Chapter 28:

Alternating-Current Circuits
 To characterize AC circuit quantities in
terms of amplitude, frequency, and phase
 To describe current-voltage relations in
resistors, capacitors, and inductors,
including both amplitude and phase
relations
 To describe the oscillatory behavior of LC
circuits
 How transformers and power supplies
make direct-current power from
alternating-current sources
 DC vs AC

Current
𝑰𝑰(𝒕𝒕)

Time, 𝒕𝒕

DC is characterized by AC is characterized by
1. Amplitude 1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
 Mathematical description of oscillation
(Ch.14) - revisited

Harmonic oscillator

2𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝑡𝑡
𝑻𝑻
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝜋𝒇𝒇𝑡𝑡

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝝎𝝎𝑡𝑡
Amplitude 𝐴𝐴 [𝑚𝑚] Period 𝑇𝑇 [𝑠𝑠]

Frequency 𝑓𝑓 = 1/𝑇𝑇 [1/𝑠𝑠] = [𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻] Phase 𝜙𝜙 [𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟]

Angular frequency 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓 [𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠] = [𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 � 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻]

Mathematical description of oscillation
(Ch.14) - revisited

Harmonic oscillator

2𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝝓𝝓
𝑇𝑇
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 𝝓𝝓

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝝓𝝓

Phase 𝜙𝜙 [𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟]
 Sinusoidal voltage and current

𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡)

𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝

𝜙𝜙𝑉𝑉
𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡
−
𝜔𝜔

𝑉𝑉 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙𝑉𝑉 Similarly, 𝐼𝐼 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼

𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝
Root-mean-squared (RMS) voltage: 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
2 2

𝑇𝑇+𝜏𝜏 𝑇𝑇+𝜏𝜏 𝑇𝑇+𝜏𝜏

1 2 1 1 − cos(2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡) 1 𝑡𝑡 sin(2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡) 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = � 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 − =
𝜏𝜏 𝜏𝜏 2 𝜏𝜏 2 4𝜔𝜔 𝑇𝑇 2
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
 Resistors in an AC Circuit

 Let the AC voltage be (setting ))

 Since both current and voltage in a resistor are in

phase (that is, they peak at the same time):

• Their amplitudes are related by

 Capacitor in an AC Circuit
 Let the AC voltage be (setting )

 The charge in the capacitor is q = CV. Thus, the

current is

 Current in a capacitor leads voltage

by π/2 or 90 .
• Their amplitudes are related by

• is the capacitive reactance.

 Inductor in an AC Circuit
 Let the AC voltage be (setting )

 The inductor emf is

 The loop law gives or

 Voltage in an inductor leads current

by π/2 or 90 .
• Their amplitudes are related by

• is the inductive reactance.

Amplitude and Phase Relations in Circuit
Elements
 Phasor
 Representation of a sinusoidal signal
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑦𝑦� 𝑡𝑡
𝑦𝑦� 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 + 𝑖𝑖𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜙𝜙

 Phasor: 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜙𝜙 , or just the complex constant, 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜙𝜙

1. Multiplication btw phasors

𝑦𝑦� 𝑡𝑡 � 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜑𝜑 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜙𝜙 � 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖 𝜙𝜙+𝜃𝜃

2. Differentiation & integration

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦� 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜙𝜙 = 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜙𝜙 = 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑦𝑦� 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
� 𝑦𝑦� 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑦𝑦� 𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔
 Generalized Ohm’s law

 Complex impedance

1 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 = =
𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖

 Generalized Ohm’s law

𝑉𝑉� 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼̂ 𝑡𝑡 𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋

where 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑅𝑅, 𝐿𝐿, 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶
 Phasor diagrams: a resistor

𝑉𝑉�𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡
𝐼𝐼̂𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 =
𝑅𝑅

𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝

Time
Phasor diagrams: a capacitor

𝑉𝑉�𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝜋𝜋
𝐼𝐼̂𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉�𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 � 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 = 𝑒𝑒 2
𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐
Phasor diagrams: an inductor
𝑉𝑉�𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉�𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 −𝑖𝑖𝜋𝜋
𝐼𝐼̂𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = = 𝑒𝑒 2
𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
 Capacitors and inductors: summarized
 Capacitors and inductors are complementary components.
 Analyzing a circuit using complex impedance
 Calculate the effective impedance as if it were DC with only resistors.

