulse velocity considerably.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

Presence of Reinforcing Steel One of the most significant

factors that influences the pulse velocity of concrete is the
presence of steel reinforcement.
The pulse velocity in steel is 1.4 to 1.7 times the pulse velocity
in plain concrete.
Therefore, pulse velocity readings in the vicinity of reinforcing
steel are usually higher than that in plain concrete.
Whenever possible, test readings should be taken such that the
reinforcement is avoided in the wave path.
If reinforcements cross the wave path, correction factors should
be used.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity

The correction factors that are used are those recommended by

RILEM and British Standards.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity
Standardization of the Pulse Velocity Method

The pulse velocity, V, of longitudinal stress waves in a concrete

mass is related to its elastic properties and density according to
the following relationship:
v
E (1 − µ)
u
u
V = t (4)
ρ(1 + µ)(1 − 2µ)
where
E = dynamic modulus of elasticity
µ = dynamic Poisson s ratio
ρ = density
Standardization of the Pulse Velocity Method

This test method is applicable to assess the uniformity and

relative quality of concrete, to indicate the presence of voids and
cracks, and to evaluate the effectiveness of crack repairs.
It is also applicable to indicate changes in the properties of
concrete, and in the survey of structures, to estimate the
severity of deterioration or cracking.
When used to monitor changes in condition over time, test
locations are to be marked on the structure to ensure that tests
are repeated at the same positions.
Application : Estimation of strength of concrete

The pulse velocity method may provide a means of estimating

the strength of both in situ and precast concrete although there
is no physical relation between the strength and velocity.
The strength can be estimated from the pulse velocity by a
pre-established graphical correlation between the two parameters.
The relationship between strength and pulse velocity is not
unique, and is affected by many factors,e.g., aggregate size,
type, and content; cement type and content; water-cement ratio
and moisture content
Application : Estimation of strength of concrete
Application : Establishing Homogeneity of
Concrete

The pulse velocity method is suitable for the study of

homogeneity of concrete, and, therefore, for relative assessment
of quality of concrete.
Heterogeneity is defined as interior cracking, deterioration,
honeycombing, and variations in mixture proportions.
Heterogeneities in a concrete member will cause variations in the
pulse velocity.
The diffraction of a wave pulse around an internal air void will
cause an increase in the time of propagation for an assumed
path through the void center. Thus, the apparent velocity will
decrease.
Application : Establishing Homogeneity of
Concrete

Only large voids, generally larger than the transducer contact

face, will cause measurable reduction in velocity.
In situ concrete strength varies in a structure because of the
variations in source and proportions of materials, uniformity of
mixing, and due to inadequate or variable consolidation.
The pulse velocity method is highly effective in establishing
comparative data and for qualitative evaluation of concrete.
Application : Studies on the hydration of Cement

The pulse velocity method has the advantage that it is truly

nondestructive.
Therefore, changes in the internal structure of concrete can be
monitored on the same test specimen.
The he pulse velocity method is applied for monitoring the
setting and hardening process of cement paste, mortar, and
concrete.
The method is particularly useful for detecting changes during
the first 36 h after adding water to the concrete mixture.
A very significant practical use of the method is the evaluation
of the rate of setting for different types of cements or
admixtures to be used for a given project.
Application : Studies on the hydration of Cement
Application : Studies of durability of Concrete

Aggressive environments will damage the structure of concrete

and decrease the pulse velocity.
Deterioration caused by freezing and thawing, sulfate exposure,
alkali-silicate reactivity, and corrosion of embedded items can be
detected by the pulse velocity method and have been studied by
various investigators.
Application : Studies of durability of Concrete

Progressive deterioration of either a test specimen or in situ

concrete can be monitored by conducting repetitive tests on the
same concrete element.
Deterioration of concrete due to fire exposure has also been
investigated by the pulse velocity method.
Application : Measurement of Surface Crack Width
Application : Measurement of Surface Crack Width

The depth of an air-filled surface crack can be estimated by the

pulse velocity method
The depth, h, is given by :
Xq 2
h= T1 − T22 (5)
T2
where
X = distance to the transducer from the crack (note that
both transducers must be placed equidistant from the
crack)
T1 = transit time around the crack
T2 = transit time along the surface of the same type of
concrete without any crack (note that the surface path
length for T1 and T2 must be equal)
Application : Determination of dynamic modulus
of elasticity

The velocity of a compressional wave traveling through an

elastic material is uniquely defined by the elastic constants and
density of the material by wave propagation theory
Therefore, it is possible to compute the modulus of elasticity of
a material if the ultrasonic pulse velocity is measured where the
values of Poisson s ratio and density are known or assumed.
This approach has an advantage over other standardized
techniques, which make use of vibration frequencies, in that the
testing is not restricted to specially shaped laboratory specimens.
Application : Determination of dynamic modulus
of elasticity

Nevertheless, the estimation of the dynamic modulus of

elasticity in concrete from ultrasonic pulse velocity
measurements is not normally recommended for two reasons:
(i) the error resulting from inaccurate estimation of Poisson’ s
ratio is not insignificant
(ii) the equation is appropriate for homogeneous materials only,
leaving the validity for inhomogeneous composite materials,
such as concrete, in doubt.
Usually, the dynamic modulus of elasticity estimated from pulse
velocity measurements is higher than that obtained from
vibration measurements, even when the value of Poisson’ s ratio
is known.
Advantages and Limitations

The pulse velocity method is an excellent means for investigating

the uniformity of concrete.
The test procedure is simple and the available equipment in the
market is easy to use in the laboratory as well as in the field.
The testing procedures have been standardized by ASTM and
other organizations, and test equipment is available from several
commercial sources.
With the availability of small portable digital instruments, which
are relatively inexpensive and easy to operate, ultrasonic testing
adds a new dimension to quality control of concrete in the field.
Advantages and Limitations

Ultrasonic pulse velocity tests can be carried out on both

laboratory-sized test specimens and concrete structures.
This fact, combined with the knowledge that ultrasonic
techniques provide an effective means of delineating both surface
and internal cracks in concrete structures, enhances the
usefulness of these tests.
Inasmuch as a large number of variables affect the relations
between the strength parameters of concrete and its pulse
velocity, the use of the latter to estimate the compressive and/or
flexural strengths of concrete is not recommended unless
previous correlation testing has been performed.
Problem

Q1 The ultra-sonic pulse velocity (m/s) of a RCC building is

measured as :
3924, 4314, 4453, 4611, 4955, 4535, 4131, 2519, 4935,
3586, 2378, 4828, 2875, 2852, 4718, 3885, 4965, 2686, 2834,
2479, 3684, 2344, 2872, 3099, 2934, 4691, 4170, 3756, 3373,
3375, 2605.
As per IS 13311(Part-1) 1992, the gradation of UPV is
done as :
(Excellent : > 4500m/s),
(Good : 3500-4500m/s),
(Medium : 3000-3500m/s) and
(Doubtful : below 3000 m/s).
Problem (contd.)

(a) Caculate average pulse velocity and standard deviation.

(b) State the quality of the concrete
q
(c) Using the formula V = KE ρ
where, V = compressional wave
velocity, K = (1 − µ)/(1 + µ)(1 − 2µ)), Density, ρ =
2500kg/m3 ,dynamic Poisson’s ratio, µ=0.15, calculate mean
and standard deviation of dynamic modulus of elasticity, E.
References
References

Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Second

Edition, Editors : V. M. Malhotra and N. J. Carino, CRC Press,
2004