Rock Strength

Rock strength is specified in terms of tensile strength, compressive strength,

shear strength, and impact strength. In the context of fracture gradient, only
the tensile strength of rock is of importance. The tensile strength of rock is
defined as the pulling force, required to rupture a rock sample, divided by
the sample’s cross-sectional area. The tensile strength of rock is very small
and is of the order of 0.1 times the compressive strength. Thus, a rock
material is more likely to fail in tension than incompression.When the
stresses in a material exceed the strength, the object would fail. Refined
materials, such as metallic, have well-defined strength properties but due to
complexity of rock structures, their strength cannot be identified easily. It
should however be noted that even if a material is refined and
homogeneous, its strength is never exactly known. This is one reason for
applying factors of safety, the other reason being that the loading may not
be well defined. Rocks are not homogeneous and often micro-cracks or
fissures can be found in certain directions of formation due to geological
processes. Contrary to metallic, rocks, such as shales and clay stones with
various laminations, have directional properties and are therefore
anisotropic. Typically, they are weak along the laminae, but strong across it

Rock failure mechanism

The subject of rock failure has been studied in a co‐ordinated way since the
1960s. The way in which rock fails can be studied by examination of natural
rock formations that have been stressed and strained over geological Time,
by laboratory experiments on rock samples, through in situ experiments, and
by observing the results of Rock excavation and loading during engineering
construction. In this book, rock failure mechanisms are Illustrated and
explained. Over the years, there have been three main developmental
phases supporting rock engineering design: Analysis based on elasticity
theory; the use of rock mass classification systems; and computer modelling.
The Elasticity theory approach is useful because it enables the stresses
around circular and elliptical holes to be Determined, although the approach
is most useful for deep excavations where the rock behavior is essentially
Elastic. Rock mass classification is also useful because the variety of factors
affecting rock behavior can be Accommodated in a mathematical expression,
thus providing an index value for rock quality. Computer Modelling started as
a method of displaying analytical results and extending the analyses to more
complex Situations. However, in the last two decades, computer modelling
has advanced by leaps and bounds so that it Is now, not only the design tool
of choice for rock engineering, but is also a research tool in its own right for
Exploring rock failure mechanisms. For example, a comprehensive
knowledge of the state of stress throughout The micro‐structure of a rock
specimen or throughout a fractured rock mass several kilometers in size
cannot Be established by direct laboratory or in situ measurements but it can
be studied through computer modelling Using numerical techniques. For this
reason, to illustrate rock failure mechanisms, many of the diagrams in this
Book are the output from numerical simulations. By many comparisons with
the behavior of real rocks, there Is the confidence that these simulations do
indeed represent real rock failure behavior. When engineering on or in rock
masses, one may wish to avoid failure (e.g. when excavating a cavern to
Host the turbines in a hydro‐electric project) or one may wish to cause failure
(e.g. in the block caving method Of mining when a large rock block is
undercut and breaks up as it descends). In both cases, wishing to avoid or To
cause rock failure, it is important to understand the rock failure mechanisms
and the many factors that can Affect the mode of rock failure, in particular
the nature of the applied stress state and the nature of the rock. The applied
stress can be in the form of tension, compression or shear, and various
combinations of these. The Rock itself is generally discontinuous,
inhomogeneous and anisotropic and occurs on a multiplicity of scales This
means that rock failure can be manifested in many ways. In the book mainly
brittle rock failure is Considered.

Stresses acting on the walls of the wellbore

The stresses acting on the wellbore” walls are radial, tangential (or hoop),
and axial, and their distribution is influenced by factors like in-situ stresses,
wellbore trajectory, and drilling fluid pressure.

Radial Stress (σr):This stress acts perpendicular to the wellbore wall,

outwards from the center of the borehole.

Tangential Stress (σt) / Hoop Stress:

This stress acts in a circular direction around the circumference of the

wellbore.

Axial Stress (σa):This stress acts along the length of the wellbore, or
vertically in a vertical well.

Factors Affecting Stress Distribution:

In-situ Stresses: The pre-existing stresses within the formation (horizontal

and vertical) significantly influence the stresses around the wellbore.

Wellbore Trajectory: The orientation of the wellbore (vertical, deviated, or

horizontal) affects the stress distribution.

Drilling Fluid Pressure: The pressure exerted by the drilling fluid within the
wellbore also plays a crucial role in determining the stresses on the wellbore
wall.

Formation Properties: The strength, permeability, and other properties of

the rock formation can influence how stresses are distributed and whether
the wellbore remains stable.

