UNIT 2

Stacks
 Introduction
• Stack is an important data structure which stores its elements in
an ordered manner.

• Take an analogy of a pile of plates where one plate is placed on

top of the other. A plate can be removed only from the topmost
position. Hence, you can add and remove the plate only at/from
one position, that is, the topmost position.
Another plate will be The topmost plate will be
added on top of this plate removed first
PUSH OPERATION
POP OPERATION
 Stacks
• A stack is a linear data structure which uses the same principle,
i.e., the elements in a stack are added and removed only from
one end, which is called the top.

• Hence, a stack is called a LIFO (Last-In, First-Out) data structure as

the element that is inserted last is the first one to be taken out.

• Stacks can be implemented either using an array or a linked list.

 OPERATIONS OF STACKS

• PUSH

• POP

• PEEK/PEEP
 Array
Representation
of
Stacks

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

 Array Representation of Stacks
• In computer’s memory stacks can be represented as a linear array.
• Every stack has a variable TOP associated with it.
• TOP is used to store the address of the topmost element of the
stack. It is this position from where the element will be added or
deleted.
• There is another variable MAX which will be used to store the
maximum number of elements that the stack can hold.
• If TOP = NULL, then it indicates that the stack is empty and if TOP =
MAX -1, then the stack is full.
Push Operation
• The push operation is used to insert an element in to the stack.
• The new element is added at the topmost position of the stack.
• However, before inserting the value, we must first check if
TOP=MAX-1, because if this is the case then it means the stack is
full and no more insertions can further be done.
• If an attempt is made to insert a value in a stack that is already full,
an OVERFLOW message is printed.

A B C D E

0 1 2 3 TOP = 4 5 6 7 8 9

A B C D E F

0 1 2 3 4 TOP =5 6 7 8 9
 Pop Operation
• The pop operation is used to delete the topmost element from the
stack.
• However, before deleting the value, we must first check if
TOP=NULL, because if this is the case then it means the stack is
empty so no more deletions can further be done.
• If an attempt is made to delete a value from a stack that is already
empty, an UNDERFLOW message is printed.
A B C D E

0 1 2 3 TOP = 4 5 6 7 8 9

A B C D

0 1 2 TOP = 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Peek Operation
• Peek is an operation that returns the value of the topmost
element of the stack without deleting it from the stack.
• However, the peep operation first checks if the stack is empty or
contains some elements.
• If TOP = NULL, then an appropriate message is printed else the
value is returned.
A B C D E

0 1 2 3 TOP = 4 5 6 7 8 9

Here Peep operation will return E, as it is the value of the

topmost element of the stack.
Algorithms for PUSH Operations
 Algorithms for POP Operations

Step 1: IF TOP = NULL, then

PRINT “UNDERFLOW”
Goto Step 4
[END OF IF]
Step 2: SET STACK[TOP] = VALUE
Step 3: SET TOP = TOP - 1
Step 4: END
Algorithm for Peep Operation
Step 1: IF TOP =NULL, then
PRINT “STACK IS EMPTY”
Go TO Step 3
[END OF IF]
Step 2: RETURN STACK[TOP]
Step 3: END
LINKED LIST
Representation
of
Stacks

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

 Linear Representation of Stacks
• In a linked stack, every node has two parts – one that stores data
and another that stores the address of the next node.

• The START pointer of the linked list is used as TOP.

• If TOP is NULL then it indicates that the stack is empty.

1 7 3 4 2 6 5 X

TOP
Push Operation on a Linked Stack
Step 1: Allocate memory for the new node and name
it as New_Node
Step 2: SET New_Node->DATA = VAL
Step 3: IF TOP = NULL, then
SET New_Node->NEXT = NULL
SET TOP = New_Node
ELSE
SET New_node->NEXT = TOP
SET TOP = New_Node
[END OF IF]
Step 4: END
1 7 3 4 2 6 5 X

TOP

9 1 7 3 4 2 6 5 X

TOP
 Pop Operation on a Linked Stack
Step 1: IF TOP = NULL, then
PRINT “UNDERFLOW”
Goto Step 5
[END OF IF]
Step 2: SET PTR = TOP
Step 3: SET TOP = TOP ->NEXT
Step 4: FREE PTR
Step 5: END
9 1 7 3 4 2 6 5 X

