1.

Write a short note on: VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network)

A VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network) is a network configuration method that logically
segments a single physical network into multiple isolated networks. It works at the Data Link
Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Devices within the same VLAN can communicate directly,
while communication between VLANs requires a router or Layer 3 switch. VLANs help reduce
broadcast traffic, enhance security, and simplify network management by grouping devices
based on function, department, or application, regardless of their physical location.

2. Write a short note on: DNS (Domain Name System)

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a distributed naming system used to translate
human-readable domain names like www.example.com into machine-readable IP addresses
like 192.0.2.1. It functions like a phonebook for the internet, allowing users to access
websites without remembering numerical IPs. DNS is organized in a hierarchical structure
involving root servers, top-level domain (TLD) servers, and authoritative name servers. It plays a
crucial role in web browsing, email delivery, and other internet-based services by resolving
domain names quickly and efficiently through a system of queries and caching.

3. Write a short note on: VPN (Virtual Private Network)

A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is a secure communication technology that creates an

encrypted tunnel over a public network, such as the internet, to connect a user's device to a
private network. This ensures confidentiality, data integrity, and protection from unauthorized
access. VPNs are widely used to enable remote access to corporate resources, bypass
geographical restrictions, and enhance privacy by masking the user's IP address. Common VPN
protocols include PPTP, L2TP/IPSec, and OpenVPN. They are essential in modern networking
for secure and private online communication.
4. Write a short note on: RPC (Remote Procedure Call)

A Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a protocol that allows a program to invoke a procedure (or
function) on another system, usually a remote server, as if it were a local function call. The RPC
mechanism abstracts the complexity of network communication, making remote interactions
seamless for the user. The client sends a request to the server with the necessary parameters,
and the server executes the procedure, returning the result to the client. RPC is commonly used
in distributed systems for inter-process communication and building networked applications.

5. Write a short note on: SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is a widely used protocol for monitoring and
managing network devices such as routers, switches, servers, and printers. It allows network
administrators to collect performance data, configure devices, and detect issues across a
network. SNMP operates using a client-server model, where the SNMP manager requests
information from SNMP agents on devices. The agents provide information stored in a
Management Information Base (MIB). SNMP is crucial for network administration, helping to
maintain the health and efficiency of a network.

6. Write a short note on: Image Compression Techniques

Image compression techniques are methods used to reduce the size of image files while
maintaining acceptable quality. There are two main types:

●​ Lossy Compression: This technique reduces file size by discarding some of the image
data, which results in a loss of quality. Common lossy algorithms include JPEG (Joint
Photographic Experts Group), where the compression reduces file size significantly but
can cause visible artifacts.​

●​ Lossless Compression: This method retains all original image data, ensuring no quality
loss. It uses algorithms like PNG (Portable Network Graphics) and GIF (Graphics
Interchange Format), which are ideal for images requiring sharp details or transparency.​

These techniques are widely used in digital imaging, web development, and media storage to
balance file size and image quality.
7. Write a short note on: Leaky Bucket

The Leaky Bucket algorithm is a traffic shaping mechanism used in networking to control the
rate at which data packets are sent over a network. It works by buffering incoming packets in a
"bucket" and releasing them at a fixed rate, thus smoothing out bursty traffic. If the bucket
overflows, meaning packets arrive faster than the system can process, they are discarded. This
mechanism helps to avoid network congestion by ensuring that data is transmitted at a steady,
controlled rate, making it useful for applications like voice over IP (VoIP) or video streaming
where consistent data flow is essential.

8. Lossless and Lossy Compression

Feature Lossless Compression Lossy Compression

Data Integrity Retains all original data, no Some data is lost, cannot be
loss in quality. fully restored.

File Size Reduction Provides moderate reduction Provides higher file size
in file size. reduction.

Compression Example ZIP, PNG, FLAC JPEG, MP3, MPEG

Reversibility Fully reversible – Irreversible – cannot recover

decompressed file is identical original quality once
to original. compressed.

Use Cases Ideal for text files, images Used for multimedia like
with transparency, and audio images, audio, and video
files that require high quality. where quality loss is
acceptable.
 Quality No loss of quality; perfect Quality is compromised for
fidelity. smaller file sizes.