 � 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼̂ 𝑡𝑡 𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋
Apply generalized Ohm’s law 𝑉𝑉

 Take the real part of 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) and 𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡)

1
The effective impedance: 𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 𝑅𝑅 +
𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉� 𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
Generalized Ohm’s law: 𝐼𝐼̂ 𝑡𝑡 = = =⋯
𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅 + 1/𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶

𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 1/𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
If we calculate V applied to C: 𝑉𝑉�𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉� 𝑡𝑡 �
= 𝑉𝑉 𝑡𝑡
𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅 + 1/𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
 LC oscillations
 Energy transfer between electric and magnetic fields
1
 Oscillates permanently with angular frequency 𝜔𝜔 =
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

Apply KVL:

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 0

𝐼𝐼𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 + 𝐼𝐼𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 0
1
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 + =0
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
1
𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 =
𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
1
𝜔𝜔 =
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
LC circuit vs simple harmonic motion

Electric energy ⟺ spring’s elastic energy

Magnetic energy ⟺ kinetic energy of the mass

The total energy remains constant.

 Damped LC oscillations

With resistance in the circuit, LC oscillations damp out.

KVL: 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 + 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 0

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 1 𝑡𝑡
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐿𝐿 + � 𝐼𝐼 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶 −∞
𝑑𝑑2 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 1
2
+ + 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
 Damped oscillation revisited (Ch.13)

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 2 = 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
Rewrite the equation: + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔0 + 𝜔𝜔0 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝜔𝜔0 = 𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 : undamped angular frequency

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
𝜁𝜁 = = : damping ratio
2𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔0 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Different types of solutions based on the values of 𝜁𝜁

But, simply state its solution:

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏/2𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙

 Damped oscillation revisited (Ch.13)

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
+ 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔0 + 𝜔𝜔0 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(a) Under-damped 0 < 𝜁𝜁 < 1 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔0𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡

where, 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 = 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
(b) Critically damped 𝜁𝜁 = 1 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)𝑒𝑒 −𝜔𝜔0𝑡𝑡
The critically damped system return back to equilibrium most quickly!

(c) Over-damped 𝜁𝜁 > 1 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾+ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 𝛾𝛾− 𝑡𝑡

where, 𝛾𝛾± = 𝜔𝜔0 −𝜁𝜁 ± 𝜁𝜁 2 − 1
(d) Undamped (SHM) 𝜁𝜁 = 0 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔0 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝜔𝜔0 𝑡𝑡

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DampedSimpleHarmonicMotion.html
 Damped LC oscillations

With resistance in the circuit, LC oscillations damp out.

KVL: 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 + 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 0 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
+ 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔0 + 𝜔𝜔0 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 1 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐿𝐿 + � 𝐼𝐼 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶 −∞ 𝑅𝑅
< 𝜔𝜔0  Under-damping
𝑑𝑑 2 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 1 2𝐿𝐿
+ + 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅
= 𝜔𝜔0  Critical-damping
1 𝑅𝑅 2𝐿𝐿
𝜔𝜔0 = 𝜁𝜁 = 𝑅𝑅
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2𝐿𝐿𝜔𝜔0 > 𝜔𝜔0  Over-damping
2𝐿𝐿
 Comparison btw mechanical and LC oscillations
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 2 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 2 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 1
𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶

Correspondence
• Energy stored in kinetic form 𝒎𝒎 ⇔ 𝑳𝑳 • Energy stored in B-field
• Inertial mass • Electromagnetic inertia
• Kinetic energy  heat energy 𝒃𝒃 ⇔ 𝑹𝑹 • Electric energy  heat energy

• Energy stored in spring-potential 𝟏𝟏 • Energy stored in E-field

• 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝒌𝒌 ⇔ 1 1 𝑡𝑡
• 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑞𝑞 = ∫−∞ 𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑪𝑪 𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶

