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Biology Sss1 Ebook

The document outlines a biology curriculum for S.S.S 1, covering topics such as the definition of biology, classification of living things, and characteristics distinguishing living from non-living entities. It discusses the branches of biology, scientific methods, and the importance of science in various fields. Additionally, it includes practice questions and answers to reinforce learning.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
16 views183 pages

Biology Sss1 Ebook

The document outlines a biology curriculum for S.S.S 1, covering topics such as the definition of biology, classification of living things, and characteristics distinguishing living from non-living entities. It discusses the branches of biology, scientific methods, and the importance of science in various fields. Additionally, it includes practice questions and answers to reinforce learning.

Uploaded by

nimiye.boham
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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S.S.S 1
BIOLOGY
FIRST TERM
TABLE OF CONTENT
WEEK: 1 TOPIC: BIOLOGY AND LIVING THINGS

WEEK: 2 TOPIC: LIVING THING AND NON-LIVING THING

WEEK: 3 TOPIC: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

WEEK: 4 TOPIC: ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

WEEK: 5 TOPIC: PLANT NUTRITION

WEEK: 6 TOPIC: NUTRIENT CYCLING IN NATURE

WEEK: 7 TOPIC: NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

WEEK: 8 TOPIC: MODES OF NUTRITION

WEEK: 9 TOPIC: BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT

WEEK: 10 TOPIC: GROWTH


Week: 1
Topic: Biology and Living Things
Biology As An Inquiry In Science
Science is defined as a systematic process of making enquiry about the living and non-living
things in our environment. It is the study of natural things around us and biology as a branch
of science is derived from the Greek word bios, “life” and the suffix –logia, “study of.” Biology is
a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their
structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology generally recognizes
the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine
that propels the synthesis and creation of new species. It is also understood today that all
organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal
environment to maintain a stable and vital condition.

Meaning Of Science

Science can be defined as the systematic process of making enquiries about living things
and non-living things in our environment.

Definition Of Biology
Biology is coined from two Greek words; ‘Bio’ meaning life and ‘Logos’ meaning study.
Biology can simply be defined as the study of life or the study of plants and animals. It is also
the scientific study of life or living matter in all its forms and processes.

Branches of Biology.

Biology is basically grouped into two main branches. These are:-

Zoology – The study of animals

Botany – The study of plants

Other branches include

Ecology – The study of plants and animals in relation to their environment.

Morphology – This involves the study of external features of plants and animals
Anatomy – This is the branch of biology which involves the study of the internal structures of
plants and animals

Genetics – This is the scientific study of heredity and variation in living things

Physiology – This involves the study of how plants and animals function.

Scientific Approach

It involves sequences of making enquiries about an object or things under study in science.
Scientific methods of science include;

Observation Hypothesis Classification Experiment

Inferences Measurement Conclusion Theory or Law

The starting point of scientific methods is Observation which involves the use of senses to
describe what one has seen or felt about an object. The observation leads to classification,
then to interference and later to measurement and identification of the existing problems.

Usefulness of Science

1. Medicine – Science has contributed greatly to the manufacture of vaccines and drugs
that are used to cure various diseases of man

2. Manufacturing Industries – Various materials are combined together to manufacture


many finished products

3. Construction – Roads, railways, airports have been designed and constructed as a


result of the knowledge of science

4. Engineering – Ship building, skyscrapers, bridges, roads have been designed and
constructed due to the knowledge of science

5. Technology – Science has helped in the development of computers, telephones,


telex, fax machines have been developed with the aid of science which now makes
communication easier.

6. Transportation – Aerolanes, ships, rockets have been built due to the knowledge of
science
Practice Questions

1 ……….. is the study of plants and animals in relation to their environment.


a) Entology
b) Ecology
c) Autology
d) Ecosystem

2 ……….. is the branch of biology which involves the study of the internal structures of plants
and animals.
a) Morphology
b) Entymology
c) Anatomy
d) Physiology

3 Which of this is not a usefulness of science?


a) Transportation
b) Communication
c) Medicine
d) Market

4 ……….. is defined as a systematic process of making enquiry about the living and non-living
things in our environment.
a) Scientific
b) Sciences
c) Science
d) Biology

5 The starting point of scientific methods is …………….


a) Classification
b) Observation
c) Observer
d) Identification

6 …………. is not a branch of Biology.


a) Autelogy
b) Zoology
c) Ecology
d) Genetics

7 …………… involves the study of external features of plants and animals.


a) Autelogy
b) Zoology
c) Ecology
d) Morphology
8 ……………. refers to the study of plants.
a) Autelogy
b) Botany
c) Ecology
d) Genetics

Answers
1. B

2. C

3. D

4. C

5. B

6. A

7. D

8. B
Week: 2
Topic: Living Thing and Non-living Thing
A living thing is any organism or a living form that possesses or show the characteristics of life.
Thus, they have an organized structure being made up of a cell or cells, which requires energy
to survive, ability to reproduce, grow, metabolize, respond to stimuli, move, respire and to adapt
to the environment.

Examples of living things include; the bacteria, protozoa, plants, fungi, animals, humans, etc.
Viruses are not absolutely living or non-living. When outside their host, viruses are inactive and
seemingly inanimate. When inside their host, they become active and alive, capable of utilizing
the host cell’s structures and replicate.

A non-living thing is one that lacks or has stopped displaying the characteristics of life. Thus,
they lack or no longer display the capability for growth, reproduction, respiration, metabolism,
and movement. They are not capable of responding to stimuli and adapting to their
environment. They also do not require energy to continue existing. Examples of non-living
things are rock, water, and sun.

Characteristics of Living Things

1. Feeding/Nutrition: All living organisms need to take substances from their environment to
obtain energy, to grow and to stay healthy. Nutrition is defined as the ability of living
organisms to feed. This is to enable them carry out life processes like growth, reproduction
etc

2. Movement: All living organisms show movement of one kind or another. All living organisms
have internal movement, which means that they have the ability of moving substances from
one part of their body to another. Some living organisms show external movement as well –
they can move from place to place by walking, flying or swimming.

3. Breathing or Respiration: All living things exchange gases with their environment. Animals
take in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. Respiration is defined as the exchange of
gases between organisms and their environment. Living organisms take in oxygen and
breathe out Carbon dioxide.

4. Excretion: Excretion is the removal of waste from the body or the removal of metabolic
waste products from the body. If this waste was allowed to remain in the body, it could be
poisonous. Humans produce liquid waste called urine. We also excrete waste when we
breathe out. All living things need to remove waste from their bodies.
5. Growth: When living things feed they gain energy. Some of this energy is used in growth.
Living things become larger and more complicated as they grow. Growth is defined as an
irreversible or permanent increase in size, dry mass or weight of an organism due to the
addition of living proton plasmic materials.

6. Sensitivity or Irritability: Living things react to changes around them. We react to touch,
light, heat, cold and sound, as other living things do. Irritability is defined as the ability of
organisms to respond to stimuli. Stimuli include heat, light, pain, water, sound and chemical
substances to which living tings respond

7. Reproduction: All living things produce young ones. Humans make babies, cats produce
kittens and pigeons lay eggs. Plants also reproduce. Many make seeds which can germinate
and grow into new plants. Reproduction is defined as the ability of a living thing to give birth
to young ones or offspring. The purpose of reproduction is to ensure continuity of life. Types
of reproduction –

Sexual reproduction: Involves two organisms coming together to produce an offspring

Asexual reproduction – One organism producing an offspring

8. Adaptation: This is the way living organisms get used to their various environments in such
a manner that they would be comfortable.

9. Life span or Death: All living organisms must die because they have a definite and limited
period of existence.
Differences between Plants and Animals
PLANTS ANIMALS

1) Plants generally are rooted in one place


Most animals have the ability to move freely.
and do not move on their own (locomotion).

Animals cannot make their own food and are


2) Plants contain chlorophyll and can make
dependent on plants and other animals for
their own food, this is called Photosynthesis.
food.

Animals give off carbon dioxide which plants


3) Plants give off oxygen and take in carbon
need to make food and take in oxygen which
dioxide given off by animals.
they need to breathe.

4) Plants cells have cell walls and other Animal cells do not have cell walls and have
structures differ from those of animals. different structures than plant cells.

5) Plants have either no or very basic ability Animals have a much more highly developed
to sense. sensory and nervous system.

6) Growth is apical. Growth occurs equally on all parts.

Test Questions
1. A …………… is any organism or a living form that possesses or show the characteristics of
life. a) living things b) non-living thing c) living thing d) organism

2. …………. is not an example of living things a) Protozoa b) Virus c) Bacteria d) Water

3. A …………….. is one that lacks or has stopped displaying the characteristics of life. a)
living thing b) non – living thing c) rock d) Nonliving things

4. ………… is not a characteristic of living things. a) Growth b) Movement c) Irritation d)


Irritability

5. Animals undergo photosynthesis. True or False

6. ………… is the exchange of gas with the environment. a) Reproduction b) Respiration c)


Expiration d) Desperation

7. …………….. is an irreversible or permanent increase in size. a) Growth b) Development c)


Increment d) Reproduction
8. ……….. is not an example of a stimuli. a) Pain b) Water c) Ground d) Sound

9. Excretion is the removal of …………… waste products from the body. a) catabolic b)
metabolic c) anabolic d) diabolic

10. …………… is a type of reproduction in living things. a) Sexual b) Asexual c) Bisexual d) a &
b

Answers
1. C

2. D

3. B

4. C

5. False

6. B

7. A

8. C

9. B

10. D
Week: 3
Topic: Classification of Living Things
In science, the practice of classifying organisms is called taxonomy (‘Taxis’ means
arrangement and ‘nomos’ means law). The modern taxonomic system was developed by the
Swedish botanist Carolus Linneaeus (1707-1788) which provides scientists and students a way
to sort and group organisms for easier study. He used simple physical characteristics of
organisms to identify and differentiate between different species, and is based around
genetics. All living things were lumped together into two kingdoms, namely plants and animals.
Animals included every living thing that moved, ate, and grew to a certain size and stopped
growing. Plants included every living thing that did not move or eat and that continued to grow
throughout life. It became very difficult to group some living things into one or the other, so
early in the past century the two kingdoms were expanded into five kingdoms: Protista (the
single-celled eukaryotes); Fungi (fungus and related organisms); Plantae (the plants); Animalia
(the animals); Monera (the prokaryotes).

There are 7 major groups that are used in the classification of living things. These are Kingdom
– Phylum – Class – Order – Family – Genus – Species. The basic unit of classification of living
things is the species. Species is the smallest unit containing members which have the largest
number of features in common and usually interbreed among themselves but a member of a
species cannot interbreed with the member of another species.

The Five Kingdoms

Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia

Classification of Humans/Lions

Kingdom – Animalia/Animalia

Phylum – Chordata/Chordata

Class – Mammalia/Mammalia

Order – Primates/Carnivora

Family – Hominidae/Felidae

Genus – Homo/Panthera

Species – Sapiens/Leo
Binomial System of Nomenclature

Carolus Linnaeus introduced a system of naming living tings which is popularly used today.
This system is called the Binomial System of Nomenclature. Each living organism is given two
names . The first name is the Generic name and it begins with a capital letter while the last
name is the specific name which begins with a small letter. These names are written in italics
or underlined. Examples of scientific names are

1. Man – Homo sapiens

2. Lion – Panthera leo

3. Rat – Rattus rattus

4. Orange – Citrus sinensis

5. Housefly – Musca domestica

6. Maize – Zea mays

Botanical Classification

A. Kingdom Monera

Characteristics

• they are unicellular or single celled

• the cells are prokaryotic

• the cells have no definite nucleus with nuclear membrane

• they do not have complex chromosomes

• the cells have no mitochondria

• the cell wall does not contain cellulose but polysaccharides and amino acids

• there is no sexual reproduction

Monera is divided into two namely: Schizophyta and Cyanophyta

i) Schizophyta

Characteristics

– These are simple living things that belong to monera


– They have procaryotic cells with no definite nucleus
– They are microscopic and non-green plants
– They reproduce by asexual means (binary fission).
– They are unicellular organisms
Examples of Schizophyta are Bacteria, Viruses.

ii) Cyanophyta

Characteristics

• they are microscopic in nature

• they do not have cilia, flagella or locomotive organelles

• they reproduce by cell division

• Some are unicellular, others are filamentous

• their cells contain cholorophyll but not in choloroplast

• their cell walls do not contain cellulose

Examples are blue-green algae

B. Kingdom Protista

Characteristics

• they are unicellular organisms

• they are all eukaryotic

• some members are motile while others are non-motile

• they move either by cilia, flagella or amoeboid by nature

• some of the protista are heterotrophic while some are both heterotrophic and
photosynthetic

• asexual and sexual reproduction are exhibited by some members

There are four phyla in this kingdom


a. protozoa b. euglenophyta c. chrysophyta d. pyrrophyta

i. Protozoa

Characteristics

• they are microscopic organisms

• they have eucaryotic cells

• they reproduce asexually by binary fission

• they are unicellular motile organism

• they are mainly aquatic organisms while few are parasitic

• organisms in this group are Amoeba(move by pseudopodia), Paramecium (move of


cilia), Plasmodium

Blue Green Algae

ii Euglenophyta

Euglena

Euglena viridis is a protist that exhibits characteristics of plants and animals.

Animal Characteristics

• possession of flagellum for movement

• possession of gullet for passage of food

• possession of contractile vacuole used for osmo-regulation


• presence of eye spot to enable it to respond to light

• possession of pellicle which makes its body flexible

Plant Characteristics

• possession of choloroplast for photosynthesis

• possession of pyrenoids where starch is stored

• holophytic mode of nutrition

C. Kingdom Fungi

The fungi were for a long time classified with the plants. They however differ from plants in
the composition of their cell walls.

Characteristics

• they are eucaryotes

• some are unicellular e.g yeast, others are multicellular e.g mushrooms

• they are mainly non-motile organisms

• they have no true roots, stems and leaves

• they are non-green plants i.e they lack cholorophyll

• they store excess food in form of glycogen

• their cell walls are made of chitin instead of cellulose

• they reproduce asexually by formation of spores and some sexually by conjugation

• they are mainly found in moist emvironments


• examples of fungi are bread moulds, Rhizopus, mushroom, mucor, yeast and toad
stools

D. Kingdom Plantae

Characteristics

• they are eukaryotes

• they are many celled

• they are non – motile organisms

• they possess cholorophyll whic enable them to carry out photosynthesis

• The plant kingdom consist of 3 main divisions:- Thallophyta, Bryophyta and


Tracheopyta

i) Thallophyta

They are simple plants with definite shape. Members of thallophyta are the fungi, algae and
lichens. (Note lichens are formed when algae and fungi exist together. they grow on rocks
and tree trunks). They can further be subdivided into – Rhodophyta (Red algae), Cholorphyta
(green algae) and Phaecophyta (Brown algae).

Characteristics

• they are simple microscopic plants

• some are unicellular e.g chlamydomonas while some are multi cellular e.g spirogyra
• they are simple aquatic organisms

• they have cellular cell walls

• they are filamentous and cells are not differentiated

• they have no specialised reproductive organs

• examples include algae like chlamydomonas, volvox and spirogyra.

iii) Bryophyta

– They are complex, multicellular green plants


– Their cells are differentiated into tissues
– They lack true roots, stems and leaves but have structures resembling roots, stems and
leaves.
– They are non-vascular plants
– They are usually found growing in moist places
– Some bryophytes are terrestrial while other are aquatic.
– They exhibit asexual reproduction by spores in which there is alteration of generation.
Examples of Bryophytes are Mosses and Liverworts.
ii) Pteridophyta

– They are multicellular and vascular green plants


– They are non flowering plants
– They have true roots, stems and leaves
– They are mainly terrestrial plants while few are aquatic
– They are non-speed producing plants
– They reproduce sexually by gametes and asexually by spores
Example is the ferns and it includes – dryopteris, felimas and water ferns

iii) Tracheopyta

They are divided into Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta


a. Spermatophyta
– They are multicellular, seed producing flowering plants
– They are vascular plants and have well developed vascular tissues
– They have roots , stems and leaves.
– They reproduce sexually and do not need water for population.
– They are mainly terrestrial green plants.
Spermatophyta can be divided into two main classes: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

b. Pteridophyta

• they are multicellular and vascular plants

• they are non flowering plants

• they are mainly terrestial

• thye have true roots, stems and leaves

• they are non-seed producing plants

• they reproduce sexually by spores

Example is the ferns


E. Kingdom Animalia

The first eight phyla of the animal kingdom belongs to the sub-phylum invertebratae (animal
without backbone) while some phylum cordata belongs to pylum vertebrata (animals with
backbone and internal skeleton)

1. Porifera

Characteristics

• simple aquatic invertebrates

• they do not move but are attached to rocks and shells

• they live in colonies

• their larval stage is motile

• they are primitive multicellular animals

• they have asymmetrical bodies

• they lack specialised tissues

• examples are sponges

2. Coelentrata

Characteristics

• they are multicellular organisms

• the body is made up of two layers


• they are mainly aquatic organisms

• they reproduce asexually by budding

• they have tentacles and stinging cells used for capturing prey

• tey have soft jelly like bodies

• they possess radial symmetry

3. Platyhelminthes

Characteristics

• they are multicellular flatworms

• they are bilaterally symmetrical

• they do not have body cavity or lumen

• their body is made up of three layers – ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm

• most flatworms are hermaphrodites

• examples are tapeworm, liverfluke, planaria


4. Nematoda

Characteristics

• they have round and cylindrical bodies

• they lack body cavity

• they are bilaterally symmetrical

• body has three layers

• some are hermaphrodites and some reproduce sexually

• examples are hookworms, guinea worms, filaria worms, thread worms.

5. Annelida

Characteristics

• they have internal and external segmented bodies

• the body is long and cylindrical


• they have true body cavity

• the alimentary canal has two openings – the mouth and anus

• they reproduce sexually

• their bodies are made up of three thick layers

• examples are earthworms, leeches, tubeworms

6. Mollusca

Characteristics

• they have soft unsegmented bodies

• they ave tentacles on their heads

• they possess muscular foot adapted for crawling and burrowing

• the body is covered in soft tissue called mantle

• some have calcerous shells e.g snail, others no shell e.g slug and octopus

• their eyes and tentacles are used for sensitivity

• examples are squid, periwinkles, snails, oysters, octopus


Test Questions
1. The pratice of classifying living things is called…….? a) Taxinomy b) Taxonomy c)
Kingdom d) Classification

2. The basic unit of classification of living things is the ……. a) Class b) Order c) Kingdom
d) Species

3. The member of a species cannot interbreed with the member of another species. True
of False

4. The first name of the Binomial System of Nomenclature is called the ………. name. a)
Specific b) Generic c) Genetic d) Special

5. The botanical name for Maize is called ………. a) Zea mays b) Zea
Mays c) Zea mays d) Zea Mays

Answers
1. B

2. D
3. True

4. B

5. C

Week: 4
Topic: Organization of Life
Living organisms are highly organized. This organization occurs in steps and levels and each
level interact to build up even more complex structure. Therefore, organization of life is the
existence of life from single celled organism to a multicellular organism with complex forms
that perform different functions.

Levels of Organization

A complex multicellular living organism evolved from non-living atoms and molecules in
several steps. Biologists study living organisms at any of these levels. Molecular biologists,
for instance, go beyond the cell to study life at non-living molecular level. Every living thing is
made up of a cell or a number of cells. A single celled organism is called Unicellular
Organism, while those made up of many cells are called Multicellular Organism.

In unicellular organisms, the single cell performs all life functions. It functions independently.
Examples are Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Chlamydomonas, etc.

Multicellular organisms have various levels of organization within them. Individual cells may
perform specific functions and also work together for the good of the entire organism. The
cells become dependent on one another. Multicellular organisms have the following 5 levels
of organization ranging from simplest to most complex:

Cell level

Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things and this may serve a specific
function within the organism. Examples are blood cells, nerve cells, bone cells, muscle cells,
etc. There are some organisms at the cellular level (i.e. with single cell performs all life
functions). Examples are Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Chlamydomonas, etc.

Tissue level

A tissue is a collection of cells that are similar in structure and perform similar
function. Examples are blood, nervous, bone, etc. Example of animals that exist at tissue level
is Hydra.

Types of Tissue in Man and their Function

1. Epithelial Tissues: They line and protect the body surface. They help in the formation of
skin.

2. Blood Tissues: They transport food and oxygen round the body.

3. Skeletal Tissues: They support the body and aid movement

4. Connective Tissues: They bind other tissue together.

5. Nerve Tissues: They coordinate and transmit nerve impulses.

6. Muscle Tissues: It is for movement for the parts of the body.

Types of Tissue in Plant

1. Vascular Tissues: For transport of food and water in plant. They include phloem and xylem.

2. Strengthening Tissues: They give strength and support to the plants body. They include
sclerenchyma, collenchyma and parenchyma.

3. Epithelial Tissues: They line and protect the plants surface.

Organ Level

An organ is made up of tissues that work together to perform a specific activity. Examples are
heart, brain, skin etc.

System Level
System is a group of two or more organs that work together to perform a specific function
for the organism. Examples are circulatory system, nervous system, skeletal system, etc. The
human body has 11 organ systems which are the circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory
(urinary), immune (lymphatic), integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory,
and skeletal.

Organism Level

These are entire living things that can carry out all basic life processes. Meaning they can
take in materials, release energy from food, release wastes, grow, respond to the
environment, and reproduce. Usually made up of organ systems, but an organism may be
made up of only one cell such as bacteria or protist. Examples are bacteria, amoeba,
mushroom, sunflower, dog, human etc.

Complexity of Organisms

As one moves from unicellular to multicellular organisms, there are gradual complexity in the
level of organization. For instance, smaller animals require no backbones, while the bigger
ones require support and have backbones.

Advantages of Complexity in Organization

1. There is internal structural specialization of various cells.

2. Specialization leads to division of labour.

3. There is efficiency.

4. One body function does not adversely affect other body functions.

5. Mutual interdependence between component cells

6. It increases adaptation to environment

Disadvantages of Complexity in Organization

1. Individual cells are not capable of existing independently and therefore depend on one
another’s activity to exist.

2. Due to complexity, organisms must obtain enough food and oxygen to activate them and
avoid risk of death.
3. More effort is needed to eliminate toxic wastes.

4. Energy and time are wasted.

5. Decrease in ability to regenerate


Test Questions
1. ……….. is defined as the smallest unit of living organism. a) tissue b) cell c) unicellular d)
multicellular

2. Which of the following is the third level of organisation of life. a) Organ b) tissue c)
cell d) system

3. ……….. is two or more organs that work together to perform a specific role. a) System b)
Organ c) Cell d) Tissue

4. The following tissues are found in plants except ….. a) Epithelial b) Vascular c)
Strenthening d) Support

5. One of the following is not a tissue in Man. a) Blood b) Water c) Skeletal d)


Connective

6. Give two advantages of complexity in an Organisation Efficiency


Mutual Interdependence
Answers
1. B

2. A

3. A

4. D

5. B
Week: 5
Topic: Plant Nutrition

One of the main characteristics of living things is their ability to feed. This is called nutrition.
Both plants and animals feed. While some organisms called autotrophs can manufacture
their own food, other organisms called heterotrophs cannot. Therefore, most autotrophs can
manufacture their own foods through a process called photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is defined as the process by which green plants manufacture their own food
(organic compounds) making use of carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight.

Materials and Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis

1. Carbon (iv) oxide – This is derived from the atmosphere and it diffuses into the
intercellular spaces through the stomata of the leaves. From the intercellular spaces,
it diffuses furter into the mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts.

2. Water and Mineral Salts – Water and mineral salts are derived from the soil. They pass
into the roots of plants through the root hairs by a process called osmosis. Water and
dissolved mineral salts are conducted by the xylem from the roots through the
system;;

3. Sunlight – This is obtained from solar energy. The light from the sun is trapped by the
cholorophyll of the leaves. The sunlight is used to split water into hydrogen ions and
hydroxyl ions in a process called photolysis

4. Optimum Temperature – This is derived partly from Solar energy and partly from
chemical reactions witin the leaves during which heat is generated.

5. Chlorophyll – Green coloring found in pallisade and spongy mesophyll of the leaves
where food is synthesized within the plant.

Experiments in Photosynthesis in Plant

Experiment to Test For Starch in A Fresh Green Leaf

Aim: to test for the presence of starch in the leaf.

Materials required: fresh green leaves from outdoor plants, beakers, burner, boiling tubes,
dropping tube, white tiles and iodine solution.
Method: Firstly, boil the leaf in water for 4-6 minutes so as to kill the cells, inactivate the
enzymes and burst starch grains present. Then dip the test tube containing 70% alcohol to
decolourize the leaf. After that, the decolourized leaf is dipped into a beaker containing hot
water to soften it. Finally, place the leaf in a white tile and pour few drops of iodine solution
on the leaf. In a control experiment, a leaf from plant kept in the dark cupboard is plucked
and tested for starch.

Observation: It is seen that the leaf that was plucked from the potted plant outside turned
blue-black with iodine solution while the other leaf (control experiment) remained colourless.

Conclusion: Since the leaf in the real experiment turned blue-black with iodine solution, it
shows that photosynthesis has taken place or starch is formed by the leaf.

Experiment to Show That Light Is Necessary For Photosynthesis

Aim: To show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

Materials: A potted plant, strip of black paper, clips, cupboard.

Method: The potted plant is first de-starched by putting it in dark cupboard for 1 – 2 days.
This is to remove all traces of starch formed in the leaves. After this, the middle of one of the
leaves is covered by a strip of black paper, both at the front and back with the aid of clips.
The whole plant is then placed in sunlight. After about 3 – 5 hours, the paper is removed. The
leaf is then tested for starch.

Observation: Only the exposed parts, i.e., the top and bottom of the leaf turned blue-black
with the iodine solution which shows the presence of starch while the area that was covered
with black paper will remain colourless, indicating that starch is absent.