9. Write a short note on: HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is a protocol used for transmitting hypertext via the World
Wide Web. It enables communication between web browsers (clients) and web servers. HTTP
follows a request-response model where the client sends an HTTP request to the server, and
the server responds with the requested resource or an error message. HTTP operates over
TCP/IP and is stateless, meaning each request is independent, and the server does not retain
any information about previous requests. HTTP/1.1 and HTTP/2 are common versions, with
HTTP/2 offering improvements in speed and efficiency over HTTP/1.1.

10. Explain what is Huffman Coding

Huffman Coding is a lossless data compression algorithm used to reduce the size of data by
assigning variable-length codes to different characters. The most frequent characters get
shorter codes, while less frequent characters are assigned longer codes. The algorithm creates
a binary tree, known as a Huffman Tree, where each leaf node represents a character, and the
path from the root to the leaf represents the character's binary code. Huffman coding is widely
used in data compression formats like ZIP files and JPEG image compression.

11. Explain TCP services

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol that ensures reliable

communication between devices on a network. It provides several key services:

●​ Reliability: Guarantees data delivery with acknowledgment and retransmission

mechanisms.​

●​ Flow Control: Manages data transfer rates to prevent congestion, using a sliding
window protocol.​

●​ Error Control: Uses checksums to detect errors and ensures corrupted data is
retransmitted.​
 ●​ Ordered Data Transfer: Ensures data is delivered in the correct order, even if packets
arrive out of sequence.​

●​ Connection Establishment: Establishes a reliable connection between the sender and

receiver through a three-way handshake.​

●​ Connection Termination: Properly terminates the connection when communication

ends, ensuring all data is delivered.​

These services make TCP suitable for applications requiring reliable and ordered data
transmission, like web browsing and file transfers.

12. Explain UDP services

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless and lightweight protocol used for fast data
transmission where reliability is not a priority. Key services provided by UDP include:

●​ Connectionless Communication: There is no need to establish a connection between

the sender and receiver before data transmission.​

●​ Speed: It transmits data without waiting for acknowledgments, making it faster than TCP.​

●​ No Error Recovery: Unlike TCP, UDP does not retransmit lost packets or ensure the
data is error-free.​

●​ Unreliable Delivery: Data packets may be lost, duplicated, or arrive out of order, but
UDP does not guarantee delivery.​

●​ Efficient for Broadcasting: Suitable for applications where time-sensitive data is more
important than reliability (e.g., streaming or online gaming).​

UDP is widely used in applications that require quick data transmission and can tolerate some
data loss, such as DNS, VoIP, and video streaming.
13. Connectionless and Connection-Oriented Protocols

Feature Connectionless Protocol Connection-Oriented

Protocol

Connection Establishment No connection establishment Requires connection

before communication. establishment before
communication.

Reliability Does not guarantee reliability Guarantees reliable data

(e.g., data may be lost). delivery.

Error Handling No error recovery or Provides error detection and

correction. correction.

Data Ordering Data may arrive out of order. Data arrives in the same
order it was sent.

Transmission Speed Faster due to the lack of Slower due to connection

overhead for connection setup and error handling.
setup.

Usage Ideal for real-time Suitable for applications

applications where speed is requiring reliable and ordered
critical (e.g., streaming). delivery (e.g., web browsing,
file transfer).

Flow Control No flow control mechanisms. Implements flow control (e.g.,

sliding window).

Examples UDP, IP, ICMP TCP, SCTP

14. comparison between TCP and UDP

Feature TCP (Transmission Control UDP (User Datagram

Protocol) Protocol)

Connection Connection-oriented (requires Connectionless (no need for

connection setup). connection setup).

Reliability Provides reliable data No guarantee of data

delivery with delivery; unreliable.
acknowledgment.

Error Detection Includes error detection and Error detection only, no

recovery (retransmits lost recovery or retransmission.
data).

Data Ordering Ensures data arrives in the Data may arrive out of order.
correct order.

Flow Control Implements flow control to No flow control mechanism.

prevent congestion.

Transmission Speed Slower due to connection Faster as there is no

establishment, error handling, overhead for reliability or
and flow control. ordering.

Use Cases Suitable for applications Suitable for time-sensitive

requiring reliability, such as applications like VoIP, live
file transfers, web browsing, streaming, and DNS queries.
etc.
 Examples HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, VoIP, Streaming,
TCP-based applications UDP-based applications

15. What are the applications of UDP Protocol?

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless protocol that is primarily used for
applications that require fast data transmission and can tolerate some data loss. Since UDP
does not provide error correction, ordering, or retransmission, it is ideal for time-sensitive and
real-time applications where speed is prioritized over reliability.