Roll of geomechanics in hydraulic fracturing :

The role of geotechnical in design and evaluation of hydraulic fracture

stimulations in unconventional reservoirs has become More important than
ever. Microcosmic mapping provides a good estimation of fracture geometry
and stimulated reservoir volume (SRV); however, without geotechnical
considerations, the predictions may not be completely accurate. By
understanding reservoir rock mechanics and those parameters that have a
major impact on the performance of fracture treatments, more reliable
decisions in fracturing design and optimization can be made. This paper
presents the results of an analytical model that predicts the Changes in
stress anisotropy in the neighborhood of the fractures of different designs in
an elastic-static medium. Also, a numerical Model has been developed to
investigate the effect of different geo mechanical parameters on the
geometry of the fractures. Results Show that the spacing between fractures
has a major impact on the changes in stresses. The effect of well spacing on
fracture geometry in modified zipper fracture design has been investigated.
The results of this study give valuable insight into optimization of Fracture
placement in newly developed designs of hydraulic fractures in horizontal
wellbores There are several important factors in performing a successful
hydraulic fracturing treatment; the most important is the fractures spacing
(Cheng 2009). An optimized design for fracture placement, along the
wellbore, should create large fracture surface Area and sufficient fracture
width to allow for proppant settling, forming a conductive path from
formation to the wellbore. In fracturing horizontal wellbores with multiple
transverse fractures creates large surface areas in contact with the
reservoir.However, the opening of the fractures is highly dependent on the
net pressure and the spacing between fractures. As noted by So-Liman et al.
(2008), the spacing between fractures is limited by the stress perturbation
caused by the opening of propped fractures. Fracturing designs can be
optimized if the original stress anisotropy is known and the stress
perturbation can be predicted (Soliman Et al. 2010). Several authors have
investigated stress perturbation around single (Wood and Junki 1970;
Warpinski, Wolhart and Wright 2004) and multiple (Cheng 2009; Roussel and
Sharma 2011) fractures. However, there is a lack of study on the change of
Stress anisotropy in different designs of multistage fracturing.

Factors responsible for wellbore instability:

Wellbore instability is one of the main problems that engineers meet During
drilling. The causes of wellbore instability are often classified Into either
mechanical (for example, failure of the rock around the hole Because of high
stresses, low rock strength, or inappropriate drilling Practice) or chemical
effects which arise from damaging interaction Between the rock, generally
shale, and the drilling fluid. Often, field Instances of instability are a result of
a combination of both chemical And mechanical. This problem might cause
serious complication in Well and in some case can lead to expensive
operational problems. The Increasing demand for wellbore stability analyses
during the planning Stage of a field arise from economic considerations and
the increasing Use of deviated, extended reach and horizontal wells. This
paper presents causes, indicators and diagnosing of wellbore Instability as
well as the wellbore stresses model. Wellbore instability has become an
Increasing concern For horizontal and extended reach wells, especially with
The move towards completely open hole lateral section, and possibly
temperature. Sensitivity studies can also Help assess if there is any
additional risk due to the Selected well trajectory and inclination. Wellbore
stability Predictive models may also be used to design appropriate
Completions for inflow problems where hole collapse and Associated sand
production, or even the complete loss of The well, may concerned. For
example, in highly permeable And weakly cemented sandstones such
predictive tools Can be used to decide whether a slotted or perforated liner
Completion would be preferred over leaving a horizontal Well completely
open hole (McLellan at all,1994b).

Rock compressibility

Rock compressibility is an important formation rock properties. It influences

various processes In reservoir and rock formations that encompass from
sources of reservoir driving energy, changes in Other reservoir properties, to
land subsidence. Various studies have been performed and published, but
No comprehensive studies have ever been performed on Indonesian
reservoir rocks. This article presents Results of such studies on Indonesian
limestone, reservoir rocks that have contributed much to Indonesia’s
National oil and gas production for decades. The study was carried out in
order to study the characteristics of Limestone in its relation to rock porosity.
A set of 84 limestone samples taken from fi ve productive formations In
Indonesia is used in the study. Some existing and widely known
mathematical correlations/models are also Used to assist the study. Some of
the results show that the existing models are not always valid for some of
The rocks, and therefore a new model is proposed for medium-hard and
vuggy limestone. The results also Show that limestone characteristics are
not related to rock types and place of origin, but instead to rock Hardness
and degree of vuggy pore presence. As reservoir pressure declines, and
effective Stress increases, during production reservoir rocks Also tend to
shrink in its pore volume. The shrinkage And expansion due to decrease in
effective stress Behavior is known to be represented by a rock Property
named rock compressibility. There are Actually three type of rock-related
compressibility: Pore volume compressibility, matrix compressibility, And bulk
compressibility (rock compressibility). A Bulk compressibility is by principle a
combination Between pore volume compressibility and matrix (grain)
compressibility. However, since pore Volume compressibility is much larger
than Matrix compressibility a rock compressibility is Therefore much more
controlled by pore volume Compressibility and accordingly the term of rock
Compressibility is simply interchangeable with pore Volume compressibility.
In over pressured oil – and Especially gas – reservoirs rock compressibility
can Often be regarded as even the most important source Of driving
energy (Fetkovitch et al. 1991).