Conclusion: The experiment shows that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

Experiment to Show That Carbon Dioxide Is Necessary For Photosynthesis

Aim: To show that carbon (IV) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis

Materials required: A potted plant, Vaseline, conical flask, split cork, retort stand and caustic
soda (sodium hydroxide) solution.

Method: Use a leaf attached to a potted plant. The leaf is enclosed in the flask containing
caustic soda solution. This solution absorbs the carbon (IV) oxide inside the flask. The flask
mouth is corked and smeared with Vaseline at the neck to make it air tight. The whole
experiment is now exposed to sunlight for several hours. Two leaves (one inside the flask)
and the other outside the flask (control experiment) are plucked and tested for starch.
Observation: At the end of the test for starch, the leaf inside the flask did not show blue-
black colour, indicating absence of starch formation because of lack of carbon (IV) oxide
inside the flask while the leaf outside the flask shows blue-black colour, indicating the
presence of starch.

Conclusion: This experiment shows that carbon (IV) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis to
take place.

Experiment to Show That Chlorophyll Is Necessary For Photosynthesis

Aim: To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

Materials required: A variegated plant is needed. A variegated plant has green and white
patches on the leaves.

Method: the potted variegated plant is exposed to sunlight for about 3-5 hours, after which a
variegated leaf is plucked fresh from the plant during the day time when there is sunlight.
Make a drawing of the leaf and map out the green and white patches. The variegated leaf is
then tested for starch.

Observation: It will be noticed that the green parts of the variegated leaf are stained blue-
black with iodine solution while the white part remain colourless.

Conclusion: This experiment shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis to take
place.

Experiment to Show That Oxygen Is Given Off During Photosynthesis

Aim: To show that oxygen is given out as a by-product during photosynthesis

Materials required: A water plants e.g. Elodea, glass funnel, beaker, water, test tube, and
splinter.

Method: Fill up the beaker with water. Then place the water plant (e.g. Elodea) at the bottom
of the beaker. This is followed by the filling of the test tube with water and then inverts it over
the stem of the funnel. The whole set-up is then placed in the sunlight for several hours. Tiny
bubbles of gas will start to appear on the surface of the leaves and these break off and
accumulate at the top of the test tube.

Observation: It is seen that the gas formed at the top of the test tube rekindles a glowing
splinter showing the presence of oxygen.

Conclusion: This experiment shows that oxygen is given off as a by-product during
photosynthesis.

Chemosynthesis
Chemosynthesis is the process by which some organisms, such as certain bacteria, use
chemical Energy to produce carbohydrates.

Questions
1. ………. are plants that can manufacture their own foods a) Hetetrophs b) Autotrophs c)
Carnivores d) Omnivores

2. Plants that cannot manufacture their foods are called ……….. a) Hetetrophs b)
Organotrophs c) Herbivores d) Heterotrophs

3. …………….. is defined as the process by which green plants manufacture their own food.
a) Chemosynthesis b) Photosynthesis d) Autotrophism c) Heterotrophism

4. ……………. is the green coloring found in pallisade and spongy mesophyll of the leaves
where food is synthesized within the plant. a) Chlorophyll b) Chlorofoam c)
Chloraphenicol d) Cholorophyll

5. …………….. is the process by which some organisms, such as certain bacteria, use
chemical Energy to produce carbohydrates. a) Carbon dioxide b) Chemical Reaction
c) Carbolic reaction d) Chemosynthesis

Answers
1. B

2. D

3. B

4. A

5. D
Week: 6
Topic: Nutrient Cycling In Nature

Definition
Nutrient Cycle is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the
production of living matter. Nutrient cycles look at how important molecules in an ecosystem
are transferred. Like energy, these nutrients are never lost from the cycle, merely stored in a
different form – be it fossil fuels, living organisms or CO2. A very important role played by
microorganisms is that they feed on dead material by saprotrophic nutrition, and convert
complex organic molecules to simple ones.

The Carbon Cycle

All life is based on carbon; it is contained in proteins, carbohydrates; indeed all organic
molecules contain carbon. So it is the most important nutrient in an ecosystem. The carbon
cycle involves several stages of carbon being fixed (incorporated as part of) by plants from
the atmosphere. This carbon is transferred to consumers by eating, or it becomes fossil fuel
in fossilisation.

Below is an example of a carbon cycle. They cycles can be represented a number of ways,
and this is just one example.

Although much is said about rising carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, only 0.04% of air is
CO2, indeed most is in the ocean as hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-), and this is where most
photosynthesis occurs. That isn’t to say carbon dioxide rising in the atmosphere isn’t a very
important global problem, just that it only comprises a small aspect of our atmosphere.

The Process of Carbon Cycle

The atmospheric carbon dioxide is virtually the only source of carbon which is the basic
constituent of all the organic compounds.

This gas is used by all plants in photosynthesis and the end products (organic substances)
of this complex process are used in two ways.

One fraction is used in the construction of more living matter. The carbon and oxygen so
supplied by CO2 remain in living matter until death.

Decay subsequently returns CO2 to the atmosphere, and this completes one possible carbon
cycle. Another fraction of the organic substances is used as fuel in respiration by both plants
and animals.

This process releases CO2 as a by-product. Such CO2 may now be used in photosynthesis
again, or it may return to the environment, completing the second possible carbon cycle (Fig.
5.6). Thus, photosynthesis and respiration are the two major processes that drive the global
Carbon Cycle, with CO2 as the main vehicle of flux between atmosphere, hydrosphere and
biota.

The CO2 content of the atmosphere is replenished not only through biological oxidation
(respiration), but also through non-living combustion i.e., forest fires and burning of industrial
fuels release CO2 into the air. Occasionally volcanic eruptions also add CO2 to the
atmosphere.

It is clear that terrestrial plants utilize atmospheric CO2 as their carbon source for
photosynthesis, whereas aquatic plants use hydrosphere carbon i.e., dissolved carbonates.

Oxygen Cycle

The oxygen cycle elaborates how oxygen circulates in various forms through nature. Oxygen
occurs freely in the air, trapped in the earth crust as chemical compounds, or dissolved in
water. Oxygen in the atmosphere is about 21%, and it is the second most abundant gas after
nitrogen. It is mostly utilized by living organisms, especially man and animals in respiration.
Oxygen is also the most common element of human body.

Oxygen is also used during combustion, decomposition, and oxidation. The circulation of
oxygen is through three main flow systems including the (air) atmosphere, the biosphere, and
the earth’s crust. In the oxygen cycle, the main driving factor is photosynthesis which is the
process whereby green plants and algae make their own food by use of solar energy, water,
and carbon dioxide to gives off oxygen as a by-product.
Hence, for oxygen to remain in the atmosphere, it has to circulate through various forms of
nature which is essentially termed as the oxygen cycle. The circulation depends on the
various activities on Earth.

Process of Oxygen Cycle


The Atmosphere (air)

The atmosphere carries a small quantity of all oxygen, only about 0.35% of the entire earth’s
oxygen. In the atmosphere, oxygen is released by the process known as photolysis.
Photolysis happens when the ultraviolet radiation of sunlight breaks apart oxygen-containing
molecules such as nitrous oxide and atmospheric water to release free oxygen. The surplus
oxygen recombines with other oxygen molecules to form ozone while the rest is freed into
the atmosphere. Ozone is the layer that helps to shield the Earth from the dangerous ultra
violet rays.

Biosphere

The biosphere carries the smallest quantity of all earth’s oxygen, about 0.01%. In the
biosphere, the major oxygen cycles are photosynthesis and respiration. In these two
processes of the oxygen cycle, it is interconnected with the carbon cycle and the water
cycle. During photosynthesis, plants and planktons use sunlight energy, water, and carbon
dioxide to make food (carbohydrates) and release oxygen as a by-product. As such, plants
and planktons are the main producers of oxygen in the ecosystem. They take in carbon
dioxide and give out oxygen. Plants are estimated to replace about 99% of all the oxygen
used.

On the other hand, respiration happens when humans and animals breathe in oxygen which
is used during metabolism to break down carbohydrates and exhale carbon dioxide as a by-
product. Such free carbon dioxide is then released into the environment and is used by
plants and planktons during photosynthesis to give out molecular atmospheric oxygen, thus
completing the oxygen cycle. Therefore, suffice is to say that oxygen enters organisms in the
biosphere through respiration and is expelled through photosynthesis in a process that is
interconnected with the carbon cycle plus the water cycle.

However, the continued release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels
and automobile pollution affects the oxygen cycle.

The Lithosphere (Earth’s Crust)

The lithosphere carries the largest quantity of all earth’s oxygen, about 99.5%, because it is a
constituent of the earth’s lands, soils, organic matter, biomass, water, and rocks. Mostly, these
constituents of the earth fix oxygen in mineral chemicals compounds such as oxides and
silicates. The process is natural and happens automatically as the pure mineral elements
absorb or react with the free oxygen. It happens similar to the manner in which iron picks up
oxygen from the air, resulting in the formation of rust (iron oxides).
As such, during chemical reactions and some weathering processes, a portion of the trapped
oxygen in the minerals is released into the atmosphere. Also, as animals and plants draw
nutrient minerals from rocks, organic matter, or biomass, some of the trapped oxygen is freed
in the process. Dissolved oxygen is also present in water system which is essential for the
survival of aquatic life forms. As a result, these processes combined gives rise to oxygen
cycle in the biosphere and lithosphere.

Processes that Use Oxygen

1. Respiration: When we breather, we use oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Similarly,
animals and plants also use oxygen when they breathe.

2. Combustion: When you burn something let’s say a paper, you need three things for
combustion to take place i.e. oxygen, fuel and heat. So, when you burn a paper, it uses
oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and may be some other gases.

3. Decomposition: Decomposition occurs when plants and animals die. When this
happens, they decompose and such process uses oxygen and releases carbon
dioxide.

4. Rusting: When things rust, they use oxygen. This is also called as oxidation.

Processes that Produce Oxygen

1. Plants: Plants produce oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. During the
process of photosynthesis,

plants use carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water to create energy.

2. Sunlight: Some oxygen also gets produced when sunlight reacts with water vapor in
the atmosphere.

Water Cycle
The water cycle explains the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of the earth. It is also referred to as the Hydrological Cycle. The cycle describes the
properties of water that make it undergo the various movements on the planet. The water
cycle has nine main physical processes that create a continuous water movement on the
planet.

Intricate sequences include the transition of water from the gaseous composition of the
atmosphere; through the water bodies such as oceans, lakes, rivers; passage through the
soil, rocks and underground waters; and later returns into the atmosphere. Simply put, the
hydrological cycle has neither a beginning nor an end, it’s an incessant process.
Process Of Water Cycle

The water cycle processes involve evaporation, condensation, precipitation, interception,


infiltration, percolation, transpiration, runoff, and storage.

1. Evaporation

Evaporation takes place when water changes from its liquid state to vapor or gaseous state.
A substantial heat amount is exchanged during the process, roughly 600 calories of energy
per gram of water. In most cases, the solar radiation and additional causes such as the wind,
vapor pressure, atmospheric pressure, and air temperature influence the amount of natural
evaporation in different geographical regions.

Evaporation occurs over the surfaces of the water bodies such as oceans, streams, and
lakes. It can also occur on raindrops, rocks, snow, soil or vegetation. When evaporation
happens, anything present in the water such as salts and minerals is left behind. Thus,
evaporation purifies the water. The evaporated moisture then rises into the atmosphere from
the evaporation sources as water vapor or in a gaseous state. At any particular moment,
some water vapor is present in the atmosphere.

2. Condensation

Condensation is the process whereby the water vapor changes from its gaseous physical
state to liquid or crystal solid. The water vapor condenses on minute air particles due to the
cooling of the air, freezing temperatures, or increased vapor amounts to the point of
saturation in the upper stratospheres.

The condensed vapor then forms fog, dew or clouds. When the condensed clouds, dew, and
fogs become too large and heavy to remain suspended in the atmosphere, they fall back on
earth as precipitation due to gravity. The 600 calories of energy per gram of water needed
during evaporations are released into the environment.

3. Precipitation

Precipitation takes place whenever any or all forms of water particles fall from the
atmosphere and reach the earth surface. Precipitation occurs when the liquid or solid
particles in the clouds, dew, and fog drops to the ground because of frictional drag and
gravity.

One falling particle leaves behind a turbulent wake, causing faster and continued drops. The
crystallized ice may reach the ground as ice pellets or snow or may melt and change into
raindrops before reaching the surface of the earth depending on the atmospheric
temperatures.

Precipitation falls on water bodies or on ground surface where it disperses in various ways.
For sometime, precipitation can remain on the surface as runoff or overland flow. It may be
carried into waterways, intercepted by plants, or infiltrate into the soil. A good percentage of
precipitation goes back to the atmosphere as evaporation.

4. Interception

Interception is whereby the water movement is interrupted in the various paths during
transportation events over the land surface. Interception takes place when the water is
absorbed by vegetation cover and trees, absorbed into the ground, or stored in puddles and
land formations such as furrows and streamlets. These waters can either infiltrate into the soil
or return to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration or evaporation.

5. Infiltration

Infiltration is the physical process involving the slow passage of water through the soil. This
phenomenon is influenced by the soil surface conditions such as permeability and porosity
of the soil profile. Other factors include soil texture, soil moisture content, and soil structure.
The infiltrated water is stored in the soil and can later return to the atmosphere via
evapotranspiration.

6. Percolation

Percolation is the flow of water through the soil and rocks by the influence of capillary and
gravity forces. All water on the earth’s surface move by the forces of gravity and capillarity to
rest beneath the earth as groundwater. Once beneath the earth, below the water table, the
water mostly moves horizontally rather than downwards based on the geologic boundary
formations.

This area normally acts as reservoirs for storing water. Some geologic formations may
conduct this water back to the surface such as springs.

7. Transpiration

Transpiration is a process in all plants that normally takes place during the day, giving off
water vapor from the leaves openings. Plants transpire to move nutrients to the upper
sections of the plant and to cool the plants. Most of the water absorbed by the plants are
transpired into the atmosphere until a water deficit point is reached whereby the plant
resorts to releasing water vapor at a much slower rate. Transpiration is important in the water
cycle because plants absorb the moisture from the soil and releases it into the atmosphere
as water vapor.

8. Runoff

Runoff is the occurrence of excess water from watershed or drainage basin that flows on the
surface. The flow is as a result of precipitation above waterways, groundwater runoff from
deep percolations, subsurface runoff that infiltrates the surface soils, and surface runoff that
flows on the land surface. As the water flows, it can be used for agricultural and domestic
purposes, it may seep into the ground, stored in reservoirs or water bodies, or evaporate into
the atmosphere.

9. Storage

Storage refers to the various water reservoirs in the planetary water or hydrological cycle.
The water is primarily stored in the atmosphere, the surface of the earth, and in the ground.
Storage in the atmosphere is in the form of water vapor. Storage on the surface of the earth
includes lakes, oceans, rivers, glaciers, and reservoirs. Storage in the ground pertains to the
soils, rock formations, and aquifers.

Test Questions
1. One of the following is a process that uses oxygen except ……….. a) Combustion b)
Crusting c) Respiration d) Decomposition

2. Evaporation, Transpiration, Percolation are all processes of ……… a) Carbon cycle b)


Nutrient cycle c) Water cycle d) Plant cycle

3. ……………. is the physical process involving the slow passage of water through the soil a)
Infiltration b) Percolation c) Evaporation d) Transpiration

4. The ……………… is virtually the only source of carbon which is the basic constituent of all
the organic compounds a) carbon dioxide b) carbon monoxide c) atmospheric carbon
dioxide d) carbon (iv) oxide

5. …………. refers to the various water reservoirs in the planetary water or hydrological cycle
a) Storage b) Pottage c) Percolation d) Evaporation

6. Oxygen in the atmosphere is about ……….. a) 20% b) 22% c) 23% d) 21%

7. The flow of water through the soil and rocks by the influence of capillary and gravity
forces a) Perforation b) Percolation c) Permutation d) Photosynthesis

8. …………. is the occurrence of excess water from watershed or drainage basin that flows
on the surface. a) Dry off b) Drain c) Run off d) Rain

9. ………… carries the smallest quantity of all earth’s oxygen, about 0.01%. a) Biosphere b)
Lithosphere c) Atmosphere d) Autosphere

10. ………….. is the process whereby the water vapor changes from its gaseous physical
state to liquid or crystal solid. a) Conservation b) Nitrification c) Interception d)
Condensation
Answers
1. B

2. C

3. A

4. C

5. A

6. D

7. B

8. C

9. A

10. D
Week: 7
Topic: Nutrition In Animals
All living organisms need food for their survival and daily activities. Plants can manufacture
their own food through a process called photosynthesis, hence they are called autotrophs.
On the other hand, animals cannot manufacture their own food as they depend on plants
directly or indirectly for their food, hence they are called heterotrophs.

Animals sometimes are classified according to the type of food they eat. On this basis, they
are classified into three groups, namely:

1. Carnivorous animals: These animals feed only on flesh or other animals, e.g dog, lion,
lizard, snake, cat, etc.

2. Herbivorous animals: These animals feed on plants, e.g. goat, sheep, rabbit, etc.

3. Omnivorous animals: These animals feed on both plants and animals, e.g. man, pig,
etc.

Classes And Sources Of Food

There are seven major classes of nutrients –

Carbohydrates, Fats, Fibre, Minerals, Protein, Vitamin, and Water.

The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from
which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules
are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy
internally, and in either case it is measured in joules or calories (sometimes called “kilocalories”
and on monomers bound to glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in
the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in
addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are
nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot
make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy)
to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down
existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are
discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals which are said to influence (or
protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for
instance, vitamins.
Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other substances
such as toxins or various sorts. Some nutrients can be stored internally (e.g., the fat soluble
vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by
a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much of a required nutrient. For example,
both salt and water (both absolutely required) will cause illness or even death in too large
amounts.

other rare occasions written with a capital C to distinguish them from little ‘c’ calories).
Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while
fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram.though the net energy from either depends on such
factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.
Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.
A third class dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), seems also
to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons
remain unclear.

Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex
polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or


polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain.

• They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-
based products. Monosaccharides – one sugar unit, disaccharides – two sugar units,
and polysaccharides three or more units.

• Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are


typically long multiple branched chains of sugar units.

• The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since
their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption.

• The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be
related to some of the heart and vascular diseases which have become more
frequent in recent times.

• Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to
more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear, however.

Fat

• A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long
chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol.
• They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol
backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the
detailed structure of the fatty acids involved.

• Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to
hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-
bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated
fatty acid of the same length.

• Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or


polyunsaturated (many double-bonds).

• Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain,
unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids.

• Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in
nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial
process called (partial) hydrogenation.

Fiber

• Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate (or a polysaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in


humans and in some animals.

• When metabolized it can produce four calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. But
in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption
and digestibility.

• Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is


indigestible because humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it.
There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fibre. Whole grains, fruits
(especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fibre.

• Fibre is important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of colon
cancer.[citation needed] For mechanical reasons it can help in alleviating both
constipation and diarrhea.

• Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially stimulates
peristalsis—the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which moves along
the digestive tract.

• Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel,
which slows the movement of food through the intestines.

• Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen insulin
spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.
Protein

• Most meats such as chicken contain all the essential amino acids needed for humans.

• Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair).
They also form the enyzmes which control chemical reactions throughout the body.

• Each molecule is composed of amino acids which are characterized by inclusion of


nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the
distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair).

• The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to
replace damaged proteins (maintenance).

• As there is no protein or amino acid storage provision, amino acids must be present in
the diet. Excess amino acids are discarded, typically in the urine.

• For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them
internally) and some are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other
nitrogen-containing compounds).

• About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of these are
essential, and therefore must be included in the diet.

• A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are
essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development and
maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance).

• A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete
protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.

Minerals

• Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than
the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly
all organic molecules.

• The term “mineral” is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common
elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned—including several
metals, which often occur as ions in the body.

• Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur
naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural
inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells).

• Some are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources.
• On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements;
the most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter

Vitamins

• Some vitamins are recognized as essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good
health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can alternatively be synthesized in the skin, in
the presence of UVB radiation.)

• Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine,
are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not “essential” dietary
nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other
compounds.

• Thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food


(particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including
antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but
inconclusive.

• Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids (see
above), choline, essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the
preceding section.

• Vitamin deficiencies may result in disease conditions: goitre, scurvy, osteoporosis,


impaired immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer,
symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating
disorders), among many others.

• Excess of some vitamins is also dangerous to health (notably vitamin A), and for at
least one vitamin, B6, toxicity begins at levels not far above the required amount.

• Deficiency or excess of minerals can also have serious health consequences.

Water

• About 70% of the non-fat mass of the human body is made of water. Analysis of
Adipose Tissue in Relation to Body Weight Loss in Man.

• To function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters of water per day
to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity,
temperature, humidity, and other factors.

• With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss increases and daily fluid needs
will eventually increase as well.
• It is not fully clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, although some
experts assert that 8–10 glasses of water (approximately 2 liters) daily is the minimum
to maintain proper hydration.

• The notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be
traced to a credible scientific source. The effect of, greater or lesser, water intake on
weight loss and on constipation is also still unclear.

• Water aids digestion and is needed by the body to also wash away toxic materials.

Balanced Diet
Balanced diet is a diet containing the correct proportion or the right amount of all the six
food substances required by an organism or man. The balanced diet must contain the six
food substances such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oil, minerals, vitamins and water.

Importance of Balanced Diet:

Balanced diet is important to the body in the following ways:

1. Balanced diet makes us healthy and by so doing, makes us to be resistance to


diseases.

2. It encourages growth and normal development of the body.

3. It also provides energy required for normal activities.

4. Balanced diet prevents malnutrition, deficiency or diseases. Lack of some food


substances, e.g protein in a diet can cause a nutritional disease called kwashiokor in
children which is characterised by a very big head, narrow neck, big, swollen and shiny
stomach, flat buttock, and very slender and narrow legs.

Digestive Enzymes
An enzyme is an organic catalyst usually proteinous in nature, which promotes or speeds up
chemical changes in living cells but are not themselves used up in the process.

Enzymes accelerate metabolic reactions without changing their composition in the process.

Characteristics

1. All enzymes are proteins in nature.

2. Enzymes are usually involved in reversible reactions.

3. Enzymes are affected by the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of their surrounding. They are
destroyed by strong acids or alkali.
4. Enzymes accelerate the rate of chemical reaction.

5. Each enzyme is specific in action, i.e., an enzyme or a group of enzymes deals with
only one process.

Classes of Enzymes

The new method of classifying enzymes is based on the nature of chemical changes brought
about on a substrate. Such changes may involve oxidation in which case the enzyme will be
called an oxidase.

It is important to note that the earlier classification based on the substrate enzyme works on,
e.g. amylases for maltose, proteases for protein or lipases for lipids are no longer correct or
biochemically acceptable.

From the above classification, it is clear that all digestive enzymes belong to the class
called hydrolases. the class, hydrolases generally refer to enzymes that break up various
bonds (i.e. breaking large molecules into smaller particles) in the presence of water.

Test Questions
1. Plants can manufacture their own food through a process called photosynthesis are
called …………. a) heterotrophs b) autotrophs c) autetrophs d) heterotrophic plants

2. Animals that cannot manufacture their own food who depend on plants directly or
indirectly for their food, are called ……….. a) heterotrophs b) autrophs c) autotrophs d)
canivores

3. ………… are animals that feed on flesh or other animals a) Herbivores b) Carnivores c)
Omnivores d) Autovores

4. ………… are animals that feed on both flesh and plants a) Herbivors b) Carnivores c)
Rativores d) Omnivores

5. ………… is a diet containing the correct proportion or the right amount of all the six food
substances required by an organism or man. a) Balance diet b) Complete diet c)
Balanced diet d) Missing diet

6. All digestive enzymes belong to the class called ……… a) Hydrolase b) Oxidase c)
Peptolase d) Hydralase

7. One of these is not a characteristic of enzymes


a) Enzymes are specific in action
b) Enzymes are affected by the pH
c) Enzymes reduce the rate of chemical reaction
d) Enzymes are proteins in nature
8. Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or ……….
depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. a) starch b)
peptosaccharides c) cellulose d) polysaccharides

9. Lack of some food substances, e.g protein in a diet can cause a nutritional disease
called ……….. a) kwashiokor b) beriberi c) scurvy d) polio
Carbohydrates- Energy Provision
10. List the classes of food and give one function each Proteins- Growth & Repair
Lipids- Energy
Water- Digestion
Vitamins- helping to fight infection, wound
healing, making our bones strong and
Answers regulating hormones.
Minerals-keeping your bones, muscles,
1. B heart, and brain working properly

2. A

3. B

4. D

5. C

6. A

7. C

8. D

9. A

10. Water – aids digestion


Protein – for production of hormones
Vitamins – e.g vitamin B required for normal growth
Carbohydrates – provides energy for the body
Fats and Oils – maintenance of body temperature
Minerals – e.g calcium for bone and teeth formation
Week: 8
Topic: Modes Of Nutrition
All living organisms are capable of carrying out different modes of nutrition. However, the
mode of nutrition can be grouped into two major classes referred to as autotrophic and
heterotrophic nutrition.

Autotrophic Nutrition

This is the type of nutrition in which organisms are able to manufacture their food. Organisms
which can manufacture their food are called autotrophs.

Autotrophic nutrition is further divided into two groups. These are holophytic or
photosynthetic nutrition and chemosynthetic nutrition.

i. Holophytic (Photosynthetic) Nutrition: Holophytic nutrition is the type if nutrition in which


all green plants are able to manufacture their own food making use of of carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis.

The green plants derive their energy for making this food from the sunlight. This energy is
usually trapped by chlorophyll.

Popular examples of organisms that carry out or exhibit photosynthetic nutrition are all green
plants such as flowering plants, Spirogyra, Euglena, blue-green alga (nostoc) etc.

ii. Chemosynthetic Nutrition: Chemosynthetic nutrition is another is another mode of


nutrition in which certain bacteria are able to synthesise organic compounds from simple
inorganic materials such as carbon (iv) oxide. ammonia, water or nitrite to manufacture their
food. The energy used for the synthesis comes from the oxidation of the inorganic materials
or chemicals, hence the process is called chemosynthesis. Examples of the organisms or
bacteria that exhibit chemosynthetic nutrition are:

a. Nitrosomonas which converts ammonia to nitrate.

b. Nitrobacter which converts nitrites to nitrate.