Applications of UDP Protocol:

1.​ DNS (Domain Name System):​

○​ Used for resolving domain names to IP addresses. It requires fast, lightweight

communication and can tolerate occasional data loss.​

2.​ VoIP (Voice over IP):​

○​ Used for voice communication over the internet. VoIP services prioritize low
latency, so UDP is preferred despite its lack of reliability.​

3.​ Streaming Services (Audio/Video):​

○​ Video and audio streaming applications like Netflix, YouTube, and Spotify use
UDP to ensure minimal delay and smooth playback, even if some packets are
lost.​

4.​ Online Gaming:​

○​ Multiplayer online games use UDP to send real-time data between players.
Speed is more critical than ensuring every packet arrives, so UDP is ideal for
gaming.​

5.​ TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol):​

 ○​ A simple protocol used for transferring files where speed is more important than
reliability. It is often used in booting processes and firmware updates.​

6.​ SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):​

○​ SNMP uses UDP to monitor and manage network devices because it requires
low overhead and can handle occasional packet loss.​

7.​ RIP (Routing Information Protocol):​

○​ A distance-vector routing protocol used in networks, which employs UDP for its
routing updates due to its efficiency and simplicity.​

8.​ DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):​

○​ Used by network devices to obtain IP addresses dynamically. UDP allows fast

communication for IP address assignments, even though packets might be
dropped occasionally.​

16. Explain TCP Congestion Control

TCP Congestion Control is a mechanism that helps prevent network congestion by adjusting
the rate at which data is sent. It ensures that the network does not become overwhelmed with
too much data, which could lead to packet loss and delays. TCP uses several algorithms to
manage congestion, including:

1.​ Slow Start: Initially, TCP starts with a small congestion window (CWND) and increases it
exponentially with each acknowledgment (ACK) received, until a threshold is reached.​

2.​ Congestion Avoidance: Once the threshold is crossed, TCP switches to a more
gradual increase in CWND (additive increase) to avoid overwhelming the network.​

3.​ Fast Retransmit: When three duplicate ACKs are received (indicating packet loss), TCP
retransmits the lost packet immediately without waiting for a timeout.​

4.​ Fast Recovery: After packet loss is detected, TCP reduces the CWND size to a fraction
of its original size (usually half), then increases it slowly again.​

These algorithms ensure that TCP adapts to the network conditions, providing efficient and
reliable data transmission without causing congestion.
17. Explain TCP Three-Way Handshaking With Diagram

TCP Three-Way Handshaking is a fundamental process used to establish a reliable connection

between a client and a server in a TCP/IP network. This process ensures that both parties are
synchronized and ready for data transmission. The three steps involved are:

1.​ SYN (Synchronize):​

○​ The client initiates the connection by sending a SYN packet to the server. This
packet includes an initial sequence number (ISN) chosen by the client, indicating
the starting point for data transmission.​

2.​ SYN-ACK (Synchronize-Acknowledge):​

○​ Upon receiving the client's SYN packet, the server responds with a SYN-ACK
packet. This response serves two purposes:​

■​ SYN: The server's ISN is included, establishing its starting point for data
transmission.​

■​ ACK: Acknowledges the receipt of the client's SYN packet by setting the
acknowledgment number to the client's ISN plus one.​

3.​ ACK (Acknowledge):​

○​ The client receives the server's SYN-ACK packet and sends an ACK packet
back to the server. This packet acknowledges the server's ISN by setting the
acknowledgment number to the server's ISN plus one. At this stage, the
connection is fully established, and data transfer can commence.​

Diagram:

For a visual representation of the TCP Three-Way Handshake, you can refer to the following
resources:

●​ GeeksforGeeks:​

○​ Provides a detailed explanation along with a diagram illustrating the handshake

process.​

○​ TCP 3-Way Handshake Process​

●​ Guru99:​
 ○​ Offers a comprehensive guide on the TCP Three-Way Handshake, including a
step-by-step breakdown and diagram.​

○​ TCP 3-Way Handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK)​

●​ Wireshark Wiki:​

○​ Features a detailed sequence diagram and explanation of the handshake

process.​

○​ TCP 3-Way Handshaking​

These resources provide clear diagrams and in-depth explanations to enhance your
understanding of the TCP Three-Way Handshake process.