𝑘𝑘 1
𝝎𝝎𝟎𝟎
𝑚𝑚 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
(Sinusoidally) Driven RLC circuit and resonance
The effective impedance:
1
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 +
𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
Generalized Ohm’s law:
𝐼𝐼̂ 𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑉� 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
= 𝐼𝐼̂ 𝑡𝑡 𝑍𝑍 = 𝐼𝐼̂ 𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼̂ 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 +
𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝

�
𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡)
̂
𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) =
𝑍𝑍
�
𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡)
̂
∠ 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) =∠
𝑍𝑍
(Sinusoidally) Driven RLC circuit and resonance
1
 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 is maximized when: 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 =
𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶
1
 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 = = 𝜔𝜔0
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
 𝜙𝜙 can be calculated from RLC values:
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 − 1/𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶
tan 𝜙𝜙 = =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
1
 𝜙𝜙 = 0 when 𝜔𝜔𝑑𝑑 = = 𝜔𝜔0
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
 Power in AC circuits
 Power consumption in an AC circuit: : time average
over one cycle
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) � 𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − 𝜙𝜙) � 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡)
= 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡)
1
= 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡) = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙
2

𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙  Power consumption depends on the phase relation btw 𝑉𝑉 and 𝐼𝐼

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙: power factor

Time
Time
Time
 Example 28.1 Managing the power factor
 To minimize power loss in the transmission line, what is the
desired power factor: low or high?
If we consider whole power grid system,
the required 𝑃𝑃 and V in the system are fixed.
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙

Power loss in the transmission line

2
2 𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ~ 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙
Therefore, the power factor 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙 close to 1 is desirable.

𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃 ,V𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Transformers

iron core

𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2

AC current in the primary coil

 Changing magnetic flux in the secondary
 Inducing the emf in the secondary “mutual inductance”

Transformer voltages
𝑉𝑉2 𝑁𝑁2
ratio of the voltages
= = ratio of the number of turns
𝑉𝑉1 𝑁𝑁1
 Power transmission
 Voltage level of AC current can be changed easily by transformers.

 Electric power is most efficiently transmitted

at high voltages. The transmission lines are in loops separated
from the loop for power plants and power
 Power loss in the power lines:
consumers, but the transformer delivers the
2
𝑃𝑃2
𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅 = 2 𝑅𝑅 energy of the power plants to the consumers.
𝑉𝑉
 AC/DC converter

Circuit symbol
for a diode
 Chapter 28 Summary
 Electrical quantities in AC vary sinusoidally with time.
• Amplitude (peak or rms), frequency (in Hz or as 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 � 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 ),
and phase
 Phasors: vectors used to describe time-varying AC quantities
 Circuit components exhibit frequency-dependent behavior.
1
𝑉𝑉� 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼̂ 𝑡𝑡 𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 =
𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶

 Power in AC circuits is the product of rms voltage and current

with the phase factor:

𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙

 LC Oscillations (analog of a mass spring)
 During the oscillation, energy is transferred back and
forth between electric energy in the capacitor and
magnetic energy in the inductor:

 Energy conservation leads to

 With V= q/C, I=dq/dt,

dI/dt = d2q/dt2, we obtain

 A circuit consisting of a capacitor

and inductor oscillates indefinitely
with angular frequency
 Damped LC Oscillations
 With resistance in the circuit, LC oscillations
damp out.
 The differential equation for the RLC circuit is

and the solution is

• For sufficiently low resistance, the circuit

continues to oscillate but the amplitude
decreases exponentially.
• The condition R2 = 4L/C corresponds to
critical damping, under which all circuit
quantities decay to zero without
oscillation.
 Driven Oscillations and Resonance
 An RLC circuit driven by an AC
voltage source exhibits frequency-
dependent behavior.
• Current is greatest at the resonant frequency:
from 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 ,
 Resonance occurs because voltages in a series capacitor and
inductor are 180 out of phase.
• At resonance they completely cancel.
 Amplitude and Phase in the Driven RLC Circuit
Circuit quality:
 Peak current has a maximum at resonance: High-Q vs low-Q

• Impedance:

• Phase difference

• Current leads voltage for frequencies

below resonance ( ).
• Voltage leads current for frequencies above
resonance ( ).
• At resonance, voltage and current are
in phase ( ).