Heterotrophic Nutrition:

Thus is the type of nutrition in which organisms cannot manufacture their food but depend
directly or indirectly on plants (autotrophs) for their food.

Organisms which cannot manufacture their own food are called heterotrophs. Most animals,
fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this group.

Heterotrophic nutrition is also sub-divided into the following groups or types:


1). Holozoic Nutrition: Holozoic nutrition involves the feeding on other organisms or solid
organic substances synthesised by green plants.

The organisms ingest, digest and assimilate these food into their bodies. Examples of
organisms that exhibit holozoic mode of nutrition are:

(a). Carnivores like cats, dogs, lions etc that feed on flesh.

(b). Herbivores like sheep, goat, rabbits, etc that feed on plants.

(c). Omnivores like man, pig etc that feed on both flesh and vegetables or plants.

(d.) Scavengers like vulture that feed on dead animals.

2) Parasitic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which certain organisms feed on another
organism in order to derive nourishment from it. This mode of nutrition is called parasitic
nutrition while the association is called parasitism. Parasitism is an association between two
organisms, usually of different species in which one called the parasite gains from the
association while the other called the host is harmed or suffer losses. Examples if parasites
are:

(a.) Animal Parasites like Tapeworm (Taenia Solium), plasmodium, roundworms, liver flukes,
ticks, fleas, bugs, leeches, Aphids, body louse, guinea worm, hookworm, etc.

(b.) Plant Parasites like Doder (Cassytha filiformis) and mistletoe. Animal parasites are
classified as endoparasites and ectoparasites.
i.) Ectoparasites: These are parasites which live on the body of their hosts. In other words,
they live outside the body of the host where they derive food and shelter from, e.g. flea, body
louse, bed bug, Aphid and tick. Ticks are usually found in cattle and sheep. Ticks and fleas
may be found on dogs, chickens and rats also carry lic on their bodies. Aphids and cotton
stainers are ectoparasites on plants.

ii). Endoparasites: These are parasites which live inside the body of their hosts such as man
and other animals. Examples include:

a). Tapeworm (Taenia Solium): Tapeworm is associated with pigs which are the secondary
host and man which is the primary host. It has a flattened tape-like body. It has a head called
scolex on which are found rostellum, hook and sucker which enable it to fasten itself to the
lining of the host’s intestine. It also has a body cuticle which resists digestive enzymes of the
host. Tapeworm has a flat body surface which ensures a large surface area for absorption of
already digested food. The entire body consists of numerous proglottids which aids the
absorption of digested food from its host.

b.) Liver Fluke (Fasciola hepatica): This is a small endoparasitic associated with sheep. It is
common with the liver of the sheep.

c.) Filaria worm (Wucheraria bancrofti): This is another endoparasite associated with cattle,
sheep and goat. It causes elephantiasis.

d.) Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides): This is another endoparasite commonly found in the
alimentary canal of human beings and pigs. It deprives its host of the food which it eats.

e.) Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis): This is an endoparasite commonly found in the
subcutaneous tissues from which it pushes out its head through a blister caused by it on the
foot or leg of its host.

3.) Saprophytic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which certain organisms called,
the saprophytes feed on dead and decaying organic materials. This type of nutrition is
called saprophytism. The saprophytes, generally, can secrete enzymes into the substrate of
dead and decaying organic materials on which they grow. The enzymes so secreted are able
to digest some portions of the substrate outside the body of the saprophyte by a process
called extracellular digestion. The digested food material on the substance is then absorbed
into the body through the rhizoids. Examples of organisms which exhibit saprophytic mode of
nutrition are the fungi such as rhizopus, mushroom, mucor, toad stool and penicillium.

4.) Symbiotic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which two organisms of different
species called symbionts live together and derive nutrients or food from each other. In this
case, both organisms gain from such association and none is harmed. This type of nutrition is
called symbiotic nutrition while the association between the two organisms in which both
derive benefits is called symbiosis. Apart from nutritional benefits, the symbionts can derive
other benefits like protection, shelter and reproduction during such association.
Examples of organisms that exhibit symbiotic nutrition are:

a.) Nitrogen fixing bacteria and root nodules of leguminous plants: An example of a
symbiotic association is the one between the nitrogen fixing bacteria, Rhizobium spp and the
root nodules of leguminous plant. The bacteria is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen directly
into the plant while the plant in turn provides shelter and food for the bacteria.

b.) Algae and fungi in a lichen: A lichen is usually made up of two organisms, a fungus and a
unicellular alga, living closely together. The thallus or plant body of a lichen consists mostly
of fungal hyphae, with alga cells embedded in them. The alga cells are arranged in a definite
layer. The green alga manufactures food for both plants, while the fungus protects the alga
and absorbs water from the surroundings.

c.) Sea anemones and hermit crabs: The sea anemone is known to attach itself to the empty
shell in which the hermit crab is found. Pieces of food left by the crab are eaten by the sea
anemone while the crab obtains its benefit by way of protection against predators that would
have attacked or eaten it as the sting of the sea anemone keep them away from the hermit
crab.

d.) Termites and protozoa living in the gut: This is another example of symbiotic nutrition. In
this case, the protozoa in the gut of termite helps the termite to digest cellulose while the
termite provides protection and food for the protozoa.

5. Carnivorous or Insectivorous plants: Carnivorous or insectivorous plants are equipped


with devices for trapping, digesting and absorbing nutritive compounds from the bodies of
insects and other small organisms. They have green leaves to help them carry out
photosynthetic nutrition.

Carnivorous plants usually grow in places with little nitrogenous salts and they then use
insects or other smaller animals as their sources of nitrogen.

Examples of carnivorous or insectivorous plants are:

a.) Sundew (Drosera): The Drosera plant possesses leaves capable of forming an organ to
trap and digest insects. The upper surface of the leaf has a number of glandular hairs or
tentacles. The leaf surface is sticky as a result of digestive gland in the plant. The ends of the
tentacles secrete enzymes capable of digesting insects caught. The presence of an insect
on the leaf stimulates the leaf to fold over and turn all the tentacles inwards. The insect gests
enmeshed and caught. Secretions from the glands then pour out and cover the insect.

b.) Bladderwort (Utricularia): These are aquatic plants without roots. Some of the leaves are
modified to form hair-like bladders. Each bladder has a trap door hinged on only one edge,
so that it can only open inward and tends to remain closed. In this arrangement, a trapped
insect finds it difficult to escape. The captured insect eventually dies of starvation and its
nutrients are then absorbed by the plant.
c.) Pitcher-plant of the Nepenthes and Sarracenia: The pitcher is formed from the modified
leaf while the whole leaf of Serracenia is modified into the pitcher plant, only the terminal leaf
of Nepenthes forms the pitcher plant.

The pitcher of Nepenthes contains a watery fluid secreted by glands in the lower half. The
wall of the rest of the pitcher above this secretion is smooth, being covered by little waxy
scales. The pitcher has a lid, whose sugary secretion attracts insects. Once at the lid, the
insect falls over the rim of the pitcher into the fluid at the bottom. Enzymes secreted by the
pitcher aid the digestion after which the required nutrients are absorbed by the plant.

Other examples of Carnivorous plants are:

d.) Venus-fly trap (Dionaea muscipula)

e.) The butterwort (Pinguicula).

Test Questions
1. ……….. is the type if nutrition in which all green plants are able to manufacture their
own food making use of of carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. a)
Parasitic b) Chemophytic c) Holophytic c) Therapeutic

2. …………. is the type of nutrition in which two organisms of different species live
together and derive nutrients or food from each other a) Symbiotic nutrition b)
Symbionts c) Chemosynthesis d) Parasitic

3. ……….. is the type of nutrition in which certain organisms feed on dead and decaying
organic materials a) Symbiotic nutrition b) Saprophytic nutrition c) Holophytic
nutrition d) Parasitic nutrition

4. The relationship between Tape worm and the intestine of man is …………..
a) Symbiotic b) Holophytic c) Saprophytic d) Parasitic

5. ……………. nutrition involves the feeding on other organisms or solid organic


substances synthesised by green plants. a) Holophytic b) Holozoic c) Parasitic d)
Saprophytic

6. Parasites which live in the bodies of their host are called ……… parasites a) endo b)
ecto c) inner d) filio

7. ……….. is an example of a scavenger a) lion b) tiger c) vulture d) snake

8. The energy used for the synthesis comes from the oxidation of the inorganic
materials or chemicals, hence the process is called ………… a) photosythesis b)
holophytic c) autotrophism d) chemosythesis
9. All these are examples of endo parasites except ………….. a) tape worm b) guinea
worm c) pig worm d) liver fluke

10. …………. converts nitrites to nitrates a) Nitrosomonas b) Nitrobacter c) Denitrifying


bacteria d) Nitrogen fixing bacteria

Answers
1. C

2. A

3. B

4. D

5. B

6. A

7. C

8. D

9. C

10. B
Week: 9
Topic: Basic Ecological Concept

Introduction
The ecological system comprises scientific study of the processes influencing the
distribution and abundance of organisms, the interactions among organisms, and the
interactions between organisms and the transformation and flux of energy and matter.

What Is Ecology?
Ecology is the study of the relationships of living organisms to each other and their
surroundings. It provides the foundations of our understanding of agriculture, forestry and
fisheries. Biologists who study ecology are called ecologists. Ecology is also known as
environmental biology.

Ecology is a practical science involving;

– The measurement of factors affecting the environment

– Studying the distribution of living organisms, and

– Finding out how living organisms depend on one another and their non-living environment
for their survival.

In other word, ecology is the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions
between organisms and their environment, including other organisms.

Ecology is divided into two main branches:

Autecology: Autecology is concerned with the study of an individual organism or a single


species of organism and its environment. For example, the study of a single rat and its
environment.

Synecology: Synecology is concerned with the study of the inter-relationships between


groups of organisms or species of organisms living together in an area. For example, the
study of different organisms in a river in relation to their aquatic environment.

Ecological Concepts

There are some important concepts commonly used in the study of ecology which enable
one to understand ecology. Some of these ecological concepts are:
1. Environment: This includes all the factors external and internal, living and non-living
factors which affect an organism.

2. Biosphere or Ecosphere: The biosphere or ecosphere is the zone of the earth


occupied by living organisms. It is a layer of life which exists on the earth surface. The
biosphere is a narrow zone where complex biological and chemical activities occur. It
can be found on land, soil, water and air. It provides habitat for organisms like animals,
plants and micro-organism.

3. Lithosphere: It is the part of the earth occupied by land

4. Hydrosphere: part of the earth occupied by water

5. Atmosphere: It is part the earth occupied by air.

6. Habitat: It is defined as an area occupied by a biotic community. In other word, habitat


is any environment in which an organism lives naturally. for example, the habitat of fish
is water.

7. Biotic Community or Biome: A biotic community is any naturally occurring group of


different organisms living together and interacting in the same environment. A biome
is the largest community of organisms, e.g. rain forest, Guinea savanna, etc.

8. Ecological Niche: This refers to the specific portion of a habitat which is occupied by
a particular species or organism. It is the functional position of an organism within the
community. For example, a caterpillar and an Aphid which live on the same plant
occupy different positions or ecological niches on the leaves and feeds on them
while the Aphid lives on the young shoot and sucks sap from it. Although both
organisms live on the same habitat, each has its own living space and source of food.

9. Population: Population is defined as the total number of organisms of the same


species living together in a given area. For example, the total number of tilapia fish in
a pond constitutes the population of Tilapia fish in that habitat.

10. Ecosystem: An ecosystem refers to a community of plants and animals functioning


together with their non-living environment. In other words, ecosystem consists of the
living factors (plants and animals) interacting with the non-living factors in an
environment.

Components of an Ecosystem

The ecosystem is made up of two main components. These are the biotic (living)
components and the abiotic (non-living) components.

Biotic Components
The biotic components include the living things (plants and animals) which can be grouped
into producers, consumers and decomposers.

• Producers: Producers are autotrophs (green plants and some micro-organisms)


which can manufacture their own food from simple inorganic materials during the
process of photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.

• Consumers: Consumers are the heterotrophs (animals and some plants) which cannot
manufacture their own food but depend on plants directly or indirectly for their own
food. They may be primary, secondary or tertiary consumers

• Decomposers: decomposers are bacteria and some fungi which break down dead
plants and animals in order to feed on them and in the process, nutrients are released
to the soil for use by the producers.

Abiotic Components

The abiotic components of an ecosystem include the non-living things which include:

• Climatic factors like temperature, wind, humidity, sunlight and rainfall.

• Inorganic materials and nutrients such as carbon (iv) oxide, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium,
phosphorus, etc.

• Edaphic factors like soils, rocks, topography, etc.

• Other factors like dust, storm, fire and water.

Interactions Among the Components of Ecosystem

There is a unique interaction among the various components of an ecosystem. Green plants
use carbon (iv) oxide, water and chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight to produce
carbohydrate or starch. Animals feed on these carbohydrates or plants and release carbon
(iv) oxide for plants to take in. Micro-organisms and other decomposers break down dead
plants and other organisms to release nutrients to the soil. These nutrients are absorbed by
plants for use in food production. Plant gives out oxygen during photosynthesis which is
used by animals for their normal respiration.

Test Questions
1. ………… is the study of the relationships of living organisms to each other and their
surroundings. a) Floriculture b) Ecology c) Biology d) Autecology

2. The abiotic components of an ecosystem include the non-living things. All of these is
an example except a) temperature b) soil c) fungi d) water
3. ……………. are autotrophs (green plants and some micro-organisms) which can
manufacture their own food from simple inorganic materials. a) Producers b)
Decomposers c) Consumers d) Customers

4. An …………. refers to a community of plants and animals functioning together with their
non-living environment. a) Ecology b) Ecosystem c) Biosystem d) Ecological
management

5. …………. is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species living together
in a given area. a) Species b) Niche c) Habitat d) Population

6. ……….. is concerned with the study of the inter-relationships between groups of


organisms or species of organisms living together in an area. a) Synecology b)
Autecology c) Ecology d) Biology

7. A/An ……….. community is any naturally occurring group of different organisms living
together and interacting in the same environment. a) biome b) abiotic c) biotic d)
ecological

8. ………… is the zone of the earth occupied by living organisms. a) Environment b)


Ecosphere c) Atmosphere d) Lithosphere

9. …………. is the part of the earth occupied by water. a) Atmosphere b) Hydrosphere c)


Lithosphere d) Biosphere

10. Ecological …………… refers to the specific portion of a habitat which is occupied by a
particular species or organism. a) fauna b) zone c) biome d) niche

Answers
1. B

2. C

3. A

4. B

5. D

6. A

7. C

8. B

9. B

10. D
Week: 10
Topic: Growth
Introduction

Growth is a permanent increase in size and complexity of an organism during development


from embryo to maturity, as a result of cell division. Growth is an anabolic process. For it to
occur, the cell needs plenty of food to provide the necessary energy and materials for
building up new protoplasm.

In a unicellular organism, the young organism grows until it reaches its maximum size, then it
reproduces to give rise to young individual. This usually happens by simple division of the
adult cell into two daughter cells as in the amoeba. All multicellular organisms begin life as a
single fertilized cell. This cell divides into two, then into four and so on.

BASIS OF GROWTH

• Cell Division: For an embryo to grow or a tissue to regenerate, its cells must divide.
There are two types of cell division – mitosis and meiosis.

1. Meiosis: It is a form of division which brings about a halving of the chromosome


number as well as interchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes. In animals meiosis takes place at the formation of gametes and in
diploid plants at the formation of pores.

2. Mitosis(karyokinesis): is the process in cell division by which the nucleus divides,


typically consisting of four stages and normally resulting in two new identical daughter
cell, each of which contains a complete copy of the parental chromosomes. Tissue
repair and binary fission (asexual reproduction) are all mitotic divisions. The period
between mitotic divisions is called interphase (resting period), and mitosis itself
occurs in four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase.During interphase the chromosomes are extended long threads that cannot
be visibly identified. The DNA of the chromosomes is replicated during this phase,
resulting in duplication of the genetic material. During prophase the chromosomes
coil up and contract, becoming short rods. Each chromosome consists of a pair of
strands, called chromatids, held together at the centromere. At the same time the
nuclear envelope disappears, and the centriole divides and the two daughter
centrioles move toward opposite poles of the cell. During metaphase the
chromosomes move so that their centromeres are aligned in the equatorial plane of
the cell (the metaphase plate), and the mitotic spindle forms. The mitotic spindle is
formed of fibers composed of microtubules, which extend from the centrioles to the
metaphase plate and to the centromeres of the chromosomes. During anaphase the
chromatids of each chromosome separate, becoming new daughter chromosomes,
which are drawn to opposite poles of the cell by the spindle
fibers.During telophase the daughter chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell,
where they are surrounded by two new nuclear envelopes as they begin to uncoil and
extend. During this phase, cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm, occurs. A furrow
forms around the cell in the equatorial plane and deepens until the two daughter cells
are separated.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS

MEIOSIS MITOSIS

• Haploid number of chromosomes Diploid number of chromosomes are formed


result after division after division

• Two stages of division Only a stage of division

• Four daughter cells are formed Two daughter cells are formed

• Occurs only in sex cells Occurs in body or somatic cells

• Exchange of genetic materials is due No crossing over as well as exchange of


to crossing over materials
Cell Enlargement: After the formation of new daughter cells, there is tendency for them to
increase in size.

Cell Differentiation: In the process of growth, the formerly undifferentiated cells begin to
grow to the extent that they start becoming specialized for a particular function due to
structural changes. Examples are organs like xylem which initial function is to transport
mineral salts and water, it start to grow lignin on its walls. Making it to play the role of
strengthening of the stem.

REGULATION OF GROWTH BY HORMONE

Organisms produce growth hormones in small quantities which have profound effects on
other parts of their body where they are needed for some form of growth.

Examples are plant hormones like auxins, gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid and florigens
which help the plants in the following:

PLANT HORMONES FUNCTION

Cell elongation, apical dominance, tropism,


lateral bud development, lateral root initiation,
• Auxin
fruit growth, leaf abscission and control of
cell differentiation.

Cell elongation, apical dominance, apical


• Gibberellin division, flower buds, flower sex, fruit growth,
tropism and seed germination.

Apical division and protein synthesis, fruit


• Cytokinin growth and control of cell differentiation in
culture.

• Florigens Flower buds growth

• Abscisic acid Apical division and protein synthesis

Animal hormones include adrenalin, insulin, thyroxine, pituitrin, testosterone, oestrogen,


progesterone and are secreted for the following:

• During fright

• For body metabolism

• In reproductive functions

• Growth of long bones etc.


EXERCISES
Lets see how much you’ve learnt, attach the following Answers to the comment below

1. One of the following is not a plant hormone (a) cytochrome (b) cytokinin (c) Auxin (d)
gibberellins

2. Auxin _____. (a) Promotes fruit growth (b) stimulates positive phototropism (c) causes
roots to develop (d) all of the above

3. Apical dominance is caused by the production of _____ by the apical meristem. (a)
ethylene (b) gibberellin (c) abscisic acid (d) Auxin

4. The following are basis of growth except (a) cell enlargement (b) increase in size (c)
cell division (d) cell differentiation

5. ______________ is referred to as the resting period between the mitotic phase. (a)
anaphase (b) interphase (c) metaphase (d) prophase

6. ___________ is the process in cell division by which the nucleus divides, typically
consisting of four stages and normally resulting in two new identical daughter cell,
each of which contains a complete copy of the parental chromosomes. (a)
Chemokinesis (b) Photosynthesis (c) Karyokinesis (d) Growth

7. One of these is not an example of plant hormone. (a) Auxin (b) Giberellin (c) Cytokinin
(d) Cytokinesis

8. One of the following is an example of animal hormone (a) Adrenalin (b) Florigen (c)
Abscisic acid (d) Auxin

Answers
1. A

2. D

3. D

4. B

5. B

6. C

7. D

8. A
S.S.S 1
BIOLOGY
SECOND TERM
TABLE OF CONTENT

WEEK: 1 TOPIC: BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT

WEEK: 2 TOPIC: ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT

WEEK: 3 TOPIC: TOLERANCE

WEEK 4 & 5 TOPIC: ADAPTATION

WEEK: 6 & 7 TOPIC: POLLUTION

WEEK: 8 TOPIC: CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

WEEK: 9 & 10 TOPIC: REPRODUCTION


Week: 1
Topic: Basic Ecological Concept
Introduction

The ecological system comprises scientific study of the processes influencing the
distribution and abundance of organisms, the interactions among organisms, and the
interactions between organisms and the transformation and flux of energy and matter.

What Is Ecology

Ecology is the study of the relationships of living organisms to each other and their
surroundings. It provides the foundations of our understanding of agriculture, forestry and
fisheries. Biologists who study ecology are called ecologists. Ecology is also known as
environmental biology.

Ecology is a practical science involving;

– The measurement of factors affecting the environment

– Studying the distribution of living organisms, and

– Finding out how living organisms depend on one another and their non-living environment
for their survival.

In other word, ecology is the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions
between organisms and their environment, including other organisms.

Ecology is divided into two main branches:

Autecology: Autecology is concerned with the study of an individual organism or a single


species of organism and its environment. For example, the study of a single rat and its
environment.

Synecology: Synecology is concerned with the study of the inter-relationships between


groups of organisms or species of organisms living together in an area. For example, the
study of different organisms in a river in relation to their aquatic environment.

Ecological Concept

There are some important concepts commonly used in the study of ecology which enable
one to understand ecology. Some of these ecological concepts are:

1. Environment: This includes all the factors external and internal, living and non-living
factors which affect an organism.
2. Biosphere or Ecosphere: The biosphere or ecosphere is the zone of the earth
occupied by living organisms. It is a layer of life which exists on the earth surface. The
biosphere is a narrow zone where complex biological and chemical activities occur. It
can be found on land, soil, water and air. It provides habitat for organisms like animals,
plants and micro-organism.

3. Lithosphere: It is the part of the earth occupied by land

4. Hydrosphere: part of the earth occupied by water

5. Atmosphere: It is part the earth occupied by air.

6. Habitat: It is defined as an area occupied by a biotic community. In other word, habitat


is any environment in which an organism lives naturally. for example, the habitat of fish
is water.

7. Biotic Community or Biome: A biotic community is any naturally occurring group of


different organisms living together and interacting in the same environment. A biome
is the largest community of organisms, e.g. rain forest, Guinea savanna, etc.

8. Ecological Niche: This refers to the specific portion of a habitat which is occupied by
a particular species or organism. It is the functional position of an organism within the
community. For example, a caterpillar and an Aphid which live on the same plant
occupy different positions or ecological niches on the leaves and feeds on them
while the Aphid lives on the young shoot and sucks sap from it. Although both
organisms live on the same habitat, each has its own living space and source of food.

9. Population: Population is defined as the total number of organisms of the same


species living together in a given area. For example, the total number of tilapia fish in
a pond constitutes the population of Tilapia fish in that habitat.

10.Ecosystem: An ecosystem refers to a community of plants and animals functioning


together with their non-living environment. In other words, ecosystem consists of the living
factors (plants and animals) interacting with the non-living factors in an environment.

Components of an Ecosystem
The ecosystem is made up of two main components. These are the biotic (living)
components and the abiotic (non-living) components.

Biotic components

The biotic components include the living things (plants and animals) which can be grouped
into producers, consumers and decomposers.
• Producers: Producers are autotrophs (green plants and some micro-organisms)
which can manufacture their own food from simple inorganic materials during the
process of photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.

• Consumers: Consumers are the heterotrophs (animals and some plants) which cannot
manufacture their own food but depend on plants directly or indirectly for their own
food. They may be primary, secondary or tertiary consumers

• Decomposers: decomposers are bacteria and some fungi which break down dead
plants and animals in order to feed on them and in the process, nutrients are released
to the soil for use by the producers.

Abiotic Components

The abiotic components of an ecosystem include the non-living things which include:

• Climatic factors like temperature, wind, humidity, sunlight and rainfall.

• Inorganic materials and nutrients such as carbon (iv) oxide, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium,
phosphorus, etc.

• Edaphic factors like soils, rocks, topography, etc.

• Other factors like dust, storm, fire and water.

Interactions among the Components of Ecosystem

There is a unique interaction among the various components of an ecosystem. Green plants
use carbon (iv) oxide, water and chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight to produce
carbohydrate or starch. Animals feed on these carbohydrates or plants and release carbon
(iv) oxide for plants to take in. Micro-organisms and other decomposers break down dead
plants and other organisms to release nutrients to the soil. These nutrients are absorbed by
plants for use in food production. Plant gives out oxygen during photosynthesis which is
used by animals for their normal respiration.

BIOMES

Large biotic communities corresponding to vegetation belts or zones are called biomes.
Biomes are described as any large natural terrestrial ecosystem. The type of any biome is
largely determined by climatic factors, especially rainfall and temperature. Thus, regions of
the world with similar climates have similar biomes.

The local biomes in Nigeria can be divided into:

– Forest zone: The forest zone is made up of vegetation having mainly trees and consists of
the following local biotic communities:

• Mangrove swamp forest (salt and fresh water swamp)


• Tropical rain forest

– Savanna Zone: The savanna zone is made up of mainly grasses and is further sub-divided
into three savanna belts or biotic communities which are:

• Southern guinea savanna

• Northern guinea savanna

• Sahel savanna

• Sudan savanna

However, the most important factors that determine the distribution of forest and savanna
are climatic factors. These are the;

• Mean annual rainfall

• Length and severity of the dry season;

• Minimum relative humidity in the driest months

Diagnostic Features Of Nigeria’s Biomes

Mangrove Swamps: These are found in the tropics, along coastal regions and river months. In
Nigeria, mangrove swamps are found in the delta regions of Lagos, Delta, Edo, Rivers, Ondo
and Cross Rivers States.