TOP

1 7 3 4 2 6 5 X

TOP
 Applications of Stacks
• Reversing a list

• Parentheses Checker

• Conversion of an infix expression into a postfix expression

• Evaluation of a postfix expression

• Conversion of an infix expression into a prefix expression

• Evaluation of a prefix expression

• Recursion

• Tower of Honai
 Infix Notation
• Infix, Postfix and Prefix notations are three different but equivalent
notations of writing algebraic expressions.
• While writing an arithmetic expression using infix notation, the
operator is placed between the operands. For example, A+B; here,
plus operator is placed between the two operands A and B.
• Although it is easy to write expressions using infix notation,
computers find it difficult to parse as they need a lot of information
to evaluate the expression.
• Information is needed about operator precedence, associativity
rules, and brackets which overrides these rules.
• So, computers work more efficiently with expressions written using
prefix and postfix notations.
 Postfix Notation
• Postfix notation was given by Jan Lukasiewicz who was a Polish
logician, mathematician, and philosopher. His aim was to develop
a parenthesis-free prefix notation (also known as Polish notation)
and a postfix notation which is better known as Reverse Polish
Notation or RPN.
• In postfix notation, the operator is placed after the operands. For
example, if an expression is written as A+B in infix notation, the
same expression can be written as AB+ in postfix notation.
• The order of evaluation of a postfix expression is always from left
to right.
 Postfix Notation

• The expression (A + B) * C is written as:

AB+C* in the postfix notation.

• A postfix operation does not even follow the rules of operator

precedence. The operator which occurs first in the expression is

operated first on the operands.

• For example, given a postfix notation AB+C*. While evaluation,

addition will be performed prior to multiplication.

 Prefix Notation
• In a prefix notation, the operator is placed before the operands.
• For example, if A+B is an expression in infix notation, then the
corresponding expression in prefix notation is given by +AB.
• While evaluating a prefix expression, the operators are applied to
the operands that are present immediately on the right of the
operator.
• Prefix expressions also do not follow the rules of operator
precedence, associativity, and even brackets cannot alter the
order of evaluation.
• The expression (A + B) * C is written as:
*+ABC in the prefix notation
 Evaluation of an Infix Expression to Post fix
Algorithm to convert an Infix notation into postfix notation
Step 1: Add ‘)” to the end of the infix expression
Step 2: Push “(“ on to the stack
Step 3: Repeat until each character in the infix notation is scanned
IF a “(“ is encountered, push it on the stack
IF an operand (whether a digit or an alphabet) is encountered,
add it to the postfix expression.
IF a “)” is encountered, then;
A. Repeatedly pop from stack and add it to the postfix expression until a
“(” is encountered.
B. Discard the “(“. That is, remove the “(“ from stack and do not add it
to the postfix expression
IF an operator X is encountered, then;
Repeatedly pop from stack and add each operator (popped from the
stack) to the postfix expression which has the same precedence or a
higher precedence than X
b. Push the operator X to the stack
Step 4: Repeatedly pop from the stack and add it to the postfix expression
Infix Notation to Post fix Notation

Step 1: Add ‘)” to the end of the infix expression

Step 2: Push “(“ on to the stack
Step 3: Repeat until each character in the infix notation is scanned
IF a “(“ is encountered, push it on the stack
IF an operand (whether a digit or an alphabet) is encountered,
add it to the postfix expression.
IF a “)” is encountered, then;

Repeatedly pop from stack and add it to the postfix expression until a “(”
is encountered.

Discard the “(“. That is, remove the “(“ from stack and do not add it to
the postfix expression
 Evaluation of an Infix Expression
Step 1: Add a “)” at the end of the postfix expression
Step 2: Scan every character of the postfix expression and repeat
steps 3 and 4 until “)”is encountered
Step 3: IF an operand is encountered, push it on the stack
IF an operator X is encountered, then
a. pop the top two elements from the stack as A and B
b. Evaluate B X A, where A was the topmost element and B was
the element below A.
c. Push the result of evaluation on the stack
[END OF IF]
Step 4: SET RESULT equal to the topmost element of the stack
Step 5: EXIT
 Evaluation of an Infix Expression
• Let us now take an example that makes use of this algorithm.
• Consider the infix expression given as “9 - (( 3 * 4) + 8) / 4”.
• The infix expression "9 - (( 3 * 4) + 8) / 4" can be written as “9 3 4 * 8
+ 4 / -“ using postfix notation.
• Look at table which shows the procedure.

Character scanned Stack

9 9
3 9, 3
4 9, 3, 4
* 9, 12
8 9, 12, 8
+ 9, 20
4 9, 20, 4
/ 9, 5
- 4
 Convert Infix Expression into Prefix Expression
Consider an infix expression: (A – B / C) * (A / K – L)
• Step 1: Reverse the infix string. Note that while reversing the string
you must interchange left and right parenthesis.
(L – K / A) * (C / B – A)
• Step 2: Obtain the corresponding postfix expression of the infix
expression obtained as a result of Step 1.
• The expression is: (L – K / A) * (C / B – A)
• Therefore, [L – (K A /)] * [ (C B /) - A ]
= [LKA/-] * [ CB/A-]
=LKA/-CB/A-*
• Step 3: Reverse the postfix expression to get the prefix expression
• Therefore, the prefix expression is * - A / B C - / A K L