18. Draw and Explain TCP Header

The TCP Header is crucial for establishing and maintaining a connection in TCP. Here's a
simplified breakdown:

Short Explanation of Fields:

1.​ Source Port (16 bits): Identifies the sender’s port.​

2.​ Destination Port (16 bits): Identifies the receiver’s port.​

3.​ Sequence Number (32 bits): Tracks the position of the byte stream.​

4.​ Acknowledgment Number (32 bits): Indicates the next expected byte.​

5.​ Data Offset (4 bits): Length of the TCP header.​

6.​ Flags (9 bits): Includes control flags like SYN, ACK, FIN, etc.​

7.​ Window Size (16 bits): Specifies flow control window size.​

8.​ Checksum (16 bits): Error-checking field.​

9.​ Urgent Pointer (16 bits): Points to urgent data if the URG flag is set.​
 10.​Options: Additional configuration options.​

11.​Data: The actual application data.​

Diagram Links:

●​ GeeksforGeeks: TCP Header Structure​

●​ Guru99: TCP Header​

●​ Wireshark: TCP Header​

19. Explain Connection Establishment in TCP with Diagram

Connection Establishment in TCP occurs through the three-way handshake process, which
ensures both parties are ready for data transmission. The process involves three main steps:

1.​ SYN (Synchronize):​

The client sends a SYN packet to the server to initiate the connection. The SYN packet
includes the client’s initial sequence number (ISN).​

2.​ SYN-ACK (Synchronize-Acknowledge):​

The server responds by sending a SYN-ACK packet. This packet contains the server’s
ISN and acknowledges the client’s SYN packet by setting the acknowledgment number
to the client’s ISN plus one.​

3.​ ACK (Acknowledge):​

Finally, the client sends an ACK packet, acknowledging the server’s ISN. This
completes the handshake, and both sides can now start data transmission.​

Diagram of TCP Connection Establishment:

 1.​ GeeksforGeeks:​

○​ Diagram: Illustrates the sequence of SYN, SYN-ACK, and ACK messages

exchanged during the handshake.​

○​ Link: TCP 3-Way Handshake Process​

2.​ Guru99:​

○​ Diagram: Provides a step-by-step visual representation of the handshake,

highlighting the roles of SYN and ACK packets.​

○​ Link: TCP 3-Way Handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK)​

3.​ Wireshark Wiki:​

○​ Diagram: Depicts the exchange of packets during the three-way handshake,

accompanied by detailed explanations.​

○​ Link: TCP 3-Way Handshaking​

Explanation of Diagram:

1.​ SYN: The client sends a packet to the server to begin the connection.​

2.​ SYN-ACK: The server responds with an acknowledgment of the client’s request.​

3.​ ACK: The client confirms the server’s acknowledgment, completing the connection.​

At this point, the connection is fully established, and data transfer can begin.
20. Describe Remote Procedure Call (RPC)

Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a protocol that allows a program to execute a procedure
(function or subroutine) on a remote server as if it were a local call. It abstracts the complexities
of network communication and allows for client-server interaction.

How RPC Works:

1.​ Client Request:​

○​ The client sends a request to the server to execute a specific procedure or

function. The request contains the necessary arguments.​

2.​ Marshalling:​

○​ The arguments are packaged (marshalled) into a format that can be sent over the
network.​

3.​ Server Processing:​

○​ The server receives the request, unmarshals the arguments, executes the
function, and returns the result to the client.​

4.​ Client Receives Response:​

○​ The client receives the result, which is unmarshalled (converted back into its
original format) and used locally.​

Advantages of RPC:

1.​ Simplifies Network Communication:​

○​ RPC abstracts the complexities of socket programming, making it easier for

developers to design distributed systems.​

2.​ Language and Platform Independence:​

○​ RPC can be used in different programming languages and platforms, allowing

communication between heterogeneous systems.​
 3.​ Transparent Communication:​

○​ The client does not need to worry about the underlying network details; it can
simply call a function as if it were local.​

Use Cases of RPC:

1.​ Distributed Systems:​

○​ RPC is widely used in distributed systems where components running on

different machines need to communicate and exchange data.​

2.​ Client-Server Applications:​

○​ In client-server architectures, RPC is used to perform operations on a remote

server, such as database queries or accessing remote resources.​