• The climate is hot and wet throughout the year.

• The total annual rainfall is heavy, usually above 2500mm, and the average monthly
temperature is around 26oC for nearly all months of the year.

• They are forests of small, evergreen, broadleaved trees growing in shallow, brackish
waters or wet soils. Many mangrove trees have prop roots and breathing roots. These
features enable them to grow well in the soft swampy areas of this region of Nigeria.
However, evaporation from rivers in the fresh water swamp forests is low.

• Shrubs and climbers form clumps of thick bush. The floating plants in standing waters
include species of water lettuce, Lemna and Salvina. Trees occurring near the waters
include Alstonia and Spondiathus.

Tropical Rainforest

• These occur in regions that lie between the equator and latitude 5 – 10oN and S. The
forests areas are mainly in the lowlands and they also extend up hill slopes to a height
of 600 or 1000 metres.
• In Nigeria, rainforest regions are hot and wet throughout the year. The mean annual
temperature is 27oC while the mean total annual rainfall is 2000mm. Relative humidity
is atleast 70%. Rainy season is long and the dry season is short and very severe.

• The tropical rainforest is dense and made up of many types of broad-leaved trees
that are mostly evergreen i.e. the trees drop their leaves gradually throughout the
year, and new leaves grow continuously to replace them.

• The trees form three layers; the tree tops form a thick canopy that prevents sunlight
from reaching the forest floor. As a result, the vegetation on the forest floor is sparse.
It is also possible to identify five layers, called strata, forming stratification, in a forest.

• Epiphytic plants and woody climbers (Lianas) are common features of these forests.
The animal species found here are diverse and. Examples include monkeys, gorillas,
chimpanzees, leopards, bats, beetles, bees, ants, termites, spiders, cobras, squirrels,
lizards, birds, frogs, insects and scorpions.

Savanna: Tropical grasslands are often called savanna. The savanna is usually flat for miles at
a stretch. The main savanna region is in Africa. It occurs in tropical and subtropical regions. It
contains scattered trees and shrubs. The West African savanna has three belts (Guinea
savanna, bordering the rainforest, the Sudan and Sahel savannas, bordering the desert). The
savanna regions have hot, wet season, which alternates with cool, dry season. The average
monthly temperatures are around 29oC during the hot season and around 18oC during the
cold season. The total annual rainfall varies a great deal from around 500mm in regions on
the semi desert fringes to about 1500mm in regions bordering the rainforest. Most of the rain
falls during the hot season, i.e. from May to October in the West African savanna regions. The
rainfall of the savanna is sufficient to support a rich growth of trees but is enough to prevent
deserts from forming. Thus, perennial grasses with chimps of trees mostly dominate the
savanna. In the moist Guinea savanna, the grasses grow tall during the rainy season. Trees
occur quite close together especially along the rainforest fringe.

Southern Guinea Savanna: Southern Guinea Savanna occurs in parts of Oyo, Ondo, Osun
and Kwara states.

• The mean rainfall is above 500mm.

• Dry season is shorter and less intense than in the northern Guinea savanna.

• The vegetation is an open savanna wood land type, with tall grasses up to 3 meters
high.

• The trees have short, large and broad leaves.

• Major characteristics of the savanna are the common occurrence of fires in the dry
season. Several of the trees are adapted to fires by the possession of thick, fore
resistant barks. Trees include Daniellia oliveri; Hypmemocardia, alida, vitex doniana
and Afzelia Africana. Species of grasses include Andropogan, Hypharrenia and
Pennisetum.

• The animal forms include guinea fowl, deer, rats, grasshoppers and snakes.

Northern Guinea Savanna: In Nigeria, Northern Guinea Savanna is found in parts of Kaduna,
Kwara, Benue and Kogi states.

• Grasses with scattered trees and shrubs dominate the vegetation.

• Trees are shorter and thorny and are fewer in numbers than in the southern Guinea
savanna. Tree species found in the Northern Guinea Savanna include Isoberlina doka,
Uapola somon and Monotes kerstingii.

Sudan Savanna: The Sudan savanna is found in Kano and parts of Borno, Yobe, Sokoto,
Kebbi, Zamfara, Niger, Taraba, Adamawa, Bauchi and Gombe states. In the drier Sudan
savanna, the grasses are shorter and the trees are fewer and more scattered.

Sahel Savanna: The Sahel savanna is found around Lake Chad. It extends across West Africa
from Senegal in the West to Chad in the east and from Sahara in the north to the Northern
Guinea Savanna belt in the south. In Nigeria, it occurs only at the northeast corner, in Borno
and Yobe states near Lake Chad. Rainfall is very variable. The mean annual rainfall is 629mm.
The zone is arid.

• Typical vegetation is an open thorn savanna, with trees up to 10 metres tall, having
small leaves and thorns. In the Sahel, there are clumps of short grasses and a few
isolated shrubs and trees. During the dry season, the grasses are usually dry and
brown, and bush fires are often are of common occurrence.

• The underground parts of the grasses survive the dry season and fires, and grow
again when the rain comes. Common grasses are; Pennisetum, Andropogan, Panicum,
Aristida, Stipoides etc. While common trees include Afzelia, Acalia, Balanites,
Leptodenia, date palsete.

• The fauna include gazelle, antelope, buffalo, giraffe, elephant, zebra, eland, bush cow,
lion, hyena etc.

Major Biomes of the World


Tropical Rain Forest

Tropical rain forests are home to more species than all other land biomes combined. The
leafy tops of tall trees – extending up to 70 meters above the forest floor – form a dense
covering called a canopy. In the shade below the canopy, a second layer of shorter trees and
vines forms an understory. Organic matter that falls to the forest floor quickly decomposes
and the nutrients are recycled.

Abiotic factors: hot and wet year-round; thin, nutrient-poor soils

Dominant plants: broad-leaved evergreen trees; ferns; large woody vines and climbing plants;
orchids and bromeliads

Dominant wildlife: herbivores such as sloths, tapirs, and capybaras; predators such as
jaguars; anteaters; monkeys; birds such as toucans, parrots, and parakeets; insects such as
butterflies, ants, and beetles; piranhas and other freshwater fishes; reptiles such as frogs,
caymans, boa constrictors, and anacondas

Geographic distribution: parts of South and Central America, Southeast Asia, parts of Africa,
southern India, and northeastern Australia

Tropical Savanna

Receiving more seasonal rainfall than deserts but less than tropical dry forests, tropical
savannas, or grasslands, are characterized by a cover of grasses. Savannas are spotted with
isolated trees and small groves of trees and shrubs. Compact soils, fairly frequent fires, and
the action of large animals such as rhinoceros prevent some savanna areas from turning into
dry forest.

Abiotic factors: warm temperatures; seasonal rainfall; compact soil; frequent fires set by
lightning

Dominant plants: tall, perennial grasses; sometimes drought-tolerant and fire resistant trees
or shrubs

Dominant wildlife: predators such as lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and jackals; aardvarks;
herbivores such as elephants, giraffes, antelopes, and zebras; baboons; birds such as eagles,
ostriches, weaver birds, and storks; insects such as termites

Geographic distribution: large parts of eastern Africa, southern Brazil, northern Australia

Temperate Grassland

Characterized by a rich mix of grasses and underlaid by some of the world’s most fertile soils,
temperate grasslands – such as plains and prairies – once covered vast areas of the
Midwestern United States. Since the development of the steel plow, however, most have
been converted to agricultural fields. Periodic fires and heavy grazing by large herbivores
maintain the characteristic plant community.

Abiotic factors: warm to hot summers; cold winters; moderate, seasonal precipitation; fertile
soils; occasional fires
Dominant plants: lush, perennial grasses and herbs; most are resistant to drought, fire, and
cold

Dominant wildlife: predators such as coyotes and badgers — historically included wolves and
grizzly bears; herbivores such as mule deer, pronghorn antelope, rabbits, prairie dogs, and
introduced cattle — historically included bison; birds such as hawks, owls, bobwhite, prairie
chicken, mountain plover; reptiles such as snakes; insects such as ants and grasshoppers

Geographic distribution: central Asia, North America, Australia, central Europe, and upland
plateaus of South America

Desert

All deserts are dry; in fact, a desert biome is defined as having annual precipitation of less
than 25 centimeters. Beyond that, deserts vary greatly, depending on elevation and latitude.
Many undergo extreme temperature changes during the course of a day, alternating between
hot and cold. The organisms in this biome can tolerate the extreme conditions.

Abiotic factors: low precipitation, variable temperatures; soils rich in minerals but poor in
organic material

Dominant plants: cacti and other succulents; creosote bush and other plants with short
growth cycles

Dominant wildlife: predators such as mountain lions, gray foxes, and bobcats; herbivores such
as mule deer, pronghorn antelope, desert bighorn sheep, and kangaroo rats; bats; birds such
as owls, hawks, and roadrunners; insects such as ants, beetles, butterflies, flies, and wasps;
reptiles such as tortoises, rattlesnakes, and lizards

Geographic distribution: Africa, Asia, the Middle East, United States, Mexico, South America,
and Australia

Temperate Woodland and Shrubland

This biome is characterized by a semiarid climate and a mix of shrub communities and open
woodlands. In the open woodlands, large areas of grasses and wildflowers such as poppies
are interspersed with oak trees. Communities that are dominated by shrubs are also known
as chaparral. The growth of dense, low plants that contain flammable oils makes fires a
constant threat.

Abiotic factors: hot, dry summers; cool, moist winters; thin, nutrient-poor soils; periodic fires

Dominant plants: woody evergreen shrubs with small, leathery leaves; fragrant, oily herbs that
grow during winter and die in summer

Dominant wildlife: predators such as coyotes, foxes, bobcats, and mountain lions; herbivores
such as blacktailed deer, rabbits, squirrels, and mice; birds such as hawks, California quail,
western scrub jay, warblers and other songbirds; reptiles such as lizards and snakes;
butterflies; spiders

Geographic distribution: western coasts of North and South America, areas around the
Mediterranean Sea, South Africa, and Australia.

Test Questions
1. ………… is the study of the relationships of living organisms to each other and their
surroundings. a) Floriculture b) Ecology c) Biology d) Autecology

2. The abiotic components of an ecosystem include the non-living things. All of these is
an example except a) temperature b) soil c) fungi d) water

3. ……………. are autotrophs (green plants and some micro-organisms) which can
manufacture their own food from simple inorganic materials. a) Producers b)
Decomposers c) Consumers d) Customers

4. An …………. refers to a community of plants and animals functioning together with their
non-living environment. a) Ecology b) Ecosystem c) Biosystem d) Ecological
management

5. …………. is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species living together
in a given area. a) Species b) Niche c) Habitat d) Population

6. ……….. is concerned with the study of the inter-relationships between groups of


organisms or species of organisms living together in an area. a) Synecology b)
Autecology c) Ecology d) Biology

7. A/An ……….. community is any naturally occurring group of different organisms living
together and interacting in the same environment. a) biome b) abiotic c) biotic d)
ecological

8. ………… is the zone of the earth occupied by living organisms. a) Environment b)


Ecosphere c) Atmosphere d) Lithosphere

9. …………. is the part of the earth occupied by water. a) Atmosphere b) Hydrosphere c)


Lithosphere d) Biosphere

10. Ecological …………… refers to the specific portion of a habitat which is occupied by a
particular species or organism. a) fauna b) zone c) biome d) niche

Answers
1. B

2. C
3. A

4. B

5. D

6. A

7. C

8. B

9. B

10. D
Week: 2
Topic: Ecological Management
Introduction
Living organisms establish different living associations with others in order to obtain food or
protection. Some of these living associations are beneficial to one or both organisms in the
relationship. This is called biological associations and these biological associations are
beneficial, some are neutral while others are harmful.

Types of Association
Symbiosis

The word symbiosis literally means ‘living together,’ but when we use the word symbiosis in
biology, what we’re really talking about is a close, long-term interaction between two different
species. There are many different types of symbiotic relationships that occur in nature.

In many cases, both species benefit from the interaction. This type of symbiosis is called
mutualism.

Mutualism: Is a biological interaction between two organisms, in which both species benefit
from the interaction. Most mutualisms are facultative, meaning the partners can successfully
live apart. However, some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting species can no
longer live without each other; they have a mutually obligate interdependence.

An example of mutualism is the relationship between bullhorn acacia trees and certain
species of ants. Each bullhorn acacia tree is home to a colony of stinging ants. The tree has
very large thorns that look like bull’s horns. The ants hollow out the thorns and use them as
shelter. In addition to providing shelter, the acacia tree also provides the ants with two food
sources. One food source is very sweet nectar that oozes from the tree at specialized
structures called nectaries. The second food source is in the form of food nodules called
beltian bodies that grow on the tips of the leaves. Between the nectar and the beltian bodies,
the ants have all of the food they need. So, the ants get food and shelter.

But the ants are very territorial and aggressive. They will attack anything and everything that
touches the tree – from grasshoppers and caterpillars to deer and humans. They will even
climb onto neighboring trees that touch their tree and kill the whole branch and clear all
vegetation in a perimeter around their tree’s trunk, as well. The ants protect the tree from
herbivores and remove competing vegetation, so the acacia gains a big advantage from the
relationship. In this case, the acacia is considered a host because it is the larger organism in
a symbiotic relationship upon or inside of which the smaller organism lives, and the ant is
considered to be a symbiont, which is the term for the smaller organism in a symbiotic
relationship that lives in or on the host.

Image of the relationship between bullhorn acacia trees and certain species of ants.

Other mutualistic relationships include:

Termites are only able to eat wood because they have mutualistic protozoans and bacteria in
their gut that helps them digest cellulose.

1. Coli is one of the normal bacteria found in all human large intestines. Humans provide
E. coli with food and a place to live. In return, the E. coli produce vitamin K and make it
harder for pathogenic bacteria to establish themselves in our large intestine.

Parasitism

Parasitism is an association between two different species where the symbiont (parasite)
benefits and the host is harmed. In other word, parasitism is a relationship wherein an
organism gets the benefit and the other is harmed. Fleas, ticks, lice, leeches, and any
bacteria or viruses that cause disease, are considered to be parasitic.

In this relationship, the host may become weak but does not usually die. If the host dies, the
parasites may also die.

• Parasites are organisms that live inside or outside the body of another organisms and
feed on it.

• Host is the provider of food and shelter for the parasite.

• Ectoparasites are parasites that live outside the body of the host.

• Endoparasites are parasites that live inside the body of the host.

Not all parasites have to cause disease. Lice, ticks, fleas, and leeches are all examples of
parasites that don’t usually cause disease directly, but they do suck blood from their host,
and that is causing some harm, not to mention discomfort to their host. Parasites can also
act as vectors or organisms that transmit disease-causing pathogens to other species of
animals.

Examples:

• Fleas and dog – fleas are insects that suck blood from the body of the dog. They also
live on the body of the dog.

• Mosquito bites human to suck blood.

• Hook worms or round worms on human digestive tract.


Commensalism

Commensalism is an association between two different species where one species enjoys a
benefit, and the other is not significantly affected. In other word, Commensalism is a
relationship wherein one participating organisms is benefited while the other is neither
helped nor harmed.

Commensalism is sometimes hard to prove because in any symbiotic relationship, the


likelihood that a very closely associated organism has no effect whatsoever on the other
organism is pretty unlikely. But, there are a few examples where commensalism does appear
to exist. For example, the cattle egret follows cattle, water buffalo, and other large herbivores
as they graze. The herbivores flush insects from the vegetation as they move, and the egrets
catch and eat the insects when they leave the vegetation. In this relationship the egret
benefits greatly, but there is no apparent effect on the herbivore.

Other Examples are:

• Orchids and some kinds of fern are aerial plants. They usually grow on trunks or
branches of trees. These plants get moisture and nutrients from the bark of the
tree. They also use the tree for support because they do not have stems. The
orchids or ferns do not seem to harm or help the tree.

• The barnacles are shelled animals that cannot move on their own. They attached
themselves to other animals like crabs or whales. The barnacles get transportation
and a steady supply of food as the whale moves through the ocean. The whale on the
other hand, is generally not affected by this kind of interaction.

Predation

Predation is a relationship wherein a smaller animal is killed and eaten by a bigger animal.

• Predator – the animal that feeds on another animal.

• Prey – the animal that is eaten.

Examples:

• The hawk catches the fish for food.

• Frogs feed on insects.

• Lion hunt deer for food.

Competition

Competition is a relationship wherein two or more organisms need the same thing in order to
survive. It may exist among organisms of the same kind or of different kinds. In this kind of
interaction, the organisms fight for a common resource in order to survive. The common
resources could be food, water, sunlight, shelter or space, and other things.

Examples:

In a rice field, rice plants compete with each other for water, minerals, space, and sunlight. At
the same time, the rice plants compete for the same resources with the weeds that grow
among them.

• Both vegetable plants and the weeds need sunlight, water, and minerals in order to
survive.

• Dogs and cats need same kind of food and may fight over it.

Tolerance

Tolerance is the ability of living organisms to withstand or tolerate little unfavourable


changes in the environment which affect their survival.

Living organisms can only live in a particular habitat if they can tolerate the ranges of the
abiotic factors that operate in it. Due to changes in environmental factors, some of these
conditions are sometimes unfavourable. Too little or too much of certain environmental
factors such as light, heat, cold, acidity and alkalinity might produce unfavourable conditions.

Tolerance Range

Tolerance range is defined as the range between the minimum and maximum limits to which
organisms can tolerate certain changes in their environment so as to survive. Organisms can
only live within certain minimum and maximum limits for each abiotic factor. Death occurs
beyond this range. For example, for most animals, the minimum temperature limit is 0oC while
the maximum limit is 42oC. Their tolerance range is 0 – 42oC. Below 0oC or above 42oC, the
organisms may die.

Geographic Range

Geographic range refers to the areas where a species of organism can only be found within
the minimum and maximum limits of its tolerance.

Different abiotic factors like rainfall, temperature, light intensity, availability of food, relative
humidity, day length, wind, etc. are often responsible for the geographical boundaries of
species of organisms. For example, the geographical range of the tropical rainforest is within
the equator as a result of high rainfall and high temperatures, whereas tropical rainforest
cannot be found at the Northern and Southern poles because of low rainfall and
temperature.
Practice Questions
1. _______ is a biological interaction between two organisms, in which both species
benefit from the interaction. a) Mutualism b) Parasitism c) Symbiosis d) Autotrophism

2. Predation is a relationship wherein a prey (smaller animal) is killed and eaten by a


_____(bigger animal) a) Predate b) victim c) Predator d) Lion

3. The difference in range between the minimum and maximum limits to which organisms
can tolerate certain changes in their environment so as to survive is called ______? a)
Tolerance b) Endurance c) Tolerance Range d) Difference Range

4. ______ is the ability of living organisms to withstand or tolerate little unfavourable


changes in the environment which affect their survival. a) Adaptability b) Change c)
Movement d) Tolerance

5. The hawk catches the fish for food is an example of a) Competition b) Predation c)
Tolerance d) Feeding Habit

6. “Dogs and cats need same kind of food and may fight over it” is an example of a)
Competition b) Survival c) Survival of the fittest d) Struggling for food

7. The word “Symbiosis” literally means a) eating together b) living together c)


competing d) having fun

8. _______ is an association between two different species where one species enjoys a
benefit, and the other is not significantly affected. a) Parasitism b) Symbiosis c)
Commensalism d) Competition

9. All these except one is part of a parasitic relationship. a) Host b) Endo parasites c)
Ecto parasites d) Prey

10. ______ refers to the areas where a species of organism can only be found within the
minimum and maximum limits of its tolerance. a) Geography b) Tolerance range c)
Geographic range d) Range

Answers
1. A

2. C

3. C

4. D

5. B
6. A

7. B

8. C

9. D

10. C
Week: 3
Topic: Tolerance
Introduction
Tolerance is the ability of living organisms to withstand or tolerate little unfavourable
changes in the environment which affect their survival.

Living organisms can only live in a particular habitat if they can tolerate the ranges of the
abiotic factors that operate in it. Due to changes in environmental factors, some of these
conditions are sometimes unfavourable. Too little or too much of certain environmental
factors such as light, heat, cod, acidity and alkalinity might produce unfavourable conditions.

Tolerance Range

Tolerance range is defined as the range between the minimum and maximum limits to which
organisms can tolerate certain changes in their environment so as to survive. Organisms can
only live within certain minimum and maximum limits for each abiotic factors. Death occurs
beyond this range. For example, for most animals, the minimum temperature, limit is 00C while
the maximum limits is 420C. Their tolerance range is 0 – 420C. Below 00C or above 420C, the
organisms may die.

Also one factor may affect the tolerance range than other factors. For example, when the
oxygen level of water is low, lobsters can only tolerate temperature up to 290C but at a
higher oxygen level, they can tolerate temperature up to 320C. Also, while some plants can
withstand long period of drought, many others cannot.

Geographical Range

Geographical range refers to the areas where a species of organism can only be found within
the minimum and maximum limits of its tolerance.

Different abiotic factors like rainfall, temperature, light intensity, availability of food, relative
humidity, day length, wind, etc are often responsible for the geographical boundaries of
species of organisms. For example, the geographic range of the rain forest is within the
equator as a result of high rainfall and high temperatures, whereas tropical rainforest cannot
be found at the Northern and Southern poles because of low rainfall and temperature.
Practice Questions
1. ______ is the ability of living organisms to withstand or tolerate little unfavourable
changes in the environment which affect their survival.
a) Tolerance
b) Adaptation
c) Competition
d) Survival

2. _______ refers to the areas where a species of organism can only be found within the
minimum and maximum limits of its tolerance.
a) Adaptive ability
b) Geographical Range
c) Tolerance
d) Competition

3. Living organisms can only live in a particular habitat if they can tolerate the ranges of
the ______ that operate in it.
a) biotic factors
b) abiotic factors
c) edaphic factors
d) ecosystem

4. What is the minimum temperature tolerance for animals


a) 300
b) 1000
c) 250
d) 00

5. One of the following factors affects tolerance range


a) drought
b) sunshine
c) low oxygen level of water
d) temperature

Answers
1. A

2. B

3. B

4. D

5. C
Week 4 & 5
Topic: Adaptation

Introduction

Adaptation is defined as the ability of an organism to live successfully in a particular habitat


as a result of its structure, appearance and behaviour. In other words, adaptation is the
change in structure, function and behaviour of an organism in order to adjust or survive in its
environment.

It is expected that every organism must adapt to its environment in order to survive. Plants
and animals possess certain features which enable them to adapt to either aquatic or
terrestrial habitats.

Plants Adaptation

Xerophytes

These are plants that survive extremely dry places. They possess the following adaptive
features:

• Well developed root system which absorbs water from deep level.

• Special water storage tissues

• Small leaves to reduce rate of transpiration

• Possession of succulent leaves

• Thick back, stem to avoid excessive loss of water from lenticels

• Leaves are waxy, hairy, spiny to reduce transpiration

Examples are Acacias, baobab, mango, cacti, bryophyllum, cassia spp, etc.

Mesophytes

They are plants found where conditions are not extremes. They possess the following
characteristics:

• Broad leaves for faster rate of transpiration

• Well-developed root system

• No special protective for stomata


Examples are maize, cowpea, hibiscus, etc.

Hydrophytes

They are plants that survive in water. They are adapted in the following ways:

• Ability of the leaves to float e.g. water lettuce

• A poorly developed root system

• Well-developed stomata and cuticles on the upper surface only

• Submerged plants have air space for buoyancy e.g. ceratophyllum

• Presence of adventitious roots e.g. water lily

• Presence of long stem or stalk for photosynthesis and pollination.

Animal Adaptation

Terrestrial Animals

• Possession of thick, tough skin or hairs or furs, feathers as protective measures, as


well as temperature regulation.

• Lungs for respiration

• Kidneys for excretion

• Limbs for support and locomotion

• Sweat gland for cooling and excretion

• Giving birth to few young ones e.g. elephants

Aboreal Animals

• Possession of bright colours, as well as camouflage e.g. chameleon

• Possession of wings for flight

• Presence of hollow bones to make room for lightness

• Possession of strong flight muscles and tendon

• Possession of powerful limbs, claws and tails for climbing and piercing e.g. birds,
monkeys and barboons

• The aves feed mostly on concentrated food (grains) in other to have enough energy
to fly long distance
• Possession of streamlined body for easy flight

Aquatic Animals

• Possession of streamlined body for easy movement

• Some have dark upper parts, while their lower parts are lighter in order to blend with
the sky (camouflage) when viewed from below.

• Possession of slimy body for easy movement as well as a protective measure

• Possession of gills or respiratory trumpets for respiration

• Presence lateral lines to detect vibration

• Possession of fins and webs for easy movement

• Presence of suckers or hairs for attachment

Adaptation of Parasites – Endoparasites

• Presence of suckers and hooks for attachment

• They shield themselves inside their hosts intestine with anti-enzymes in order to avoid
being digested

• They possess very thin membrane which enhances the diffusion of already digested
food from their host into their own system.

• Some like the tapeworms are hermaphrodites and do not need opposite sex before
fertilization

Image of Tapeworm

• They lay numerous eggs to make sure their new host is reached.

• Some have intermediate hosts which contribute to their confirmed existence

Halophytes
These are salt-resistant organisms. They may be plants or animals. Examples of plants are
white mangrove and red mangrove. Examples of animals are all marine animals like sharks,
whales, etc.

Animal Adaptation

A. To Aquatic Environment

1. possession of streamlined body for easy movement in water e.g tilapia fish, toad

2. possession of swim bladder for the purpose of buoyancy in water e.g tilapia fish

3. possession of fins for movement as in the case of fish and webbed toes in toad

4. possession of gills for gaseous exchange

5. possession of tail for swimming e.g tad poles

6. possession of sticky under-surface for attachment of surfaces of objects e.g snails

7. possession of suckers or hairs for attachment to vegetation so as to avoid being


swept away by current water e.g leeches

B. To Terrestial

1. possession of powerful limbs for movement e.g mammals

2. possession of lungs for gaseous exchange e.g birds, reptiles

3. possession of sweat glands for excretion and cooling

4. possession of skin as in mammals and cuticle by insects to protect and prevent


drying up and injury

5. possession of hairs as in mammals and that of feathers as in birds.


C. To Aboreal Habitat

1. Possession of wings and streamlined bodies for flight e.g birds

2. possession of bright colour as well as camouflage e.g. chameleon

3. possession of powerful limbs, claws and tails for climbing and piercing e.g. monkeys

4. possession of hollow bones to make them light e.g birds

5. possession of strong muscles and tendons to ease flight e.g. birds

Plants Adaptation

A. To Aquatic Habitat

1. Possession of waxy cuticles on leaves to prevent wetting e.g. watter lettuce

2. possession of air float in leaves and stems for buoyancy e.g. water hyacinth

3. possession of air spaces in the tissues for buoyancy

4. possession of long stem and flower stalk to expose the flowers and leaves

5. possession of breathing roots for gaseous exchange

B. To Terrestial Habitat

1. possession of extensive root for anchorage and water absorption

2. possession of thick, waxy cuticles on leaves to prevent water loss

3. possession of succulent stem by desert plants to enable them store excess water

4. possession of thick barks on the stems to protect internal tissues

5. possession of tiny and scanty leaves by desert plants to reduce water loss through
transpiration
6. possession of numerous leaves to enhance potosynthesis

Practice Questions
1. One of this is not an adaptation of animals for aquatic environment.
a) possession of streamlined body
b) possession of gills for gaseous exchange
c) possession of suckers or hairs for attachment to vegetation
d) possession of eyes to see

2. One of this is not an adaptation of animals for aboreal environment.


a) possession of hollow bones to make them light
b) possession of feathers
c) possession of bright colour as well as camouflage
d) possession of strong muscles and tendons to ease flight

3. One of this is an adaptation of animals for aquatic environment.


a) possession of breathing roots for gaseous exchange
b) possession of wings for flight
c) possession of gills
d) possession of skin

4. ________ is defined as the ability of an organism to live successfully in a particular


habitat as a result of its structure, appearance and behaviour.
a) Animal adaptation
b) Plants adaptation
c) Adaptation
d) Competition

5. _____ are plants that survive extremely dry places.


a) Zerophytes
b) Xeropytes
c) Thalophytes
d) halophytes

6. ________ are salt resistant organisms


a) sporopytes
b) thalophytes
c) halophytes
d) spermatophytes

7. Hydropytes are plants that can survive in _____


a) fire
b) land
c) rain
d) water

8. One of the following is not an adaptive feature of Xerophytes


a) Well developed root system which absorbs water from deep level.
b) Special water storage tissues
c) Small leaves to reduce rate of transpiration
d) Possession of scaly leaves

Answers
1. D

2. B

3. A

4. C

5. B

6. C

7. D

8. D
Week: 6 & 7
Topic: Pollution
Introduction

Pollution is the introduction of a contaminant into a natural environment, usually by humans.


In other words, Pollution is the addition to the ecosystem of something which has a
detrimental effect on it. One of the most important causes of pollution is the high rate of
energy usage by modern, growing populations.

When some physical, chemical or biological changes occur in our physical environment it is
known as pollution and the substances which brings these changes are known as pollutants.
The sources for the pollution can be natural or man made.

Different kinds of pollution are found, but we will discuss the following:

1. Air Pollution.

2. Water Pollution.

3. Land Pollution.

Air Pollution

Air pollution is the accumulation in the atmosphere of substances that, in sufficient


concentrations, endanger human health or produce other measured effects on living matter
and other materials. In other words, Air pollution is defined as any contamination of the
atmosphere that disturbs the natural composition and chemistry of the air. This can be in the
form of particulate matter such as dust or excessive gases like carbon dioxide or other
vapours that cannot be effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle
or the nitrogen cycle.

Among the major sources of pollution are power and heat generation, the burning of solid
wastes, industrial processes, and, especially, transportation. The six major types of pollutants
are carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, particulates, sulphur dioxide, and
photochemical oxidants.

Air pollution comes from a wide variety of sources. Some of the most excessive sources
include:

• Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust

• Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion, and other natural sources

• Building construction or demolition

Depending on the concentration of air pollutants, several effects can be noticed. Smog
increases, higher rain acidity, crop depletion from inadequate oxygen, and higher rates of
asthma. Many scientists believe that global warming is also related to increased air pollution.

Examples of Air Pollution

• Noise Pollution
Noise pollution or unwanted sounds that are carried by the air, have an irritating and
detrimental effect on humans and other animals. Careful planning of streets and
buildings in towns and better control over noisy vehicles may add to the control of
noise pollution.

• Tobacco Smoke
Tobacco smoke is one of the major forms of pollution in buildings. It is not only the
smoker who is infected, but everyone who inhales the polluted air. There is a very
strong connection between smoking and lung cancer. Bronchitis is common among
smokers and unborn babies of mothers who smoke also suffer from the harmful
effects of smoking.

• Exhaust Gases of Vehicles


Pollution from exhaust gases of vehicles is reponsible for 60% of all air pollution and
in cities up to 80%. There is a large variety of harmful chemicals present in these
gases, with lead being one of the most dangerous.

• Combustion of Coal
The combustion of caol without special precautions can have serious consequences.
If winds do not blow away the poisonous gases, they can have fatal effects and may
lead to death.
• Acid rain
Acid rain is the term for pollution caused when sulfur and nitrogen dioxides combine
with atmospheric moisture to produce highly acidic rain, snow, hail, or fog. The acid
eats into the stone, brick and metal articles and pollutes water sources. Coal in South
Africa is rich in sulphur and the power stations in the Mpumalanga Province could be
reponsible for acid rain over other areas of our country.

Control Measures

Although individual people can help to combat air pollution in their own immediate
environment, efficient control can be best achieved by legislation. Some commonly enforced
control measures include

• The establishment of more smokeless zones;

• Control over the kinds of fuel used in cars, aeroplanes, power stations, etc.

Water Pollution

Water pollution is the introduction into fresh or ocean waters of chemical, physical, or
biological material that degrades the quality of the water and affects the organisms living in
it. In other words, Water pollution involves any contaminated water, whether from chemical,
particulate, or bacterial matter that degrades the water’s quality and purity. Water pollution
can occur in oceans, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs, and as different water sources
flow together the pollution can spread.

This process ranges from simple addition of dissolved or suspended solids to discharge of
the most insidious and persistent toxic pollutants (such as pesticides, heavy metals, and
non-degradable, bioaccumulative, chemical compounds).
Causes of water pollution include:

• Increased sediment from soil erosion

• Improper waste disposal and littering

• Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies

• Organic material decay in water supplies

The effects of water pollution include decreasing the quantity of drinkable water available,
lowering water supplies for crop irrigation, and impacting fish and wildlife populations that
require water of a certain purity for survival.

Examples of Water Pollution

• Industrial affluents
Water is discharged from after having been used in production processes. This waste
water may contain acids, alkalis, salts, poisons, oils and in some cases harmful
bacteria.

• Mining and Agricultural Wastes


Mines, especially gold and coal mines, are responsible for large quantities of acid
water. Agricultural pesticides, fertilizers and herbicides may wash into rivers and
stagnant water bodies.

• Sewage Disposal and Domestic Wastes


Sewage as well as domestic and farm wastes were often allowed to pollute rivers and
dams.

Control Measures

The following measures can be used to stop water pollution:

• Every intelligent people should be wise enough not to pollute water in any way;

• By research and legislation the pollution of water bodies, even though not entirely
prevented, must be effectively controlled.
Land Pollution

Land pollution is the degradation of the Earth’s land surface through misuse of the soil by
poor agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial waste dumping, and indiscriminate
disposal of urban wastes. It includes visible waste and litter as well as pollution of the soil
itself.

Examples of Land Pollution

• Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is mainly due to chemicals in herbicides (weed killers) and pesticides
(poisons which kill insects and other invertebrate pests). Litter is waste material
dumped in public places such as streets, parks, picnic areas, at bus stops and near
shops.

• Waste Disposal
The accumulation of waste threatens the health of people in residential areas. Waste
decays, encourages household pests and turns urban areas into unsightly, dirty and
unhealthy places to live in.

Control Measures

The following measures can be used to control land pollution:

• anti-litter campaigns can educate people against littering;

• organic waste can be dumped in places far from residential areas;

• inorganic materials such as metals, glass and plastic, but also paper, can be reclaimed
and recycled.

Ozone Layer Depletion: Effects and Causes of Ozone Depletion


The ozone layer is responsible for absorbing harmful ultraviolet rays, and preventing them
from entering the Earth’s atmosphere. However, various factors have led to the depletion and
damage of this protective layer.
Ozone is a colourless gas found in the upper atmosphere of the Earth. It is formed when
oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet photons, and undergo a chemical reaction known as
photo dissociation or photolysis. In this process, a single molecule of oxygen breaks down
into two oxygen atoms. The free oxygen atom (O), then combines with an oxygen molecule
(O2), and forms a molecule of ozone (O3). The ozone molecules, in turn absorb ultraviolet rays
between 310 to 200 nm (nanometers) wavelength, and thereby prevent these harmful
radiations from entering the Earth’s atmosphere. The process of absorption of harmful
radiation occurs when ozone molecules split up into a molecule of oxygen, and an oxygen
atom. The oxygen atom (O), again combines with the oxygen molecule (O2) to regenerate an
ozone (O3) molecule. Thus, the total amount of ozone is maintained by this continuous
process of destruction, and regeneration.

Causes of Ozone Depletion


Ozone is a triatomic form of oxygen (O3), found in the Earth’s atmosphere. A combination of
low temperatures, elevated chlorine and bromine concentrations in the upper stratosphere
are responsible for the destruction of ozone. The production and emission of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), is the leading cause of ozone layer depletion. CFC’s accounts
for almost 80% of the total depletion of ozone.

Other ozone-depleting substances (ODS), include hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and


volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These are often found in vehicle emissions, byproducts
of industrial processes, refrigerants, and aerosols. ODS are relatively stable in the lower
atmosphere of the Earth, but in the stratosphere, they are exposed to ultraviolet radiation
and thus, they break down to release a free chlorine atom.

This free chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O3), and forms chlorine monoxide
(ClO), and a molecule of oxygen. Now, ClO reacts with an ozone molecule to form a chlorine
atom, and two molecules of oxygen. The free chlorine molecule again reacts with ozone to
form chlorine monoxide. The process continues, and this results in the depletion of the
ozone layer.

Possible Effects of Ozone Depletion

As ozone depletes in the stratosphere, it forms a ‘hole’ in the layer. This hole enables harmful
ultraviolet rays to enter the Earth’s atmosphere. Ultraviolet rays of the Sun are associated
with a number of health-related, and environmental issues.

Impact on Humans

Skin cancer: Exposure to ultraviolet rays poses an increased risk of developing several types
of skin cancers, including malignant melanoma, basal and squamous cell carcinoma.
Eye damage: Direct exposure to UV radiations can result in photokeratitis (snow blindness),
and cataracts.
Immune system damage: Effects of UV rays include impairment of the immune system.
Increased exposure to UV rays weakens the response of the immune system.
Accelerated aging of skin: Constant exposure to UV radiation can cause photo allergy, which
results in the outbreak of rash in fair-skinned people.
Other effects: Ozone chemicals can cause difficulty in breathing, chest pain, throat irritation,
and hamper lung functioning.

Effects on Amphibians
Ozone depletion is listed as one of the causes for the declining numbers of amphibian
species. Ozone depletion affects many species of amphibians at every stage of their life
cycle.

Some of the effects are mentioned below:

Hampers growth and development in larvae


Changes behaviour and habits
Causes deformities in some species
Decreases immunity. Some species have become more vulnerable to diseases and death
Retinal damage and blindness in some species

Effects on Marine Ecosystems


In particular, plankton (phytoplankton and bacterioplankton) are threatened by increased UV
radiation. Marine phytoplankton play a fundamental role in both the food chain as well as the
oceanic carbon cycle. Plankton play an important role in converting atmospheric carbon
dioxide into oxygen. Ultraviolet rays can influence the survival rates of these microscopic
organisms, by affecting their orientation and mobility. This eventually disturbs and affects the
entire ecosystem.

Impact on Plants

In some species of plants, UV radiation can alter the time of flowering, as well as the number
of flowers.
Plant growth can be directly affected by UV-B radiation. Despite mechanisms to reduce or
repair these effects, physiological and developmental processes of plants are affected.

Another observation is an increase in the ozone present in the lower atmosphere due to the
decrease in the ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone present in the lower atmosphere is mainly
regarded as a pollutant and a greenhouse gas, that can contribute to global warming and
climate change. However, studies have pointed out that the lifespan of lower atmospheric
ozone is quite less, compared to stratospheric ozone. At the same time, increase in the level
of ozone in the lower atmosphere can enhance the ability of sunlight to synthesize vitamin D,
which can be regarded as an important beneficial effect of ozone layer depletion.

Practice Questions
1. Pollution is the introduction of a _____ into a natural environment, usually by humans.
a) contamination
b) contaminant
c) pollutes
d) dirts

2. Ozone is a _____ form of oxygen (O3), found in the Earth’s atmosphere


a) diatomic
b) monoatomic
c) triatomic
d) hexatomic

3. One of the following is not a cause of water pollution


a) Increased sediment from soil erosion
b) smoke from chimney
c) Improper waste disposal and littering
d) Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies

4. One of the following is not an impact of ozone depletion on humans


a) hampering of growth
b) skin cancer
c) eye damage
d) aging of skin

5. As ozone depletes in the stratosphere, it forms a _____ in the layer


a) hole
b) space
c) base
d) line

6. One of the following is not a cause of air pollution.


a) Exhaust Gases of Vehicles
b) Smoke from chimney
c) Acid rain
d) Sewage

7. ________ are unwanted sounds that are carried by the air, have an irritating and
detrimental effect on humans and other animals.
a) air pollution
b) pollutants
c) smoke
d) noise pollution

8. One of the following is not a control measure for pollution


a) anti-litter campaigns can educate people against littering
b) organic waste can be dumped in places far from residential areas
c) littering of the streets with dirts
d) inorganic materials such as metals, glass and plastic, but also paper, can be
reclaimed and recycled.

9. ______ is the degradation of the Earth’s land surface through misuse of the soil by
poor agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial waste dumping, and
indiscriminate disposal of urban wastes.
a) Land pollution
b) Soil pollution
c) Water disposal
d) Air pollution

10. _______ is the introduction into fresh or ocean waters of chemical, physical, or
biological material that degrades the quality of the water and affects the organisms
living in it.
a) Rain pollution
b) Sea pollution
c) Water pollution
d) Pollution

Answers
1. B

2. C

3. B

4. A

5. A

6. D

7. D

8. C

9. A

10. B
Week: 8
Topic: Conservation of Natural Resources

Introduction

Conservation is the planning and management of natural resources in order to secure their
wise use and continuity of supply while maintaining and enhancing their quality, value and
diversity. In other words, conservation is defined as the planned or controlled exploitation or
judicious use of natural resources to ensure their continuous availability and to preserve the
quality or original nature of the environment.

Natural resources can be:

1. Renewable: These include those that are recoverable. Examples are rain, animals,
plants, water, air, food and soil.

2. Non-renewable: These include those materials that are fixed and can easily be
depleted. Examples are naturally occurring materials such as minerals, oil, coal,
petroleum, bauxite, tin, gas, copper, etc.

Need or Reasons for Conservation

1. To prevent destruction of natural environment or to allow for continued use of natural


resources for man’s benefits

2. To preserve rare and valuable species of plants and animals for the future generation
or to save them from extinction or permanent destruction

3. To preserve naturally beautiful sceneries for their aesthetic values

4. To promote the recycling of some scarce mineral resources, e.g. water

5. To prevent the destruction of natural ecosystem; this will allow the organisms in the
ecosystem to survive

6. Forest which provides medicinal materials must be conserved to ensure easy


availability and continued existence

7. Natural resources, e.g. wild life, forest, minerals, etc provide basis for research
purposes
Natural Resources that Need to be Conserved

Natural resources that need to be conserved include wildlife, water, forest, soil, air and
mineral resources

Methods of Conservation of Natural Resources


Water Conservation Methods:

1. By irrigation to reactivate especially areas that lack adequate water

2. Construction of dams and reservoirs to obstruct flood, use available water for
irrigation and generation of hydroelectricity.

3. Adequate control and use of ground water

4. Control of water pollution by government enacting laws

5. Water should not be allowed to spill all over the towns. For example is burst of water
pipes

6. Research centres should be encouraged on adequate form of recycling water and


sewages

7. Tree planting which provides vegetation cover and reduces evaporation and
promotes water retention

Soil Conservation Methods:


1. The control of erosion using methods ranging from contouring, protective vegetation,
terracing, strip cropping, planting of cover crops, preventing over-grazing, the use of
mulching and breaking of wind to avoid wind erosion of the soil

2. The soil fertility must be maintained by the following methods: fertilizer application,
manure application and the use of cover crops.

3. Trees should be planted in order to check erosion as well as desertification

4. Government should enact laws to control soil erosion

Forest Conservation Methods:

1. Through reforestation, people are made to plant two trees where one is cut

2. Adequate forest management approach should be encouraged

3. Maintenance of forest reserves

4. Having strict laws guiding forest management

5. Consistent soil conservation to encourage adequate forestation


6. Encouraging industries to use other materials aside from wood in furniture making

Wild-life Conservation Methods:

1. Hunting is to be limited

2. There should be strict laws governing wild life

3. More national parks should be established

4. There should be provisions for artificial stocks

5. Game farming must be adopted

Fisheries Conservation Methods:

1. Water pollution must be avoided

2. Fingerlings should be stocked artificially

3. Dams, reservoirs and ponds are constructed

4. Construction of fingerlings multiplication centres


Conversation Agencies

1. National Electric Power Authority (NEPA)

2. River Basin Development Authorities (RBDA)

3. Ministry of Agriculture:

4. Department of fisheries

5. Department of wild life conversation

6. Department of forestry

7. Environmental Sanitation Authority

8. Nigerian Conservation Foundation

Importance of conservation

Forest Conservation:

1. It encourages rainfall

2. Natural species are preserved

3. It checks desert encroachment

4. Timber products are preserved

5. It checks erosion as well as preserves the soil

6. Forests can serve as centres of tourism

7. Forests can also serve as wind break

8. Forests provide medicinal herbs

9. Forests provide employment for some people, e.g. forest guards, lumbermen and
hunters

Wild-life Conservation:

1. It is a source of protein

2. It provides raw materials for industries e.g. hides, bones and skins

3. Natural species are stopped from going into extinction

4. Tourism and recreation are encouraged


5. It generates revenue for government

6. It provides research work for scientists

7. It can generate employment for some people

Water Conservation:

1. It provides food and protein

2. It provides water for agriculture and irrigation

3. Water is made available for domestic use

4. It provides means of transportation

5. A source of generating electricity. It is used for Hydro-Electric Power (H.E.P)


generation which provides electricity, e.g. Kainji dam

6. Provides recreation e.g. games like swimming

Mineral Resources Conservation

1. Energy is made available

2. Raw materials are made available for industries

3. Foreign exchange reserve is generated

4. It is a source of spice e.g. common salt

5. Air is the habitat of most organisms, e.g. birds, insects, etc.

Soil Conservation:

1. It maintains its fertility

2. It provides raw materials for industries e.g. limestone, clay, etc.

3. Provides nutrient to plants

4. It harbours organisms

5. It is a base for plants’ growth

Problems encountered in conservation

1. Poor public education and management

2. Subsistence farming methods e.g. bush burning


3. Inadequate finance

4. Overgrazing constant cropping and fishing

5. Short supply of land

Some game reserves in Nigeria include:

1. Yankari game reserve in Bauchi State

2. Borgu game reserve in Niger State

3. Shasha river forest in Ogun State

4. Olomu forest reserve in Kwara State

5. Mamu river forest reserve in Anambra State

6. Zamfara forest reserve in Zamfara State

ASSESSMENT
Conservation is the planning and management of natural resources in order to secure their wise
1. What is conservation? use and continuity of supple while maintaining and enhancing their quality
Poor public education and management, short supply of land,
2. List 5 problems encountered in conservation Overgrazing constant cropping and fishing, inadequate finance &
subsistent farming methods
3. What are the importance of conservation?
National Electric Power Authority (NEPA)
4. List 4 conservation agencies River Basin Development Agency (RBDA)
Ministry of Agriculture
Nigerian Conservation Foundation

5. What are the reasons for conservation?


Week: 9 & 10
Topic: Reproduction

Reproduction is defined as the ability of living organisms to give rise to new individuals of the
same species. The purpose of reproduction is to ensure the continuity of life.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involving the fusion of female gamete (ovum) and male gamete
(spermatozoon), which forms a zygote that potentially develops into genetically distinct
offspring.

The process of sexual reproduction involves two parents. Both parents normally contribute
one gamete or sex cell to the process. This process assures that the genetic information
given to the offspring will be obtained equally from each parent. The female gamete is called
the egg or the ovum and the male gamete is called a sperm. These gametes are formed in
specialized reproductive structures called gonads. The sperm is much smaller than the egg,
but is capable of moving on its own power using a whip-like tail called a flagellum.

The sperm and egg unite in a process called fertilization. This process forms a single celled
structure called a zygote which contains the complete genetic information to develop into a
complete new organism having characteristics of both parents.

Types of Sexual Reproduction

There are two major types of sexual reproduction. These are conjugation and fusion of
gametes.

Conjugation: This is a simple type sexual reproduction which occurs in some lower
organisms such as Mucor, Rhizopus, Paramecium and Spirogyra. Conjugation is the process
by which nuclear materials is passed from one cell to another.

CONJUGATION IN SPIROGYRA
1. Fusion of Gametes: Fusion of gametes is the union of the haploid male and female
gametes to produce diploid organisms called zygote. It usually entails processes such
as meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis is an important process to generate gametes that
are haploid and genetically different so that during fertilization, the newly formed
zygote will contain the original number of chromosomes but with a genome that is
different from either parent. Examples are found in higher plants and animals.

Types of Fertilization: There are two mechanisms by which fertilization can take place.

• The first is external (the eggs are fertilized outside of the body).

• The second is internal (the eggs are fertilized within the female reproductive tract).

MEIOSIS

Meiosis is a two successive cell division with only one duplication of chromosome. Four
daughter cells are produced in meiosis. Meiosis takes place in reproductive cells i.e. ovules
and pollen grains in plants, ovaries and testes in animals. In animals, meiosis occurs in the
formation of gametes (sex cells such as eggs and spermatozoa). The process of gametes
formation is called gametogenesis. The process involved in the production of spermatozoa
by testes is called spermatogenesis while that of eggs or ova production by the ovaries is
called oogenesis.

Stages of Meiosis

Interphase: This is the resting stage of the cell division. At this stage, the chromosomes are
not seen.

Meiosis consists of two successive divisions:

1st meiotic division – This is when the parent cell splits into two. It is divided into four stages:

Prophase I

Just like in mitosis, during prophase, DNA condensation occurs, the nuclear envelope and
nucleoli disappear, and the spindle starts to form.

As DNA condensation proceeds and the chromosomes first become visible, they are visible
as tetrads. So, tetrads become visible during prophase.

Metaphase I

Tetrads line up at the equator. The spindle has completely formed. It is during prophase I
and metaphase I that genetic recombination is occurring.

Anaphase I

Tetrads pull apart and chromosomes with two chromatids move toward the poles.
Telophase I

Chromosomes with two chromatids decondense and a nuclear envelope reforms around
them. Each nucleus is now haploid.

2nd meiotic division – The two daughter cells then divide again giving a total of four daughter
cells. It is made of four stages:

Prophase II

Chromosomes with two chromatids become visible as they condense (and the nuclear
envelope and nucleoli disappear, and the spindle is forming).

Metaphase II

Chromosomes with two chromatids line up at the equator. The spindle is fully formed.

Anaphase II

Chromosomes split, so that a chromosome with only one chromatid heads toward each pole.

Telophase II

Chromosomes with only one chromatid decondense and get surrounded by new nuclear
envelopes. The four daughter cells are now all haploid and have the right amount of
DNA. They are ready to develop into sperm or eggs now.

Stages of Meiosis

Differences between Sexual and Asexual Reproduction


Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction

1. Gametes are formed. No gametes are formed.

2. It involves the male and female gametes. No fusion of gametes.

3. Zygote is formed. Zygote is not formed.

4. Often, two parents are needed. Only one parent is required.

5. Offspring show new variation. Offspring are identical.


Structure and Function of the Male and Female Gametes
The reproductive sex cells are also known as gametes. The formation of gametes called
gametogenesis takes place in the gonads (Testes and Ovaries)

Male Gametes or Sex Cells called sperms are produced in the testes by a process called
spermatogenesis. The gamete is unicellular in nature. The sperm consists of a head which
contains the nucleus, a middle piece and a whip-like tail or flagellum.

Parts and function of sperm cell

1. Acrosome: It is located at the posterior end of the head which contain lytic enzymes
used to dissolve the egg membrane and enhances the penetration of the egg during
fertilization.

2. Middle piece: It contains numerous mitochondria which generate the energy used by
the sperm to swim towards the egg.

3. Nucleus: It is found in the head of the sperm cell and contains the genetic materials
which fuse with the nucleus of the egg or ovum.

4. Long whip-like tail or flagellum: It helps to move the sperm cell.

Female Sex Cells or Gametes: Also called the eggs or ova, are produced in the ovaries by a
process called oogenesis. The human female gametes are larger than the sperm. It consists
of the cytoplasm, a nucleus in the centre, granules and yolk droplet. The yolk provides a
source of nourishment for the embryo, especially at the early stages of development. The
nuclei of the sperm and ovum contain chromosomes (thread-like materials) which carries the
genes. The genes are the transmittable character from parents to offspring.

EXCRETION

Excretion is defined as the process by which organisms get rid of waste products during its
metabolism. The reason for excretion by all living things is to get rid of metabolic wastes
which are poisonous or toxic to the body system when they are not removed. Different
organisms use different means of removing waste products from their body systems. The
table below shows the excretory organs/ organelles and waste products of some organisms.

Practice Questions
1. ________ is defined as the process by which organisms get rid of waste products
during its metabolism.
a) Excretion
d) Egestion
c) Ingestion
d) Digestion

2. ________ is defined as the ability of living organisms to give rise to new individuals of
the same species
a) Production
b) Sexual reproduction
c) Reproduction
d) Asexual reproduction

3. ______ is the process by which nuclear materials is passed from one cell to another.
a) Conjugation
b) Sexual reproduction
c) Asexual reproduction
d) Bisexual reproduction

4. Acrosome, middle piece and nucleus are all part of a _______


a) animal cell
b) plant cell
c) sperm cell
d) uterus

5. Male Gametes or Sex Cells called sperms are produced in the testes by a process
called ______
a) spermatoexodus
b) spermatogenesis
c) cytokinesis
d) ovaries

6. The reproductive sex cells are also known as


a) gonads
b) gametes
c) zygotes
d) foetus

7. ______ is not a stage of meiosis


a) anaphase
b) interphase
c) metaphase
d) dataphase

8. There are two types of fertilization and these are _______


a) external and internal
b) inside and outside
c) sexual and asexual
d) single and double

9. ______
Acrosomeis located at the posterior end of the head which contain lytic enzymes used to

dissolve the egg membrane and enhances the penetration of the egg during
fertilization.

10. ________
Interphase is the resting stage of the cell division.

Answers
1. A

2. C

3. A

4. C

5. B

6. B

7. D

8. A

9. Acrosome

10. Interphase
S.S.S 1
BIOLOGY
THIRD TERM
TABLE OF CONTENT

WEEK: 1 TOPIC: MICRO-ORGANISMS AROUND US

WEEK: 2 TOPIC: CONCEPT OF CULTURING

WEEK 3 TOPIC: MICRO-ORGANISMS IN ACTION

WEEK 4 TOPIC: SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIS)

WEEK 5 TOPIC: TOWARDS BETTER HEALTH

WEEK: 6 TOPIC: POPULATION STUDIES

WEEK 7 TOPIC: FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM

WEEK 8 TOPIC: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN NATURE


Week: 1
Topic: Micro-Organisms Around Us
Introduction

Micro-organisms make up a large part of the planet’s living material and play a major role in
maintaining the Earth’s ecosystem.

Micro-organisms or microbes are microscopic organisms that exist as unicellular,


multicellular, or cell clusters. Micro-organisms are widespread in nature and are beneficial to
life, but some can cause serious harm.

Micro-organisms found in Air and Water

Air: The air harbour micro-organisms like fungi (Rhizopus, Yeast, Mucor, Aspergillus and
Penicillium spores); bacteria like Mycobacterium spp, micrococci, sarcina and finally viruses
like Rhino virus (which causes common cold), pox virus, measles virus, etc.

Water: Bacteria like Salmonella, Mycobacteria, Escherichia Proteus, and Pseudomonas are
known to live in water. Others are phytoplanktons, blue-green algae, fungi like Aspergillus,
Rhizopus, moulds, oscillatory, spirogyra and ulothrix. The protozoa include Amoeba and
Paramecium

Microorganisms are divided into five types: bacteria, protozoa, algae, fungi, and viruses. Each
type has a characteristic cellular composition, morphology, mean of locomotion, and
reproduction.

Microorganisms are beneficial in producing oxygen, decomposing organic material, providing


nutrients for plants, and maintaining human health, but some can be pathogenic and cause
diseases in plants and humans.

Bacteria

All bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes, meaning they do not have a defined cellular nucleus.
Their genetic information is in their nucleoid, – single, circular tightly- packed DNA molecule.
According to their shape, all bacteria are divided into four groups:

• spirilla (with a spiral body shape);

• cocci (with a spherical body shape);

• bacillus ( with a rod (stick) shaped body)

• vibrio (curved shape).

Some types of bacteria live on their own and others form colonies. Some bacteria are quite
mobile and others ‘stay put’ for their whole life. Bacteria move using their cytoplasmic tail –
flagella, or by secreting slimy substances that allow them to slide along surfaces.

The cell walls of most bacteria contain a polysaccharide called peptidoglycan. Differences in
their cell wall structure is a major feature used in classifying these organisms. The staining
abilities of bacteria are also based on their cell wall structure. According to the way they
stain, bacteria can be classified as either Gram – positive or Gram – negative.

Based on their response to gaseous oxygen, all bacteria can be divided into the following
groups:

• Aerobic – living in the presence of oxygen;

• Anaerobic – living without oxygen;

• Facultative anaerobes – can live in both environments.

According to the way they obtain energy, bacteria are classified as heterotrophs or
autotrophs. Autotrophs make their own food by using the energy of sunlight or chemical
reactions, in which case they are called chemoautotrophs. Heterotrophs obtain their energy
by consuming other organisms. Bacteria that use decaying life forms as a source of energy
are called saprophytes.
Protozoa

Protozoa is a subkingdom of unicellular, mostly aerobic, eukaryotic organisms. Sometimes


they are also called protists. They are neither plants nor animals. They make up the largest
group of organisms in the world in terms of numbers and biomass. Protozoa have been
traditionally divided based on their mode of locomotion:

• Flagellates produce their own food and use their whip-like structure to propel
forward, e.g. Euglena

• Ciliates have tiny hair that beat to produce movement, e.g. Paramecium

• Amoeboids have false feet or pseudopodia used for feeding and locomotion, e.g.
Amoeba

• Sporozoans are non-motile e.g. Plasmodium

They also have different means of nutrition, which groups them as autotrophs or
heterotrophs.

Some protozoans, like Euglena, have chloroplasts like plants and make their own food, which
makes them autotrophs. Others, like amoeba, are heterotrophs. Protozoans can be free-living
or parasitic, unicellular or colonial. Some parasitic protozoans can cause diseases in humans.

Because heterotrophic protozans consume bacteria, they play a very important role in
controlling biomass. Biomass is the total weight of living organimsms in a given area.

Fungi

Fungi are saprophytic (feed on decaying organic matter) and parasitic organisms. Fungi
include moulds, rusts, mildews, smuts, mushrooms and yeast. By breaking down dead organic
material, they continue the cycle of nutrients through ecosystems. Some plants have a
symbiotic relationship with fungi. Symbiosis is a mutually beneficial co-existence of dissimilar
organisms. For example, there are mushrooms that live near tree roots and supply them with
essential nutrients.

All fungi are made of eukaryotic cells. Fungi can be unicellular (single-celled) or multicellular
(with cells arranged in filaments called hyphae) and their cell wall is composed of chitin.
Yeasts are unicellular fungi. Masses of hyphae are called mycelia. Mycelia can be well
structured, as in a mushroom, or tangled and unstructured, as in moulds. Some fungi can
exist in the form of yeast and hyphae. These types of fungi are called dimorphic.

All fungi are heterotrophic, meaning that they obtain their energy and carbon compounds
from organic nutrients. None of the fungi are photosynthetic. Some fungi are parasites and
can cause diseases in humans, animals and plants. . Fungi reproduce by releasing spores.
Some fungi are used in the food industry and pharmaceutics (antibiotic production).
Viruses

Although viruses are not considered living organisms, they are sometimes classified as
microorganisms. Viruses are much smaller than common microbes. They are made of a DNA
molecule covered with a protein shell called a capsid. Retroviruses are made of an RNA
molecule covered with a capsid. Capsids can take many shapes. Viruses cannot reproduce
outside the host cell, but they cannot be called parasites either. Scientists still argue today
about whether viruses are true living forms because they are not cells and they cannot
metabolise on their own.

Viruses can infest prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, often causing diseases in organisms. A
virus that infects bacteria is known as a bacteriophage.

Algae

Algae, also called cyanobacteria or blue-green algae, are unicellular or multicellular


eukaryotes that obtain nourishment by photosynthesis. They live in water, damp soil, and
rocks and produce oxygen and carbohydrates used by other organisms. It is believed that
cyanobacteria are the origins of green land plants.

Test Questions
1. Microorganisms are divided into _____ types
a) 2
b) 5
c) 3
d) 4

2. They are made of a DNA molecule covered with a protein shell called a _____
a) capsid
b) capsule
c) cocci
d) spirilla

3. Fungi are ______ and parasitic organisms


a) saprophytic
b) symbiotic
c) holophytic
d) holozoic

4. All these are examples of protozoa except ____


a) Flagellates
b) Ciliates have tiny hair that beat to produce movement, e.g. Paramecium
c) Amoeboids
d) Virus

5. All bacteria are ______ prokaryotes


a) multicellular
b) bicellular
c) unicellular
d) a & c

6. One of the following is not a group of bacteria


a) Aerobic
b) Propylactic
c) Anaerobic
d) Facultative anaerobes

7. One of the following is not a shape category of bacteria


a) spirilla
b) cocci
c) vibralto
d) bacillus

8. All fungi are heterotrophic. True or False

9. All fungi are photosynthetic. True or False

10. Protozoans can be free-living or parasitic, unicellular or ______


a) colonial
b) colony
c) free
d) grouped

Answers
1. B

2. A

3. A

4. D

5. C

6. B

7. C

8. True

9. False

10. A
Week: 2
Topic: Concept Of Culturing

Culturing simply involves the techniques of growing micro-organisms in special media in the
laboratory. It involves the making of sterile medium, inoculating, incubating and examining
micro-organisms. By this means, micro-organism characteristics such as colour, pattern of
growth and appearance can be seen. Culture of micro-organisms can be grown from water,
air, animals, plants and various parts of human body.

Preparation of Culture Solution

• The culture solution called Agar is prepared under sterile conditions

• Then boil and pour it into sterile petri-dish

• Allow it to cool and set in the petri-dish

• A heat sterilizer may be used to kill micro-organisms in the petri-dish

• The material is then introduced into the agar medium and covered immediately

• Place the petri-dish in warm but dark compartment or an incubator

• Observe and record what you have seen for 2-3 days

Instruments Required for the Preparation of Culture Solution

Major instruments required for the preparation of culture solution are:


• Slides

• Cover slips
• Inoculating needles or loops

• Inoculating chamber if available

Precautions to be Taken During Preparation of Culture Solution

1. Wash hands with soap before and after the preparation of agar solution

2. Open petri-dish only slightly and cover at once

3. Close petri-dish firmly with adhesive tape

4. Sick person should not be permitted to take part in culturing experiments

5. Avoid talking, coughing, sneezing and touching of infected jelly

6. Unused agar should be sterilized by washing with antiseptic soap and disinfectant,
e.g. 40% folmadehyde. Heat can also be used to sterilize

7. All instruments should also be sterilized before the beginning of culture solution
preparation.

Identification of Micro-organisms

Micro-organisms can be identified in the air, pond water, river and stream by preparing a
culture medium. The following procedures should be followed:

1. Five petri-dishes with culture medium labelled K, L, M, N and O respectively

2. Expose petri-dish K to air for about 10-15 minutes and then cover it.

3. Put in petri-dish L a few drops of pond water and cover it

4. Put in petri-dish M a few drops of river water and cover it

5. Put in petri-dish N a few drops of stream water and cover it

6. Allow petri-dish O to serve as control, i.e. do not introduce anything into it

7. Leave all the petri-dishes in the laboratory for 3-4 days

8. Observe all the petri-dishes for any development and note any difference in each of
the petri-dishes

9. Record the characteristics (colour, pattern of growth, appearance) of colonies of


micro-organisms in each petri-dish
Practice Questions
1. All these instruments are used for culturing except _____
a) slides
b) cover slips
c) needles
d) innoculating chamber

2. ______ simply involves the techniques of growing micro-organisms in special media in


the laboratory.
a) Culturing
b) Culture
c) Innocluation
d) Separation

3. One of the following is not part of a culturing method


a) sterile medium
b) inoculation
c) incubation
d) ejaculation

4. ______ is the name of the white transparent plate used to culture medium
a) Petri dish
b) Metric dish
c) White dish
d) Experimental dish

5. Micro-organisms can be identified in the air, pond water, river and stream by
preparing a _____ medium
a) cultural
b) innoculating
c) culture
d) sterile

Answers
1. C

2. A

3. D

4. A
5. C
Week 3
Topic: Micro-Organisms in Action
Introduction

Growth of micro-organisms, like all living things, do increase in size and multiply in number of
cells using either the culture medium provided or any suitable surface such as moist bread
as source of food. Micro-organisms can also increase in mass. Such an increase in size, mass
or number of cells is regarded as growth in micro-organisms.

If environmental conditions of growth such as food, adequate temperature and humidity are
favourable, such an increase in mass, size and number of cells of the colony is an index of
growth of micro-organisms.

Ways of Measuring Growth in Micro-organisms


There are two major ways of measuring growth in micro-organisms. These are:

First method: A bacterial sample is inoculated into a nutrient agar (a clear liquid culture
medium). As the bacterial population increases, the clear liquid medium becomes cloudy and
turbid. Progressive increase in turbidity indicates a related increase in the number of
bacterial cells. This property is used to measure bacterial growth.

In the laboratory, turbidity can be measured with a spectrophotometer. This instrument


measures the amount of light that can pass through a liquid medium.

Second method: In this method, small samples of bacteria are taken from the nutrient agar at
regular interval of time. Each sample is diluted several times. Each diluted sample is
innoculated on to a nutrient agar medium in a petri-dish and incubated. The number of
colonies formed in each petri-dish is counted. As each colony is formed by the multiplication
of a single bacterium, the number of colonies indicate the number of living bacterial cells in
the diluted sample. From this, the actual number of bacteria in the original sample can be
calculated.

Beneficial Effects of Micro-Organisms


Some micro-organisms especially bacteria and fungi are beneficial to man in three major
ways: in nature, medicine and in industries

In Nature
Compost formation: Micro-organisms especially bacteria aid compost formation through the
decay of dead organisms and humus

Nitrogen fixation: Certain bacteria (Rhizobium leguminosarium) aid nitrogen fixation into
plants through the root nodules of leguminous plants.

Maintenance of soil fertility: Most saprophytic bacteria, due to their decomposition activities,
release nutrients into the soil which aid its fertility through nitrogen cycle

Digestion of cellulose: Some bacteria living in the rumen of ruminant animals like cattle,
sheep and goat help such animals to digest cellulose in the rumen

Decomposition: Micro-organisms, especially saprophytic bacteria also aid the


decomposition of dead of dead plants and animals thereby releasing nutrients to the soil

Silage making: Some bacteria are also useful in silage making which involves the
preservation of pasture crops for future use.

Sewage treatment: Bacteria are also involved in the decomposition of sewage into harmless
substance

In Medicine

Manufacturing of drugs/ vaccines: Micro-organisms are used in medicine for the


manufacturing of drugs, vaccines and antibiotic which help in curing many human diseases,
e.g. penicillin (an antibiotic) is obtained from Penicilium notatun (a fungus) and streptomycin,
another antibiotic, is obtained from a bacterium called Streptomyces griseus

Sources of vitamin B: Yeast and certain bacteria are rich sources of vitamin B complex.

Sources of enzymes: Certain yeast and bacteria are also rich sources of enzymes like
amylase and invertase

In Industries

For baking: Yeast (fungus) is useful in baking industries as it causes dough to rise in bread
and other allied food processing

Preparation of alcoholic drinks: Yeast is also useful in brewing industries as it is used for the
fermentation of sugar to produce alcohol

Making of cheese / yoghurt: Certain bacteria are used in food processing such as cheese,
vinegar and yoghurt

Retting of jute: Certain bacterial action are used in the retting of jute to obtain sack fibres
from flax plants

Curing of tobacco: Bacteria are useful in the curing or ripening of tobacco leaves
Tanning of hides and skins: The action of bacteria is useful in the conversion of hides and
skin to leather during the tanning process

Harmful Effects of Some Micro-Organisms


Cause of disease: Micro-organisms are responsible for various diseases in plants and
animals

Spoilage of food: micro-organisms are generally known to cause food spoilage

Deterioration of materials: Micro-organisms are also responsible for the deterioration of


materials like wood, cotton, paper, leather, etc.

Causes of death: Micro-organisms can also cause the death of plants and animals

Types of Disease-Causing Micro-organisms

Organisms that cause disease are called pathogens. They are also parasites, living off their
host, which does not benefit as a result.

There are 4 types of microbes (micro-organisms) that cause


disease;
• Viruses
• Bacteria
• Fungi

Protozoa (also known as protoctista).

Virus: Viruses are inactive when outside of a living cell, but once their nucleic acid is inside
they take over the cell’s activities. Usually they make many copies of themselves inside the
cell, then break out of the cell and infect others. Viruses cannot be killed by antibiotics such
as penicillin.

Examples of diseases caused by viruses: flu (influenza), common cold, measles, mumps,
german measles (Rubella), smallpox, cowpox, chicken pox, HIV (can lead to AIDS), rabies

Bacteria: Not all bacteria cause disease; some are very useful “in nature”. When bacteria
infect the body, they can reproduce quite fast. Often they produce chemicals called toxins
which have the actual effect which causes an illness. Bacteria can usually be killed by
antibiotics such as penicillin.
Examples of diseases caused by bacteria: cholera, tuberculosis (TB), septicaemia (“blood
poisoning”), anthrax.

Fungi: Not all fungi cause disease; some are very useful “in nature”.

Examples of diseases caused by fungi: Athlete’s foot (not only caught by athletes, or
confined to the foot!), ringworm (not a worm), thrush (not a bird)

Protozoa: Are generally single celled organisms with true nuclei and a cell membrane, so
they are quite like our body cells.

Examples of diseases caused by protozoa/protoctista: Malaria, sleeping sickness,


dysentery

Spread of Disease-Causing Micro-organisms


Micro-organisms can spread or transmit diseases through the following ways:

• Air, i.e. air-borne pathogens


• Water, I.e. water-borne pathogens
• Food, i.e. food-borne pathogens
• Animal vectors or carriers

Personal or direct skin contact

Certain diseases known as contagious diseases can be controlled by direct contact with an
infected person, e.g. leprosy, measles, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted disease (STD)
such as gonorrhea, syphilis and AIDS.

<TABLE>

Names of some diseases, causative micro-organisms, mode of transmission, host and major
symptoms are stated in the table below

Food and Water-Borne Diseases

Diseases Causative Mode of Host Major


organisms transmission symptoms
Infective Virus hepatitis Water Man (female Swollen liver,
headache and male of fever,
and all ages)
jaundice
Typhoid Bacteria Food and water Man (female High
(Salmonella and men of temperature
typhi) all ages with diarrhoea,
or constipation
Cholera Bacterium Drinking water Man (female Serious
(Vibro cholera) and male of diarrhea with
all ages) vomiting, high
temperature
and abdominal
pain

Polio myelitis (infant Water Children High fever,


paralysis) Virus headache,
stiffness of
limbs due to
nervous
disorder that
result from
attack on
muscle nerves

Amoebic Protozoan Food and water Man Abdominal


dysentery (Entamoeba pain, heavy
histolytica) vomiting and
diarrhoea

Bacillic Bacterium Water and food Man Fever,


dysentery (shigella abdominal pain
dysenteriae) and diarrhoea

Food Bacteria Infected food Man Headache,


poisoning (Salmonella restlessless,
spp.) abdominal pain
and vomiting

Para- Bacterium Water and food Man High fever,


typhoid (Salmonella constipation or
para-typhi) diarrhea
Air-Borne Diseases

Diseases Causative Mode of Host Major


organism transmission symptoms

Tuberculosis Bacterium Airborne and food Man and Persistent dry


(Mycobacterium cow cough and
tuberculosis) profuse
sweating at
night, high
temperature,
loss of weight
and blood in
sputum

Measles Virus contact Air and body Man and High fever, skin
children rashes,
headache, cold,
cough and
body pain

Pneumonia Bacteria Air Man, pig, High fever,


birds and difficult
cows breathing and
cough

Meningitis Bacteria Airborne Children High fever,


(cerebrospinal (Meningococcus) and young headache,
fever) adults vomiting and
stiffness of the
neck
Small pox Virus Airborne Man High fever, skin
rashes and
small blister
Common cold Virus Airborne Man High fever,
headache and
runny nose
Influenza Virus Airborne Man High fever,
headache, body
pain and
shivering
German Virus Airborne Man Rashes on the
measles face and
swollen glands
on the neck
Whooping Bacteria Airborne Man of all ages Cold,
cough high fever,
cough and
vomiting

Chicken pox Virus Airborne Man of all Itchy skin rash


age

Diseases Spread by Vectors

A vector is an animal which transmits a disease-causing organism


(pathogen) from the person suffering from the disease to another
person. The table below shows the vectors, micro-organisms, and the
diseases they transmit.

Disease Causative Vector/ Host Main


organism mode of symptoms
transmission
Malaria Plasmodium spp Female anopheles Man High fever
(protozoan) mosquito bite associated with
shivering and
sweating

Sleeping sickness Trypanosomes Tse-tse fly bite Man Regular and


(Trypanosomiasis) (protozoan) uncontrollable
sleepiness,
fever and
headache,
sluggishness
and
drownsiness
Plague Bacterium Rat flea Man Shivering,
fever, cough
and difficult
breathing

Typhus fever Rickettsia Body louse Man High fever,


severe pains in
the muscle
Dengue fever Virus Female Aedes Man and High fever,
mosquito bite monkey severe pains in
the joints, back
and head,
nausea and
vomiting

Yellow fever Virus Aedes mosquito Man High fever,


bite headache and
backache,
temperature
falls and virus
enter the liver
and kidneys,
jaundice
develops
River blindness (Onchocerciasis) Blackfly Man Severe
Protozoa headache, high
n fever and
gradual
blindnesss

Diseases Spread Through Sexual Contact


Diseases which are transmitted by sexual contact are known as venereal diseases
(VD) or sexually transmitted diseases (STD).

Some sexually transmitted diseases, causative organisms, mode of transmission,


their hosts and symptoms are outlined in the table below:

Disease Causative Vector/ Host Main


organism mode of symptoms
transmission
Gonorrhea Bacterium Sexual intercourse Man Inflamed
(Neisseria urethra, burning
gonorrhea) sensation
during urination,
and a thick,
yellowish
discharge in
male. In female,
redness around
the urinary
opening, vaginal
discharge or
swelling of the
vulva. It may
cause blindness
to babies
during
pregnancy
Syphilis Bacterium Sexual intercourse Man A small painless
(Treponema sore or chancre
pallidum) appears on the
penis or vulva. A
mild fever, skin
rashes, mouth
ulcers and
aching pains in
the lymph node
regions. It may
lead to
abortions,
attack the brain
and cause
blindness,
insanity or loss
of control of
movement

AIDS Virus (Human Sexual intercourse, Man, Infected person


Immuno virus blood transfusion, Woman High
(HIV) injection needle fever, loss of
weight, chronic
diarrhoea, skin
rashes, wasting
away of
muscles and
finally death
Staphylococcus Bacterium Sexual intercourse Man Itching around
private parts,
burning
sensations
around waist in
male. In
females, there
are itching
around private
parts, burning
sensation in
waist and
stomach,
vaginal
discharge,
irregular
menstruation
and inability to
get pregnant

Practice Questions
Staphylococcus can be transmitted by one of the following ways _______

a) blood transfusion

b) sexual intercourse

c) mating

d) injection

Microorganisms are harmful but they are also beneficial to man. True or False

The causative organism for syphilis is _______

a) bacterium

b) virus

c) fungi

d) animal

Diseases which are transmitted by sexual contact are known as _____ diseases

a) sexual

b) venereal

c) blood

d) a & b

What is the meaning of AIDS?

a) Acquired Immune Deficient Syndrome

b) Acquire Immunization Deficiencey Syndrome

c) Acquired Immune Deficiency Symptom


d) Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

A _______ is an animal which transmits a disease-causing organism from the person suffering
from the disease to another person

a) Scalar

b) Predator

c) Vector

d) Pathogen

________ is the name of the vector that transmitts Malaria

a) Plasmodium spp

b) Male Aedes Mosquito

c) Female anopheles mosquito

d) Protozoan

Micro-organisms can spread or transmit diseases through the following ways except

a) air

b) water

c) direct contact

d) body louse

All these are airborne diseases except _____

a) measles

b) sleeping sickness

c) tuberculosis

d) pneumonia

All these diseases are transmitted by vectors except _____

a) Syphilis

b) Yellow fever

c) Malaria
d) River blindness

Answers
1. B
2. True
3. A
4. B
5. D
6. C
7. C
8. D
9. B
10. D
Week 4
Topic: Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

Introduction

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are infections that are spread primarily through
person-to-person sexual contact. There are more than 30 different sexually transmissible
bacteria, viruses and parasites.

The most common conditions they cause are gonorrhoea, chlamydial infection, syphilis,
trichomoniasis, chancroid, genital herpes, genital warts, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
infection and hepatitis B infection.

Several, in particular HIV and syphilis, can also be transmitted from mother to child during
pregnancy and childbirth, and through blood products and tissue transfer.

What is a sexually transmitted infection (STI)?


It is an infection passed from person to person through intimate sexual contact. STIs are also
called sexually transmitted diseases, or STDs.

Major Sources of STI Transmissions


You can get an STI by having intimate sexual contact with someone who already has the
infection. You can’t tell if a person is infected because many STIs have no symptoms. But
STIs can still be passed from person to person even if there are no symptoms. STIs are
spread during vaginal, anal, or oral sex or during genital touching. So it’s possible to get
some STIs without having intercourse. Not all STIs are spread the same way.

Signs and Symptoms of STI


Many STIs have only mild or no symptoms at all. When symptoms do develop, they often are
mistaken for something else, such as urinary tract infection or yeast infection. This is why
screening for STIs is so important. The STIs listed here are among the most common or
harmful to women.

Symptoms of sexually transmitted infections


STI Symptoms

Most women have no symptoms. Women with symptoms may have:

Bacterial vaginosis • Vaginal itching


(BV) • Pain when urinating

• Discharge with a fishy odour

Most women have no symptoms. Women with symptoms may have:

• Abnormal vaginal discharge

• Burning when urinating

• Bleeding between periods

Infections that are not treated, even if there are no symptoms, can
Chlamydia lead to:

• Lower abdominal pain

• Low back pain

• Nausea

• Fever

• Pain during sex

Some people may have no symptoms. During an “outbreak,” the


symptoms are clear:

• Small red bumps, blisters, or open sores where the virus


entered the body, such as on the penis, vagina, or mouth

• Vaginal discharge

Genital herpes • Fever

• Headache

• Muscle aches

• Pain when urinating

• Itching, burning, or swollen glands in genital area


• Pain in legs, buttocks, or genital area

Symptoms may go away and then come back. Sores heal after 2 to 4
weeks.

Symptoms are often mild, but most women have no symptoms. If


symptoms are present, they most often appear within 10 days of
becoming infected. Symptoms are:

• Pain or burning when urinating

• Yellowish and sometimes bloody vaginal discharge


Gonorrhea
• Bleeding between periods

• Pain during sex

• Heavy bleeding during periods

Infection that occurs in the throat, eye, or anus also might have
symptoms in these parts of the body.

Some women have no symptoms. Women with symptoms may have:

• Low-grade fever

• Headache and muscle aches

• Tiredness

• Loss of appetite
Hepatitis B
• Upset stomach or vomiting

• Diarrhea

• Dark-colored urine and pale bowel movements

• Stomach pain

Skin and whites of eyes turning yellow

Some women may have no symptoms for 10 years or more. About half
of people with HIV get flu-like symptoms about 3 to 6 weeks after
HIV/AIDS becoming infected. Symptoms people can have for months or even
years before the onset of AIDS include:

• Fevers and night sweats


• Feeling very tired

• Quick weight loss

• Headache

• Enlarged lymph nodes

• Diarrhea, vomiting, and upset stomach

• Mouth, genital, or anal sores

• Dry cough

• Rash or flaky skin

• Short-term memory loss

Women also might have these signs of HIV:

• Vaginal yeast infections and other vaginal infections, including


STIs

• Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) that does not get better with
treatment

• Menstrual cycle changes

Some women have no symptoms. Women with symptoms may have:

• Visible warts in the genital area, including the thighs. Warts can
Human papillomavirus
be raised or flat, alone or in groups, small or large, and
(HPV)
sometimes they are cauliflower-shaped.

• Growths on the cervix and vagina that are often invisible.

Symptoms include:
Pubic lice
(sometimes called • Itching in the genital area
“crabs”)
• Finding lice or lice eggs

Syphilis progresses in stages. Symptoms of the primary stage are:

Syphilis • A single, painless sore appearing 10 to 90 days after infection.


It can appear in the genital area, mouth, or other parts of the
body. The sore goes away on its own.
If the infection is not treated, it moves to the secondary stage. This
stage starts 3 to 6 weeks after the sore appears. Symptoms of the
secondary stage are:

• Skin rash with rough, red or reddish-brown spots on the hands


and feet that usually does not itch and clears on its own

• Fever

• Sore throat and swollen glands

• Patchy hair loss

• Headaches and muscle aches

• Weight loss

• Tiredness

In the latent stage, symptoms go away, but can come back. Without
treatment, the infection may or may not move to the late stage. In the
late stage, symptoms are related to damage to internal organs, such as
the brain, nerves, eyes, heart, blood vessels, liver, bones, and joints.
Some people may die.

Many women do not have symptoms. Symptoms usually appear 5 to


28 days after exposure and can include:

• Yellow, green, or gray vaginal discharge (often foamy) with a


Trichomoniasis
strong odor
(sometimes called
“trich”) • Discomfort during sex and when urinating

• Itching or discomfort in the genital area

• Lower abdominal pain (rarely)

Testing for STIs


There is no one test for all STIs. Ask your doctor about getting tested for STIs. She or he can
tell you what test(s) you might need and how it is done. Testing for STIs is also called STI
screening. Testing (or screening) for STIs can involve:
• Pelvic and physical exam — Your doctor can look for signs of infection, such as warts,
rashes, discharge.

• Blood sample

• Urine sample

• Fluid or tissue sample — A swab is used to collect a sample that can be looked at
under a microscope or sent to a lab for testing.

Treatment of STIs
The treatment depends on the type of STI. For some STIs, treatment may involve taking
medicine or getting a shot. For other STIs that can’t be cured, like herpes, treatment can help
to relieve the symptoms.

Prevention and control of STI


You can lower your risk of getting an STI with the following steps. The steps work best when
used together. No single strategy can protect you from every single type of STI.

• Don’t have sex: The surest way to keep from getting any STI is to practice abstinence.
This means not having vaginal, oral, or anal sex. Keep in mind that some STIs, like
genital herpes, can be spread without having intercourse.

• Be faithful: Having a sexual relationship with one partner who has been tested for STIs
and is not infected is another way to lower your risk of getting infected. Be faithful to
each other. This means you only have sex with each other and no one else.

• Use condoms correctly every time you have sex: Use condoms for all types of sexual
contact, even if intercourse does not take place. Use condoms from the very start to
the very end of each sex act, and with every sex partner. A male latex condom offers
the best protection.

• Know that some methods of birth control, like birth control pills, shots, implants, or
diaphragms, will not protect you from STIs. If you use one of these methods, be sure
to also use a condom correctly every time you have sex.

• Talk with your sex partner(s) about STIs and using condoms before having sex: It’s up
to you to set the ground rules and to make sure you are protected.

• Talk frankly with your doctor and your sex partner(s) about any STIs you or your
partner has or has had. Talk about symptoms, such as sores or discharge. Try not to
be embarrassed. Your doctor is there to help you with any and all health problems.
Also, being open with your doctor and partner will help you protect your health and
the health of others.
• Have a yearly pelvic exam. Ask your doctor if you should be tested for STIs and how
often you should be retested. Testing for many STIs is simple and often can be done
during your checkup. The sooner an STI is found, the easier it is to treat.

• Avoid using drugs or drinking too much alcohol. These activities may lead to risky
sexual behavior, such as not wearing a condom.

HIV and AIDS


The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that infects cells of the immune
system, destroying or impairing their function. In other words, HIV is a virus that weakens the
body’s immune system, which is the body’s defense system. As the infection progresses, the
immune system becomes weaker, and the person becomes more susceptible to infections.

The most advanced stage of HIV infection is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It
can take 10-15 years for an HIV-infected person to develop AIDS; however, antiretroviral
drugs can slow down the process even further.

HIV is transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse (anal or vaginal), transfusion of


contaminated blood, sharing of contaminated needles, and between a mother and her infant
during pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding.

Modes of HIV Transmissions

HIV is spread through some of the body’s fluids. HIV is in:


• Blood
• Semen
• Vaginal fluids
• Breast milk
• Some body fluids that may be handled by health care workers (fluids surrounding the brain
and spinal cord, bone joints, and around an unborn baby)

HIV may be passed from one person to another by:


1. More common

• Having sex (vaginal, anal, or oral) with a person who has HIV

• Sharing needles with someone who has HIV, such as when using drugs

• Pregnancy, labour, birth, or breastfeeding if a mother has HIV

2. Less common

• Blood transfusion from an HIV positive blood donor, which is very unlikely today
because blood banks test donated blood for HIV
• Eating food that has been pre-chewed by an HIV-infected person. The blood in a
caregiver’s mouth can mix with food while chewing. This is rare and has only been
noted among infants whose HIV positive caregiver gave them pre-chewed food.

• Using a dirty tattooing needle (if it was used before on someone with HIV). Make sure
the needle is new.

• Sharing a toothbrush or razor with someone who has HIV

HIV is not spread through:


• Kissing (there is a small chance of getting HIV from open-mouthed or “French” kissing
except there’s contact with blood)
• Touching, hugging, or handshakes
• Sharing food or drinks
• Sharing food utensils, towels and bedding, telephones, or toilet seats
• Donating blood
• Working with or being around someone with HIV
• Biting insects, such as mosquitoes
• Swimming pools or drinking fountains
• Playing sports

The Science behind HIV


HIV attacks and destroys the immune system’s infection-fighting cells, called CD4 cells. They
also are called CD4 positive T cells. HIV gets into these cells, makes copies of itself, and kills
the healthy cells. As a person loses CD4 cells, the immune system weakens, making it harder
for the body to fight infections and cancer. There are many different strains (types) of HIV.
Most people have the HIV-1 strain. But, a person can be infected with more than one strain at
a time.

HIV turns to AIDS when the immune system gets very weak. One way to know if a person has
AIDS is if her CD4 cell count (the number of CD4 cells in a sample of blood) is very low (less
than 200). Another way is if she has certain infections or cancers. Moving from HIV to AIDS is
different for everyone. Some people live for 10 years or more with HIV without developing
AIDS. Others get AIDS faster.

Signs and Symptoms of HIV/AIDS


Many people have no symptoms when they first get HIV. Some have no symptoms for years.
It varies from person to person. But some people get a flu-like illness within a month or two
after first getting HIV. It’s important to remember that HIV is active inside your body, even
when you don’t have symptoms. As HIV spreads in your body, you’ll start to feel sick. For
many people, the first symptom they notice is large lymph nodes (swollen glands) that last for
more than three months. Symptoms of HIV include:
• Being very tired (fatigue)
• Quick weight loss
• Fevers and night sweats
• Headache
• Diarrhea, vomiting, and nausea
• Mouth, genital, or anal sores
• Dry cough
• Rash or flaky skin
• Short-term memory loss

Test for HIV


You cannot rely on symptoms to know whether you have HIV. If you have symptoms, they may
be caused by something else. And many people infected with HIV have no symptoms for
many years. The only way to know whether you have HIV is to get a test.

Prevention of Transmission of HIV

HIV prevention refers to practices done to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS. HIV prevention
practices may be done by individuals to protect their own health and the health of those in
their community, or may be instituted by governments or other organizations as public health
policies.

Anybody can get HIV, but you can take steps to protect yourself from HIV infection.

• Don’t have sex: Abstinence (not having sex of any kind) is the surest way to avoid HIV
infection through sexual contact.
• If you must have sex, get tested and know your partner’s HIV status: Talk to your partner
about HIV testing and get tested before you have sex.
• Be faithful to your partner: If you and your partner are both HIV negative and have sex only
with each other, you are not at risk of HIV infection through sexual contact.
• Use condoms: Use a condom every time you have vaginal, anal, or oral sex.
• Limit your number of sexual partners: If you have more than one sexual partner, get tested
for HIV regularly. Get tested and treated for sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and insist
that your partners do, too. Having an STI can increase your risk of becoming infected with
HIV.
• Don’t inject drugs: But if you do, use only clean needles and equipment and don’t share
your equipment with others.

Some HIV medicines used to prevent HIV infection


In some situations HIV medicines are used to reduce the risk of HIV infection
Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) – PrEP is an HIV prevention method that involves taking
an HIV medicine every day. PrEP is intended for people who don’t have HIV but who are at
high risk of sexually transmitted HIV infection. PrEP should always be combined with other
prevention methods, including condom use.

Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) – PEP involves taking HIV medicines as soon as possible
after exposure to HIV to reduce the risk of HIV infection. For example, a health care worker
exposed to HIV in the workplace may require PEP.

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV – HIV-infected women take HIV


medicines during pregnancy and childbirth to reduce the risk of mother-to-child
transmission of HIV. To further reduce the risk, their newborn babies also receive HIV
medicine for six weeks after birth. In the United States, women with HIV are counseled not to
breastfeed their babies to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV in breast milk.

Management of HIV (Use of Anti-Retro Viral Drugs)


Once HIV infection is diagnosed, a person has a life-long condition which will go through
several stages and has many consequences. The disease needs to be managed by people
with HIV themselves as well as their healthcare providers.

An overview of the needs of a person with HIV infection (not necessarily in order of
priority) is as follows:
1. Education / information – learning how to best take care of yourself, staying informed
about new treatments or approaches
2. Maintaining general health – self care, nutrition
3. Financial planning – medical aid, future provision for self and dependents
4. Monitoring HIV disease – regular medical check-ups, monitoring tests
5. Preventing opportunistic disease – avoiding exposure, alertness to early signs of disease,
prophylactic medication
6. Psychological health – informing others, dealing with stigma, spiritual support, managing
anxiety and depression
7. Sexual and reproductive – safer sex for partners and self, whether to have a baby, avoiding
infection of the baby
8. Antiretroviral treatment: Standard antiretroviral therapy (ART) consists of the combination
of at least three antiretroviral (ARV) drugs to maximally suppress the HIV virus and stop the
progression of HIV disease. Huge reductions have been seen in rates of death and suffering
when use is made of a potent ARV regimen, particularly in early stages of the disease.
9. Terminal care – care and treatment during the final stages of the disease.

Agencies/Organisation for HIV/AIDS Control


The non-governmental organisations listed below help in the control of HIV/AIDS around the
world.

1. IAS (International AIDS Society)

2. UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS)

3. WHO (World Health Organization)

Others include:

4. National Agency for the Control of AIDS (NACA)


5. Society for Family Health (SFH)

Myths about HIV/AIDS


1. I can get HIV by being around people who are HIV-positive: The evidence shows that HIV is
not spread through touch, tears, sweat, or saliva.

You cannot catch HIV by:


• Breathing the same air as someone who is HIV-positive
• Touching a toilet seat or doorknob handle after an HIV-positive person
• Drinking from a water fountain
• Hugging, kissing, or shaking hands with someone who is HIV-positive
• Sharing eating utensils with an HIV-positive person
• Using exercise equipment at a gym

2. I don’t need to worry about becoming HIV positive, new drugs will keep me well: Yes,
antiretroviral drugs are improving and extending the lives of many people who are HIV-
positive. However, many of these drugs have serious side effects. None yet provides a cure.
Also, drug-resistant strains of HIV make treatment an increasing challenge.

3. I can get HIV from mosquitoes: Because HIV is spread through blood, people have worried
that biting or bloodsucking insects might spread HIV. Several studies, however, show no
evidence to support this even in areas with lots of mosquitoes and cases of HIV. When
insects bite, they do not inject the blood of the person or animal they have last bitten. Also,
HIV lives for only a short time inside an insect.

4. I’m HIV-positive, my life is over: In the early years of the disease epidemic, the death rate
from AIDS was extremely high. But today, antiretroviral drugs allow HIV-positive people — and
even those with AIDS — to live much longer, normal, and productive lives.

5. I’m straight and don’t use HIV drugs, I won’t become HIV-positive: Most men do become
HIV-positive through sexual contact with other men or through injection drug use. However,
about 16% of men and 78% of women become HIV-positive through heterosexual contact.
6. If I’m receiving treatment, I can’t spread the HIV virus: When HIV treatments work well, they
can reduce the amount of virus in your blood to a level so low that it doesn’t show up in
blood tests. Research shows, however, that the virus is still “hiding” in other areas of the
body. It is still essential to practice safe sex so you won’t make someone else become HIV-
positive.

ASSESSMENT.
1. What is a Sexually Transmitted Infection? One that can be transmitted through person-to-person sexual contact

Syphyllis, Gonorrhea, Bacterial Vaginosis, Pubic lice, Hepatitis B, Chlamydia,


2. List the examples of STI you know. HIV/AIDS
Sexual Intercourse, sharing needles, breastfeeding, blood transfusion, sharing a
3. What are the major sources of STI? toothbrush with some who has HIV

4. What are the signs and symptoms of STI?


Week 5
Topic: Towards Better Health
Introduction

Pathogenic or harmful micro-organisms have the ability to wipe out the whole of humanity
directly or indirectly. They therefore must be controlled through some measures in order to
stay healthy.

Control of Harmful Micro-Organisms


1. The use of drugs like antibodies performs key role in checking the spread of
microorganisms

2. Dehydration tends to inactivate the micro-organisms since most of them require


water for metabolism

3. The use of high salinity or salt especially in preservation of food

4. Application of high temperature destroys pathogens. This is used in sterilization of


materials e.g. in hospitals

5. Antiseptic application involves the use of low concentration of chemicals like phenol
(carbonic acid). They prevent or inhibit the growth of micro-organisms. At times they
kill them

6. Disinfectants are high concentration of phenol (carbolic acid). They kill micro-
organisms outright.

7. The use of low temperature (freezing) also kills or inactivates some micro-organisms

8. The use of irradiation controls the growth of micro-organisms

9. Immunization: Vaccination or inoculation of anti-disease sera protects the individual


from contacting the disease. This is because antibodies or anti-toxins are produced
by the body

VECTORS

A vector is an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection by
conveying pathogens from one host to another.

Species of mosquito, for example, serve as vectors for the deadly disease Malaria.

Note:
• A pathogen is a micro-organism that has the potential to cause disease.

• An infection is the invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microbes in an individual


or population.

• Disease is when the infection causes damage to the individual’s vital functions or
systems.

Common Vectors and Diseases They


Transmit
Organisms
Vector Disease
responsible

Female anopheles
Plasmodium parasites Malaria
mosquito

Housefly Vibro cholerae Cholera

Tsetse fly (Glossina Sleeping sickness


Trypanosome spp
spp) (Trypanosomiasis)

Aedes mosquitoes Virus (arbovirus) Yellow fever

Black fly (Simulium Round worm River blindness


damnosum) (Onchocera) (Onchocerciasis)

Bilharziasis or
Water snail Flatworm (Schistosoma)
Schistosomiasis

WAYS OF CONTROLLING VECTORS


Housefly

1. Adults are killed using insecticides

2. Preventing breeding grounds

3. Covering our foods from flies


4. The surrounding pit-toilet must be covered and kept clean

5. Continuous spraying of insecticides even after the initial spray

6. The general environment must be kept clean

Mosquitoes

1. Breeding grounds must be destroyed

2. Surrounding bushes must be cut

3. Physical destruction of mosquitoes with brooms

4. Chemical destruction using insecticides e.g. dieldrin

5. Spraying of oil on water to frustrate their ability to breed due to lack of oxygen

6. Destroying or burying empty cans and bottles

7. The use of insect repellant on the body

8. The use of biological controls such as introducing tadpoles, bacilli bacteria, which are
known to feed on the larvae

9. Making provision for nets in our doors and windows

Blackflies

1. The vectors are very difficult to fight. The only way possible is the destruction of the
breeding sites

2. Other methods include the use of drugs such as suramin and diethyl carbamazine
(with serious side effects)

Water snails

1. The use of molluscicides affects breeding of infective larvae

2. Good hygiene and sanitation in order to maintain clean environment

3. Outright treatment of infected people to stop the spread

4. Disrupting the food chain by killing some water weeds eaten by snails

Maintenance of Good Health


Introduction
For a person to remain healthy, he must maintain cleanliness around his environment. He
must eat good food, drink clean and pure water, wear clean clothes and keep his
environment tidy. This method will help a lot in preventing disease outbreak. However,
keeping the environment clean is not the sole responsibility of single individuals. It involves
the combined effort of the household, communities, nations and the world as a whole.

Ways of Maintaining Good health in a Community


Effective public health administration in a community can be achieved through the following
ways:

Refuse disposal: Refuse are solid waste materials discharged through human activities from
homes and industries into the environment. Reckless refuse dump around dwelling places
creates bad odour, provides breeding grounds for insects and rodents that spread diseases

Refuse disposal can be done through the following ways:

1. Provision of dust bins in strategic locations

2. Burning refuse in incinerators

3. Dumping them in isolated areas far from human habitation

4. Burying refuse in a sanitary landfill

Sewage disposal: Sewage are waste water materials discharged from laundries, kitchens,
toilets, bathrooms, e.g. urines and faeces

Sewage disposal can be done through:

1. The use of pit toilets where faeces and urine are passed into deep pits

2. The use of septic tanks where water is used to flush faeces and urine into a big tank
dug in the ground

3. Community treatment process where sewage from various homes are collected and
treated before being discharged into oceans or rivers

Protection of Water: In view of numerous diseases which man can contact because of
drinking unclean water, water should be protected through the following ways:

1. Addition of alum to water

2. Boiling of water before drinking it

3. Filteration of water on cooling

4. Addition of chlorine to kill microscopic germs


5. Storage of water in clean containers

Note: All these should be done before water is passed through pipes into houses and other
places where it is required.

Protection of food: It is true that diseases can be contracted through food. Therefore, both
raw and cooked food should be properly protected. The following methods of food
protection are recommended:

1. Keep food in refrigerators or deep freezers

2. Boil or cook raw food properly before eating

3. There should be inspection of food meant for public consumption

4. Washing of hands before and after eating of food

5. Food can also be preserved through canning

6. Keep the environment where the food is prepared clean

7. Avoid exposure of food to flies and other micro-organisms

Control of diseases: Individuals can control diseases by living in clean environment.


Therefore, they can prevent diseases through the following ways:

1. Daily sweeping of the surroundings

2. Eating of good food and balanced diet

3. Taking of bath regularly

4. Wearing of clean and neat dresses

5. Living in well-ventilated houses

6. Cleaning of latrines and urinals with disinfectants regularly

7. Cleaning of teeth regularly with toothbrush and paste

8. Doing EXERCISES regularly

9. Treatment of any injury immediately or reporting same to the nearest hospital for
treatment

10. Taking children through the various immunisations as prescribed by doctors

11. Taking no drugs except those prescribed by doctors


HEALTH ORGANIZATIONS
Health organizations are corporate (local and international) bodies concerned with the
maintenance of good health of the people. International health organizations include:

• World Health Organisation (WHO)

• United Nations Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF)

• International Red Cross Society

The major local health organisation in Nigeria is the Nigerian Medical Association (NMA)

Roles of Health Organizations


World Health Organization (WHO)

This is a specialised division of the United Nation Organisation (UNO) established in 1948
with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Its major aim is to improve the health of the people
in all the countries of the world.

The main functions of the organisation are:

1. It promotes measures for the control of the world’s major diseases through
vaccination programmes and use of antibiotics

2. It co-ordinates research programmes in all fields of health and makes the results
known to all member-nations

3. It provides advice and help on health matters to member-nations on request, e.g.


provision of medical experts, setting up health centres, etc.

4. It publishes medical journals

5. It helps to set up international quarantine regulations

6. It helps to provide drugs and vaccines in case of emergency

7. It provides warning signals in the event of an outbreak of epidemic diseases

8. It assists national health organisations in the control of diseases and vectors of


diseases

9. It helps in maternal and child health care

10. It helps to set and recommend safe standard for drugs

United Nations Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF)


The UNICEF, another special agency of the United Nations Organisation was set up to
improve the health and welfare of the children all over the world. Specific functions of
UNICEF are:

1. To provide for the emergency needs of children in devastated areas

2. To improve the nutrition of under-nourished children

3. To feed destitute children

4. To supply vaccines or equipment to prevent or control diseases that specifically


affect children such as whooping cough, diphtheria, poliomyelitis and tuberculosis

5. To provide children’s clothings and other needs

6. To assist in the improvement of the mothers and their children by providing training
programmes and necessary equipment, e.g. provision of Oral Rehydration Therapy
(ORT) to control diarrhoea in children

International Red Cross Society

The international Red Cross Society plays important roles in two major ways:

In time of war

1. They take proper care of the injured

2. They provided emergency and to those in distress

3. They are involved in the negotiation of the exchange of prisoners of wars between
countries

4. They provide transport for the evacuation of refugees

5. They also provide welfare for the prisoners of war

In time of peace

1. They provide the general first-aid to patient

2. They assist in preventing accidents

3. They assist in the training of nursing aides

4. Red cross society maintains maternal and child welfare clinics

5. They provide help to victims of natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, fire, etc.

Nigerian Medical Association (NMA)


The Nigerian Medical Association (NMA) is a national body concerned with the maintenance
of good health within Nigeria. The main functions of NMA include:

1. Advising the government on how to improve the health status of the people

2. Alerting the nation where there is an outbreak of a disease

3. Carrying out research into ways of preventing and controlling diseases

4. Monitoring the recruitment of well trained doctors in hospitals

5. Assisting in the training of medical and paramedical staff needed in health care
delivery.

Test Questions
1. A _____ is an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection
by conveying pathogens from one host to another.
a) Pathogen
b) Vector
c) Parasite
d) Predator

2. Diseases can be controlled in the following ways except


a) By treating injuries late
b) By cleaning latrines and urinals with disinfectants
c) By wearing of clean and neat dresses
d) By living in well-ventilated houses

3. Female anopheles is to Malaria: Tsetse fly is to ____


a) Sleeping sickness
b) Night Blindness
c) Cholera
d) River Blindness

4. _______ is a way of maintaining good health


a) Littering the street with dirts
b) Improper sewage disposal
c) Protection of food
d) Pollution of water

5. Vibro cholerae is responsible for one of the following diseases


a) Typhoid
b) Malaria
c) Bilharzia
d) Cholera
6. ________ is the process whereby a person is made immune or resistant to an infectious
disease, typically by the administration of a vaccine.
a) Innoculation
b) Immunization
c) Protection
d) Vaccinate

7. ______ is not a way of cleaning or purifiying water


a) Filteration of water
b) Addition of Chlorine
c) Addition of Acid
d) Addition of Alum

8. List 4 ways with which food can be protected.

Answers
1. B

2. A

3. A

4. C

5. D

6. B

7. C

8. Keep food in refrigerators or deep freezers


Boil or cook raw food properly before eating
There should be inspection of food meant for public consumption
Washing of hands before and after eating of food
Week: 6
Topic: Population Studies
Introduction

Population is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species living together in
a given area at a particular time. In an ecosystem, the community is made up of many
populations of different species.

In population studies of a habitat, the following are usually studied:

• Types of organisms: This involves the listing of the various types of populations that
are found in the particular habitat. It helps to determine the relationships that exist
between the various organisms (plants and animals) in a habitat.

• Dominance: Dominance refers to those species that exert a greater influence or a


major controlling effect on the other members of the community. The relative
importance of a species in the community is expressed by dominance.

Dominance could be expressed in terms of:

o Their number

o Occupation of largest portion of space

o Possession of the highest biomass and

o The largest contribution to the energy flow in the habit. For a species to be dominant in a
habitat, it should possess some of these attributes over other species.

Population Characteristics
These characteristics include:

• Population size: This refers to the total number of the species of the same kind in a
given area or habitat. A large population stands a better chance of surviving
dangerous and unfavourable conditions such as fire, diseases etc while a small
population can easily be wiped out.

• Population density: Population density is defined as the number of individual


organisms per unit area or volume of the habitat.

Mathematically, Population density = total population or population size / Area of habitat

Population density can be used to estimate the total number of individuals of a population or
population size. Mathematically, population size = population density x area of habitat.
• Population frequency: This refers to the number of times an organism occurs within a
given area a habitat.

• Percentage cover: This refers to the area or space covered or occupied by a given
species in its habitat and it is expressed in percentage.

• Population growth rate: This refers to the net result of the influence of natality (birth
rate) and mortality (death rate) of organisms in a giver habitat.

Factors Affecting Population


Factors which may affect the population of organisms in a given habitat include:

1. Natality (birth rate): This refers to the rate of given birth to new organisms. This
generally (be it plants or animals) leads to increase in population.

2. Mortality (death rate): This refers to the rates at which organisms die in a habitat.
Mortality generally leads to a decrease in population.

3. Immigration (dispersal): This is the movement of organisms from different habitats


into a new habitat. This tends to increase the population of this new area.

4. Emigration: This is the movement of organisms out of a habitat due to either scarcity
of food or unfavourable conditions or for breeding purposes. This, however, reduces
the population of a habitat.

5. Availability of food: The availability of food in a given habitat tends to increase the
population of that habitat through rapid rate of reproduction and other organisms
coming into feed.

6. Seasonal Climatic Changes: Unfavourable climatic changes may result in the


decrease of population since most organisms may die or migrate out of the habitat
while the reverse is the case when the conditions are favourable.

7. Breeding periods: Most organisms move out of a habitat during the breeding period
or season, thereby reducing the population decreases during the breeding season in
fish, toad, termite etc.

8. Natural Disasters: Natural disasters like fire, drought, floods, earthquakes etc may
lead to a decrease in population as many organisms may die or move out of that
habitat to a new area.

Method of Population Study


1. Population Studies by Sampling Method
Population studies can easily be carried out in a habitat especially in terrestrial habitat by
sampling method, making use of an instrument called the quadrat. A quadrat is made of a
square or rectangular wire, plastic, wooden or metal frame with predetermined area. For
example, the area of a quadrat may be 1.5m2.

How to Conduct Population Studies

The population size or total population and population density of a particular species in a
terrestrial habitat can be estimated by the following procedure:

1. Choose and locate the sample plot

2. Then identify the species in the plot

3. Measure the area with a measuring tape to know the area of the habitat

4. Throw or toss the quadrat randomly at intervals for up to 10 or above times

5. After each throw or toss, the number of species within the area of quadrat is recorded

6. The density of species is calculated by dividing the average number of times the
species occurs within the quadrat by the area of the quadrat.

The calculation can be worked out this way:

Frequency of species = X

Number of toss = Y/10

Average number of species per quadrat = X = Z

Example: Estimate the population density and population size of specific grasses using the
quadrat.

Solution:

Total area of habitat = 1.5m2

Frequency of the organisms (grasses), that is, the total number of times an organisms occurs
in all the quadrats thrown in the habitat. Assume 400 times.

Number of tosses = 50

Average number of organisms per quadrat tossed = 400/50 = 8

Area of quadrat = 1.6m2

Density of organisms = 8 / 1.6 = 5 grasses per m2

Population size = Density x Area of habitat = 5/m2 x 16m2 = 80


The population size of grasses in the habitat = 80 grass plants.

Estimation of Population using the transect Method: The tape should stretch with marking
at intervals. The plants within the various intervals are recorded. This procedure is repeated a
number of times until an accurate estimate of the number and types of plants in the habitat
are obtained.

Capture mark recapture method

Censuring wild animal population is fraught with many difficulties of sampling errors and
statistical bias. Occasionally, direct counts are possible, as in aerial birds or sea bird colonies,
but for most animals this is impossible and various kinds of sampling methods must be
employed. Most animals are not readily visible because of their behavior and habitat, or
because they exist in such abundance or scarcity that they cannot be readily counted. It
therefore becomes necessary to estimate numbers through programmes of capture-mark
recapture.

The ratio of marked to unmarked animals in subsequent trapping runs provides a population
estimate known as the Lincoln index. This is mathematically expresses as follows:

P / M1 = T2 / M2

Where:

P = Unknown population

M1 = Total number of individuals marked in the first capture period

T2 = Total number of individuals captured in the second period

M2 = Total number of those in the second capture period, which were previously marked.

However, the validity of this method involves the assumption that the:

1. Marked animals mix randomly in the population

2. Probability of recapture is the same as for each individual

iii. The system must be a closed one, i.e., there is no immigration or emigration, death or
birth of the animal under investigation between the periods of sampling.

Ecological Factors

Ecological factors are those factors in the environment which can influence living organisms
or cause changes in any habitat, be it aquatic or terrestrial habitat.

Ecological factors are grouped into two categories Biotic and Abiotic factors.

Biotic Factors
The biotic factors are made up of the effects of other plants and animals on a given
organisms.

Examples of biotic factor are:

1. Competitions:Competition involves the interactions among two organisms of the


same species or different species in which one neither outgrows the other nor
survives while the other cannot grow nor survive.

2. Parasitism: This is a close association between two organisms in which one called the
parasite lives in or on, and feeds at the expense of the other organisms called the
host. The parasitic benefits from the association while the host usually suffers harm or
even die.

3. Commensalism: Commensalism neither is an association between two organisms


living together in which only one (the commensal) benefitted nor is harmed.

4. Predation: Predation is a type of association between two organisms in which the


predator kills the other called the prey and feeds directly on it.

5. Pathogens: These are micro‐organisms which can cause diseases in plants and
animals leading to their reduction through death.

6. Mortality: Mortality is the death rate of organisms (plants or animals) in an


environment. Mortality generally reduces the population of organisms in any habitat.

7. Migration: This is the movement of organisms either into a new habitat (immigration)
or out of a habitat (emigration). These movements usually have effects on the other
organisms inhibiting that habitat.

8. Dispersal: Dispersal is the spreading of new individuals from their parents to new
habitat so as to start a new life in the new environment. Such spreading habits may
affect the lives of other organisms in the new area.

9. Natality: This is the rate of giving birth to new offspring. Natality is generally known to
increase the population of the habitat which will subsequently lead to certain
problems among the organisms in that habitat

10. Food: Availability of food in a habitat generally leads to increase in population while
lack of food leads to starvation and dearth

11. Diseases: Diseases are known to reduce the population of organisms (both plants
and animals) in any habitat.

12. Pest: Pests are also known to affect the performance of plants in terms of yield and
growth, in severe cases, the plants may even die.

Abiotic Factors
The abiotic factors comprise the following;

1. Climatic factors: These are temperature, rainfall, wind, pressure, sunlight or sunshine,
humidity etc.

2. Chemical factors: These are made up of oxygen carbon dioxide, mineral salts, water
and nitrogen.

3. Edaphic factors: These consist of soil, its water, chemical and physical composition,
its pH, its nutrient, profile, structure and texture

4. Topographic factors: These are caused as a result of the shape of the earth’s surface,
e/g. effects of rivers, hills, mountains and valleys.

Ecological Factors common to all Habitat.


Factors affecting or common to all habitats (both aquatic and terrestrial habitats) include:

• Temperature

• Rainfall

• Light

• Wind

• Pressure

• Hydrogen ion concentration (pH).

Of these factors, temperature and rainfall determine the major biomes of the world.

Temperature

1. Temperature determines the vegetation of an area

2. It is necessary for the germination of seeds

3. It affects the distribution of plants and animals

4. It regulates the activities of majority of the living things.

5. High temperature affects evapo‐transpiration and reduces the performance of


animals.

6. It affects the wilting of field crops, ripening and maturity of crops.

7. It leads to loss of soil nutrients through volatilization

8. Unfavourable temperature may result in seed dormancy.


Rainfall
1. Rainfall determines seasons in some places e.g. Nigeria where we have rainy and dry
seasons.

2. It determines the type of vegetation in an area.

3. It determines the distribution of plant and animal

4. Rainfall provides a dwelling place or habitat for some organisms, e.g. fish, crab,
shrimps, sea weeds.etc.

5. Rainfall is necessary for seed germination

6. It helps to dissolve nutrient in the soil thereby making them available to plants

7. It is the main source of water in rivers, ponds, lakes, oceans etc.

8. Plants use water for photosynthesis.

Wind
1. Wind determines seasons in Nigeria, for instance, the South‐West wind is responsible
for rainy season while the North‐East wind brings harmmatan or dry season.

2. It helps in the distribution of rainfall

3. It can aid the spread of diseases

4. It aids the pollination of flowers

5. It also aids the disposal of seeds and fruit

6. High velocity wind may cause wind erosion

7. Wind is responsible for water currents and waves.

Light
1. Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis to take place in green plant.

2. It affects evapo‐transpiration.

3. It affects the productivity of crops due to length of day, i.e., photosynthesis

4. Light affects flowering and fruiting in plant

5. Light is the ultimate source of energy for all organisms.


6. It affects the activities of animals, e.g. some animals are active during the day while
others are active at night.

Pressure
1. Atmospheric pressure decreases as one goes up from the sea level

2. In aquatic environment, pressure increases as one move down the water.

3. Plants and animals have special adaptations of a particular level of pressure to enable
them survive.

4. Too high or too low pressure will affect the lives and activities of plants and animals

5. Pressure is responsible for the movement of winds.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)


1. pH values range from 1 to 14, with pH 1 being very acidic, pH 7 neutral and pH 14 very
alkaline.

2. Living organisms are highly sensitive to pH changes.

3. Too high or two low pH will affect the lives and activities of plants and animals

4. Plants and animals are adapted to special pH values. E.g. pH of fresh water is low
while marine pH is high.

5. Most plants thrive well in neutral or slightly alkaline soil while acidic soils support little
vegetation.

Ecological Factors Common to Aquatic Habitats


Factors affecting or common to aquatic habitats are:

• Temperature

• Rainfall

• Wind

• Light

• Pressure

• Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

These factors have been explained above. Other factors not explained are:
• Salinity: Salinity is defined as the degree of saltiness or concentration of salt solution
in water. Salinity is low in fresh water, high in sea water and moderate in brackish
water. Aquatic organisms need to maintain the osmotic balance between their body
fluids and their aquatic surroundings to survive. For example, organisms living in fresh
water will require some adaptive features to enable them get rid of excess water that
enters their bodies while those in sea water equally have adaptations to enable them
cope with excess water in their bodies.

• Turbidity/Transparency: Turbidity is caused as a result of suspended materials in


water. Clear water has low turbidity is also influenced by season. It is higher during the
rainy season than in dry season. Turbidity reduces light penetration into the water,
resulting in the inability of aquatic green plants to carry out photosynthesis, and it
causes pollution.

• Dissolved Gases: Dissolved gases in this case refer to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The oxygen concentration of water decreases with depth. Oxygen is required by most
aquatic organisms for respiration. It is also required for the decaying of organic
substance. Carbon dioxide is required as raw materials for photosynthesis.

• Density: Density of water varies with the types of aquatic habitats. While the density
of pure fresh water is 1.00, that of sea water is 1.028 at atmospheric pressure and
00C. Organisms like fish, have streamlined bodies which enable them to move easily
through water while other organisms which float on the water surface are sensitive to
changes is density.

• Current: Water currents increase aeration and the turbidity of the water. It also
affects the distribution of aquatic organisms. The type of organisms found in an
aquatic habitat is affected by the speed of water current. For example, animals living
in fast moving waters usually have structures for attaching themselves to rock
surfaces so that they cannot be swept away.

• Total movement and waves: Tidal movements and waves affect the organisms in
certain level of the water attach themselves to substances or may even live in
burrows. Some may possess hard body cover to prevent evaporation of water from
their bodies. In the open sea, wave cause the aeration of the surface waters, enabling
aquatic organisms to have sufficient supply of dissolved gases for their respiration.

Ecological factors common to terrestrial habitats


Factors affecting terrestrial habitats are:

• Temperature

• Rainfall

• Wind
• Light

• Pressure

• Hydrogen ion concentration pH

These factors have been discussed under factors common to all habitats. Other factors not
discussed are:

• Relative humidity: Relative humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air. It results
in the formation of rain. Relative humidity affects the performance of plants and
animals, and also determines their distribution. Low humidity causes aridity or dryness
of a place. It also wheat is grown in northern Nigeria during harmattan.

• Edaphic or soil factors: These include:

1. Soil type: The type of soil determines the fertility of the soil. It also determines the
type of vegetation found in an area. Soil types determine the type of crops to be
grown. They equally determine the porosity and water retaining capacity, e.g. while
sandy soil is porous and cannot retain water; clay soil is not porous and can retain
water.

2. Soil texture: Soil texture refers to the degree of coarseness or fineness of soil
particles. It determines the type of soil in an area, the level of soil fertility and the type
of crops to be grown. Soil texture affects the level of leaching and erosion.

3. Soil structure: Soil structure refers to the arrangement of the various soil particles in
the soil. It determines the fertility of the soil, and its water retaining capacity. It also
affects the level of soil organisms as well as the level of soil aeration and percolation.

4. Moisture content: Moisture content is the amount of water available in the soil. It
affects the type of vegetation of an area, the distribution of plants and animals. It also
determines the fertility of the soils as well as the growth of plants in the habitat.

Topographic factors or land surface: Topographic factors or land surfaces include:

1. Elevation: Elevation refers to the height of the land above the sea level. Elevation
affects the growth of plants and the level of erosion in an area. It also determines the
distribution of plants and animals.

2. Type of drainage: Drainage is the removal of excess water from the soil. It affects the
availability of water in the soil and determines the growth of plants in the area.
Excessive drainage leads to soil erosion and poor growth of plants.

3. Degree of Exposure: The degree of exposure of the land is affected by rainfall and
vegetation cover. Low degree of exposures ensures the availability of nutrients to
plants and the distribution of plants and animals. It also has effects on erosion and
evaporation.

Measurement of Ecological Factors

Ecological factors that require measurement are: rainfall, temperature, wind, relative humidity,
pressure, light, pH, turbidity, depth of water, slop etc. These ecological factors and the
instruments used in measuring them are outlined below:

Instrument Functions/uses

1. Rain gauge – Measuring the amount of rainfall

2. Minimum and maximum mercury on glass thermometer – Measurement the lowest and
highest temperature of the day

3. Anemometer – Measuring the speed of wind

4. Wind vane—Indicate the direction of wind

5. Hygrometer – Measures relative humidity

6. Barometer – Measures pressure

7. Photometer or light meter – Measures light intensity on land

8. Hydrophotometer – Measures light intensity in water

9. Colorimeter or pH indicator – Measures acidity or alkalinity of soil or solution.

Test Questions
1. ______ is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species living together
in a given area at a particular time.
a) Crowding
b) Overpopulation
c) Population
d) Survival

2. _____ is used to measure acidity or alkalinity of soil or solution.


a) Colorimeter
b) Hydrometer
c) pH vane
d) Wind vane

3. _______ is caused as a result of suspended materials in water


a) Turgidity
b) Turbidity
c) Salinity
d) Moving waters

4. ________ is defined as the degree of saltiness or concentration of salt solution in water


a) Salinity
b) Salt Level
c) Turbulence
d) Turbidity

5. _______ refers to the total number of the species of the same kind in a given area or
habitat
a) Population density
b) Population characteristics
c) Population
d) Population size

6. One of this is not an ecological factor affecting terrestial habitats.


a) Temperature
b) Rainfall
c) Wind
d) Porosity

7. Sunlight is not necessary for photosynthesis to take place in green plant. True or
False

8. _______ is used to measure pressure


a) Barometer
b) Colorimeter
c) Wind vane
d) Speedometer

9. ______ refers to the number of times an organism occurs within a given area a habitat
a) Population density
b) Population size
c) Population frequency
d) Population Growth

10. _______is the movement of organisms either into a new habitat or out of a habitat.
a) Immigration
b) Migration
c) Emgration
d) Movement

Answers
1. C

2. A

3. B

4. A

5. D

6. D

7. False

8. A

9. C

10. D
Week 7
Topic: Functioning Ecosystem

Introduction

An ecosystem is a basic functioning unit in nature. It is made up of living organisms (plants


and animals) and their non-living environment. The biotic or living components such as the
producers and consumers interact in their environment resulting in the ecosystem being a
functional unit.

Autotrophs, Heterotrophs and Decomposers


Autotrophs

Autotroph is an organism that serves as a primary producer in a food chain. Autotrophs


obtain energy and nutrients by harnessing sunlight through photosynthesis
(photoautotrophs) or, more rarely, obtain chemical energy through oxidation
(chemoautotrophs) to make organic substances from inorganic ones. Autotrophs do not
consume other organisms; they are, however, consumed by heterotrophs.

Energy Production

Autotrophs produce their own energy by one of the following two methods:

• Photosynthesis – Photoautotrophs use energy from sun to convert water from the soil
and carbon dioxide from the air into glucose. Glucose provides energy to plants and
is used to make cellulose which is used to build cell walls. E.g. Plants, algae,
phytoplankton and some bacteria. Carnivorous plants like pitcher plant use
photosynthesis for energy production but depend on other organisms for other
nutrients like nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous. Hence, these plants are basically
autotrophs.

• Chemosynthesis – Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical reactions to make


food. The chemical reactions are usually between hydrogen sulfide/methane with
oxygen. Carbon dioxide is the main source of carbon for Chemoautotrophs. E.g.
Bacteria found inside active volcano.

Heterotrophs

Heterotrophs are organisms that survive by feeding on organic matter produced by or


available in other organisms. It is an organism that consumes other organisms in a food
chain, hence, they are called consumers. In contrast to autotrophs, heterotrophs are unable
to produce organic substances from inorganic ones. They must rely on an organic source of
carbon that has originated as part of another living organism. Heterotrophs depend either
directly or indirectly on autotrophs for nutrients and food energy.

Decomposers

Decomposers are organisms that feed on dead organisms and other decaying organic
materials. Fungi and bacteria are decomposers in energy transformation in an ecosystem.
They are responsible for breaking down the complex organic compounds into simple
nutrients. There are different types of decomposer organisms, which are responsible for
returning simpler nutrients to the soil to be used by plants — and so the energy
transformation cycle continues.

Food Chain and Food Web

Every organism needs to obtain energy in order to live. For example, plants get energy from
the sun, some animals eat plants, and some animals eat other animals.

food web (in an aquatic habitat)

Food Chain
A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an ecosystem) to
obtain nutrition. In other words, food chain is defined as a feeding relationship involving the
transfer of energy through food from producers to consumers. A food chain starts with the
primary energy source, usually the sun. The next link in the chain is an organism that makes
its own food from the primary energy source — an example is photosynthetic plants that
make their own food from sunlight (using a process called photosynthesis) and
chemosynthetic bacteria that make their food energy from chemicals in hydrothermal vents.
These are called autotrophs or primary producers.

Some eat the autotrophs; these organisms are called herbivores or primary consumers — an
example is a grasshopper that eats grass.

The next link in the chain is animals that eat herbivores – these are called secondary
consumers — an example is a rat that eat grasshopper.

The next link in the chain is animals that eat the secondary consumers – these are called
tertiary consumers – an example is a snake the eat rat

In turn, these animals are eaten by larger predators — an example is an owl that eats snakes.

The tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers — an example is a hawk that eats
owls. Each food chain ends with a top predator and animal with no natural enemies (like an
alligator, hawk, or polar bear).

The arrows in a food chain show the flow of energy, from the sun or hydrothermal vent to a
top predator. As the energy flows from organism to organism, energy is lost at each step.

Trophic Levels

The trophic level of an organism is the position it holds in a food chain.

Primary producers (organisms that make their own food from sunlight and/or chemical
energy from deep sea vents) are the base of every food chain – these organisms are called
autotrophs.

Primary consumers are animals that eat primary producers; they are also called herbivores
(plant-eaters).

Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. They are carnivores (meat-eaters) and
omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants).

Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers.

Quaternary consumers eat tertiary consumers.

Food chains “end” with top predators, animals that have little or no natural enemies.
When any organism dies, it is eventually eaten by detrivores (like vultures, worms and crabs)
and broken down by decomposers (mostly bacteria and fungi), and the exchange of energy
continues.

Some organisms’ position in the food chain can vary as their diet differs. For example, when a
bear eats berries, the bear is functioning as a primary consumer. When a bear eats a plant-
eating rodent, the bear is functioning as a secondary consumer. When the bear eats salmon,
the bear is functioning as a tertiary consumer (this is because salmon is a secondary
consumer, since salmon eat herring that eat zooplankton that eat phytoplankton, that make
their own energy from sunlight).

A network of many food chains is called a food web. Food web is defined as a complex
feeding relationship among organisms in the same environment with two or more inter-
related food chains.

Numbers of Organisms:

In any food web, energy is lost each time one organism eats another. Because of this, there
have to be many more plants than there are plant-eaters. There are more autotrophs than
heterotrophs, and more plant-eaters than meat-eaters. Although there is intense competition
between animals, there is also interdependence. When one species goes extinct, it can affect
an entire chain of other species and have unpredictable consequences.

Equilibrium

As the number of carnivores in a community increases; they eat more and more of the
herbivores, decreasing the herbivore population. It then becomes harder and harder for the
carnivores to find herbivores to eat, and the population of carnivores decreases. In this way,
the carnivores and herbivores stay in a relatively stable equilibrium, each limiting the other’s
population. A similar equilibrium exists between plants and plant-eaters.

The number of organisms in a food chain can be represented graphically in a pyramid. Each
bar represents the number of individuals at each trophic level (feeding level) in the food
chain.

In this example a large number of caterpillars living in a single oak tree provide food for
several blue tits, which in turn are consumed by a sparrowhawk.

The pyramid of numbers usually shows that the number of organisms at each trophic level
gets smaller towards the top. This particular case is an exception – one tree provides food
for many caterpillars.

Pyramid of Biomass

A pyramid of biomass is a more accurate indication of how much energy is passed on at


each trophic level.
Biomass is the mass of living material in each organism multiplied by the total number of
organisms in that trophic level. This makes it easier to compare the food value of a small
number of large organisms with a large number of small organisms. Pyramids of biomass
usually are a true pyramid shape.

The biomass in each trophic level is always less than the trophic level below. This is because
biomass is a measure of the amount of food available. When animals eat, only a small
proportion of their food is converted into new tissue, which is the food for the next trophic
level. Most of the biomass that animals eat is either not digested, or used to provide the
energy needed for staying alive.

Processes of Ecosystems

The diagram with the plants, zebra, lion, and so forth illustrates the two main ideas about how
ecosystems function: ecosystems have energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials. These
two processes are linked, but they are not quite the same.

Energy Flows and Material Cycles

Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into chemical
energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and respiration,
and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the
system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled. Without the continued input of solar
energy, biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the earth is an open system with
respect to energy.

Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a variety of ways.
Plants obtain elements from the surrounding atmosphere, water, or soils. Animals may also
obtain elements directly from the physical environment, but usually they obtain these mainly
as a consequence of consuming other organisms. These materials are transformed
biochemically within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to excretion or
decomposition, they are returned to an inorganic state. Often bacteria complete this
process, through the process called decomposition or mineralization.

During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, so the earth is a closed
system with respect to elements. The elements are cycled endlessly between their biotic and
abiotic states within ecosystems.

ASSESSMENT.
1. Define the term “Ecosystem”.

2. Explain the following terms; Autotrophs, Heterotrophs and Decomposers.

3. What is a “Food chain”?


4. Draw an illustration of a food chain.
Week 8
Topic: Energy Transformation In Nature

Introduction

The transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the input of energy from the
sun. Energy from the sun is captured by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is
combined with hydrogen (derived from the splitting of water molecules) to produce
carbohydrates (CHO). Energy is stored in the high energy bonds of adenosine triphosphate,
or ATP.

Energy Loss in the Ecosystem

The solar radiation is used by plants during photosynthesis. Some are lost to the earth’s
surface while some are stored in plants’ parts stems, leaves, etc. and are not used up.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
First Law of Thermodynamics

The law states that energy can neither be lost nor created especially as it is converted from
one form to another.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The law states that no energy transformation is 100% efficient, since some are lost in form of
heat.

Decomposition in Nature
Decomposers are organisms, mainly bacteria and saprophytes responsible for the breaking
down of dead organic materials which could be of plants or animals origin. These
decomposers are grouped into two classes:

1. Micro-decomposers: These are small or microscopic organisms that can cause decay,
e.g. certain bacteria and fungi.

2. Macro-decomposers: These are bigger organisms that can cause decay of dead
organic materials, e.g. earthworms, termites, snails, mushroom, toad stools, etc.

Process of Decomposition
The decomposers secrete enzymes onto their food source such as decaying plant. These
enzymes break down complex organic compounds (food) like carbohydrates and proteins
into simple soluble inorganic compounds.

Roles of Decomposers in Ecosystem


1. Decomposers play major roles in the ecosystem in the following ways:

2. They enrich the soil with nutrients required for plant growth

3. They contribute to environmental pollution

4. Decomposition is useful in the making of cheese and yogurt

5. They also prevent an unsightly accumulation of remains and wastes of living


organisms on earth surface.

Test Questions
1. What law of thermodynamics is this? “The law states that no energy transformation is
100% efficient, since some are lost in form of heat.”
a) First Law
b) Second Law
c) Third Law

2. There are two types of decomposers namely ______

3. Energy from the sun is captured by the process of ________

4. Energy is stored in the high energy bonds of ________

5. ______ are organisms, mainly bacteria and saprophytes responsible for the breaking
down of dead organic materials which could be of plants or animals origin.

Answers
1. B

2. Micro and Macro decomposers

3. Photosynthesis

4. ATP or Adenosine Triphosphate

5. Decomposers

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